Wear 260 (2006) 12741284

The role of plastic anisotropy deformation in fretting wear predictions

Lu Feng a, , Jinquan Xu b
Department of Mechanics, School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University, Weijin Road, Nankai, Tianjin 300072, Peoples Republic of China b Department of Mechanics, School of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang, Shanghai 200240, PR China Received 10 August 2004; received in revised form 28 July 2005; accepted 23 August 2005 Available online 26 September 2005
a

Abstract The deformation occurring under fretting conditions occurs over length scales of the same order as the grain size, so the plastic anisotropy plays a signicant role in the very local region near the contact edge during fretting process. The present study rst describes plastic anisotropy by unied anisotropy plastic model coupling with Archards wear law on the fretting behavior incorporating the effect of wear debris into such a quantitative model. The nite element method, utilizing this model, is used to analyze gross slip fretting conditions. The implementation of the wear simulation tool together with anisotropy cyclic plasticity analysis during fretting process is applied to the wear depth simulation. The present study validates the experiment phenomena from numerical simulation that failure location of the specimens under the at-on-at conguration is very close to the trailing edge. The scar at the trailing edge is much deeper than any other locations and the larger relative slip range resulted in considerably deeper surface damage. Another interesting discovery is that when material with different orientations the degree of wear also develops differently and the quantitative prediction is given. 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fretting wear; The plastic anisotropy; The unied visoplasticity Chboche model; A modied Archards wear law; Finite element

1. Introduction The eld of fretting fatigue is extremely important in many areas of mechanical engineering, where two components are in contact and one or both of them are subjected to alternating fatigue loads. Fretting, small amplitude, oscillatory, relative motion between contacting components, creates surface and subsurface damage from which fatigue cracks nucleate and grow in the presence of a fatigue load. Fretting causes dramatic reduction in fatigue strength of a component, with strength reduction factors on the order of three commonly recorded and has become one of the most important considerations in designing engineering structures or machine components. Thus, the efciency and reliability of the design and operation of a wide range of mechanical systems are related to the fretting phenomenon and are the motivation for this study. The complexities of fretting action have been discussed by numerous investigators, who have postulated the combination

Corresponding author. Fax: +86 21 54747252. E-mail address: luf20001226@hotmail.com (L. Feng).

of many mechanical, chemical, thermal, and other phenomena that interact to produce fretting. A major research effort is underway in the experimental and analytical characterization of fretting fatigue. Extensive testing to characterize fretting behavior being conducted has been reported in the literatures [13]. Recent work has examined the experimental measurement and analytical modeling of plasticity-induced fatigue crack closure. Goh et al. [4] employed state-of-the-art computational crystal plasticity constitutive laws that account for discreteness of grains, crystallographic surface texture, and heterogeneous plastic deformation at the scale of grains. The cyclic deformation response in the region experiencing fretting predicted by a crystal plasticity model is compared to prediction of an initially isotropic J2 cyclic plasticity theory with nonlinear kinematic hardening [5]. Depending on different contact conditions, fretting damage can be either crack nucleation and fretting wear (permanent material loss). Wear may be dened as the undesired cumulative change in dimensions brought about by the gradual removal of discrete particles from contacting surfaces in motion, due predominantly to mechanical action. The fretting map approach,

0043-1648/$ see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.wear.2005.08.003

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established by Vingsbo and Soderberg [6] and Vincent et al. [7], has shown that fretting damage evolution depends strongly on the fretting regime. Debris is also a critical factor inuencing fretting wear. Wear debris in the form of thin platelets is observed in wear of sliding, rolling and eroding components. Fretting fatigue tests were conducted by Jin and Mall [8] using cylindrical pad and at pad to examine the fretting scars on the specimen surface. Analytical techniques were developed by Korovchinsky [9], Galin and Korovchinsky [10], among others. McColl et al. [11] presented a nite element-based method for simulating both the fretting wear and the evolution of fretting variables in a cylinder-on-at fretting conguration. Jin and Mall [12] investigated the role of relative slip on fretting behavior by conducting experiments and analyses. Although fretting fatigue, fretting wear are potential failure modes in a wide variety of mechanical systems, and much research effort has been devoted to the understanding of the fretting process, there are very few quantitative design data available, and no generally applicable design procedure has been established for predicting failure under fretting considerations. However signicant progress has been made in establishing an understanding of fretting and the variables of importance in fretting process. It is suggested that in numerous cases, technical facilities are subjected to alternating loads which can cause inelastic material response. With repetition of the cyclic load processes, alternating plasticity cannot be excluded. Undoubtedly, plastic deformation and cyclic deformation response, which is an integral part of any fretting fatigue mechanism, plays a signicant role in the region experienced fretting damage. Moreover, plastic deformation will result in residual stress elds that can signicantly alter the strain range experienced near the contact surface. For many industrial applications, a high level of accuracy is desired. This requires the use of good material models. One of the material properties which cannot be neglected is the plastic anisotropy. The deformation occurring under fretting conditions occurs over length scales of the same order as the grain size. Consequently, the plastic anisotropy in the scale of grain size plays a signicant role in the deformation response especially in the very local region near the contact edge. In our previous work [13], a unied cyclic viscoplasticity Chaboche model incorporating fully explicit contact analysis is used to investigate the plastic strain history in fretting process. The characteristics of the fretting fatigue, including local cyclic stressstrain and cumulative plastic strain are all better described. An analysis of plastic anisotropy is discussed elementarily. But how the eld of stress and strain evaluates with the plastic anisotropy is not discussed. And also wear and prole revision is not considered there which is the main purpose of this paper. This volume presents a summary of the current state of knowledge of fretting fatigue, with particular reference to the inuence of mechanical variables, such as the applied forces, tangential load, cumulated plastic strain, and wear prole. Finite element analysis (FEA) is used to obtain a stress state, relative slip and cumulated plastic strain in specimens for the experimental conditions used during fretting fatigue tests. A program is then developed to simulate the fretting wear prole, which

provides the change of contact surface of specimen during the wear process. The geometrical updating is based on nodal wear depths computed using a modied version of Archards equation for sliding wear developed by McColl et al. [11]. This study emphasizes the inuence of plastic anisotropy and the load condition on the fretting behavior examined with the at-on-at contact conguration. It is focused on microstructural characterization and mechanism-based modeling of the limiting states of damage associated with fretting fatigue failure in titanium and nickel-base alloys for propulsion systems. The present study rst describes the plastic anisotropy by unied anisotropy plastic model coupling with Archards wear law on the fretting behavior incorporating the effect of wear debris into such a quantitative model. Fretting fatigue experiment simulations are conducted using 2D plane strain meshes. Assignment of boundary conditions is consistent with experiments. The Finite element (FE) simulations have explored the nature of subsurface cyclic plasticity and interface contact stress elds for realistic fretting fatigue geometries for an applied bulk stress amplitude with a stress ratio of R = 1, two normal fretting pad loads, and two tangential load. Parametric studies of the plastic strain history are conducted since the study of subsurface plastic strain may improve understanding of fretting fatigue crack nucleation as well as the subsequent crack propagation process. A description of the notation used in the paper is as follows. Tensors and vectors will be denoted by bold-face letters (e.g. F and T). The following denitions for operation are used: AB = Aik Bkj ei ej , where denotes the tensor product and ei a Cartesian basis, A:B = Aij Bij . 2. Framework for analysis 2.1. Macroscopic anisotropic plasticity model For rate-dependent plastic deformation, unied constitutive equations have been developed in a general framework consistent with both classic plasticity and viscoplasticity. With the assumption of a small elastic and nite plastic deformation, the rate of deformation D and the total continuum spin W are decomposed as: D = De + Dp W = We + Wp (1) (2)

where the superscripts e and p denote the elastic and viscoplastic parts, and W is the spin. The elasticity relation is assumed to be: = W e + W e = : De = : (D Dp )

(3)

where is the elasticity moduli tensor. The viscoplastic ow law is obtained from the normality hypothesis with a viscoplastic potential in the form: Dij =
p

ij

(4)

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The viscoplastic potential is expressed as [14]: = f K n + 1 K

m+1

(5)

where K and m are two constants characterizing the viscous state of material, and is Macaulays bracket. The yield function and yield criterion in Chboches isotropic model is generalized by introduced a fourth-order material anisotropy tensor, Mijkl , to describe the initial anisotropy and the possibility of the deformation induced material anisotropy. The anisotropic viscoplasticity model is developed in the material principle axis, i.e. crystallographic axes [1 0 0][0 1 0][0 0 1]. In this way, the yield function can be expressed as a generalised in the form [15]: f = 3 X M ijkl X R k ij kl kl 2 ij = J Rk 0

where two additional anisotropic material tensors, Nijkl and Qijkl , are introduced by microstructural anisotropy. Cyclic softening or hardening is described by introducing the isotropic hardening variable R. The variable law of R is described in a conventional form ([15,16]) given by: R = b(W R)p (11)

where p is the total accumulated inelastic strain, and b and W are the material constants. The relation for plastic spin employed here is based on the concept of noncoaxiality between the stress and plastic rate of deformation, i.e. W p = (Dp Dp ), = a J (12)

(6)

where ij and X are the deviatoric components of stress and ij back stress tensor in the material principle axis, and can be obtained from:

= RW RW T

(7)

where RW is transformation matrix. The viscoplastic strain is then obtained from the normality hypothesis, where Dp = = with p= 3 p 1 p D M D = 2 ij ijkl kl f K
m

f = p ij ij 3 f 2 K
n

M ijkl ( X ) kl kl 3/2( X )M mnuv ( X ) mn uv mn uv

(8)

(9)

is the total accumulated inelastic strain rate. The evolution of the kinematic hardening stress follows the non-linear kinematic hardening rules developed by Han et al. [15], Lu [16], Li [17]: 3 p Xij = N ijkl Dkl Qijkl Xkl p 2 (10)

where a is a plastic spin coefcient. The Eq. (12) was used by Kuroda [18]. There are a total of 12 material constants in the model. Five constants, k, K* , n, W, b describe the time-dependent viscoplasticity behavior. a describes the evolution of plastic spin. The anisotropic behavior of the three anisotropic material tensors Mij , Nij and Qij . The identication of the material parameters is not trivial due to the complexity of the model. A coupled set of differential equations has to be solved Han et al. [19] have proposed a numerical procedure to determine the material constants for this model based on a group of generic equations. In this paper, we adopt this procedure to determine the material constants for this model. The monotonic uniaxial experiments were conducted for total strain controlled tests along the [0 0 1] and [1 1 1] orientations, respectively [19]. Fig. 1 plot the stress and strain curves for [0 0 1] and [1 1 1], under four different strain rates, with T = 0.00004, 0.0004, 0.004, 0.04. The material constants of this model are determined from those curves. It had been demonstrated in the earlier studies [17,19] that the mechanical deformation behavior of a range of nickel base single crystal superalloys, such as SRR99, PWA1480, AM1, CMSX 2 are very similar. Similar to the earlier work of Han et al. [19] we take this kind of single crystal superalloy as our research object. Correspondingly, the material constants for this model are given as follows: S11 = 1.162 105 MPa1 , S12 = 4.51 106 MPa1 ,

Fig. 1. Stress and strain for Chaboche model for [0 0 1] and [1 1 1] orientations for uniaxial loading for different strain rates.

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Fig. 5. The loading history, where P and Q denote the normal and the tangential loads per unit length. Fig. 2. Experimental set-up for fretting fatigue tests.

3. Finite element implementation The schematic diagram of the fatigue test for the observation of fretting fatigue crack initiation and propagation is shown in Fig. 2. A nite element model representing a symmetric corner of the fretting pad and fatigue specimen is shown in Fig. 3. The lower surface is the fatigue specimen, while the upper surface is a fretting pad. Eight-noded biquadratic quadrilateral 2D solid plane strain ABAQUS elements are used in the analysis. For the elements under the contact zone, the element size is 8 m as shown in Fig. 4(a). The materials of the pad and the specimen are the same. Frictional contact elements are introduced along the interface. The specimen is dened as the master surface and the fretting pad is dened as the slave surface. The force P is applied to attain the average contact pressure on the pad foot. After application of the normal load per unit length, P, the peak tangential load per unit length, Q, is rst imposed to +Q in the x-direction and then subsequently cycled between Q (Fig. 5). A unied Chaboche model is used to describe cyclic plasticity behavior under fretting fatigue.

Fig. 3. Finite element mesh of experiment conguration.

S44 = 1.135 105 MPa1 K = 1700 MPa s1 , W = 60 MPa b = 50 n = 3.6, k = 110 MPa,

4. Wear simulation method M11 M12 = 1.0, M44 = 2.39, N44 = 50564 N11 N12 = 310000 MPa, Prediction of wear depth in an actual design application must in general be based on simulated service testing. Some investigators have suggested that estimates of fretting wear depth may be based on the classical adhesive or abrasive wear equations. According to the work of McColl et al. [11], it is assumed here that the removal of material follows Archards law that is nor-

Q11 Q12 = 600,

Q44 = 700

Fig. 4. (a) The local element mesh of the contact edge and (b) several node locations used in the following analyses.

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mally expressed as [11]: V P =K S H (13)

where K is the dimensionless wear coefcient and H the hardness (MPa) of the material, V the total wear volume, P the applied normal load and, for fretting wear, and S the total accumulated displacement. In order to simulate the evolution of the contact surface proles with wear cycles, it is necessary to determine the wear depth locally as a function of horizontal contact position, x, at each contact node of the nite element model. By applying Eq. (13), for an innitesimally small apparent contact area, dA, the increment of wear depth, dh, associated with an increment of sliding distance, dS, we have: dV dP =K dA dS H dA (14)

coefcients for the cylindrical specimens remain almost constant with respect to normal load variation. In this simulation, we let k1 get the value of 5.E-8 MPa1 . Before closing this section, it is essential to recognize that there continue to be gaps in the wear simulation method presented here. The most important ones, in the opinion of the author, are: At present time, there appears to be no quantitative measured data on the wear coefcient k under the condition that plastic anisotropy is considered. Furthermore, when such data is available, it may suggest further modication to the wear simulation method and fretting analysis. 5. Results The nite element method, utilizing the model described previously, along with modied Archards wear law, is used to analyze gross slip fretting conditions. The implementation of the wear simulation tool together with anisotropy cyclic plasticity analysis during fretting process is applied to the wear depth simulation. The use of a commercial code as frictional contact solver part of the tool facilitates generalization more complex components. At the same time, the anisotropy inelastic analysis for the fretting process gives more insight to the failure mechanism of fretting fatigue. 5.1. Predicted wear proles and anisotropy plasticity When we consider the fretting this special issue which plastic accumulation occurs in very local region, plastic anisotropy should be signicant. Here, we give an analysis of plastic anisotropy in fretting problem. For this case, a normal pressure, P (the corresponding average compress stress acted on the pad surface) is 60 MPa, which is applied on the top surface of the pad. The friction coefcient (COF) is 0.8. The maximum tangential stress is 150 MPa, with the stress ratio of R = 1. In order to give insight of plastic development during the load services, here we simulate 11 complete cycles to get thorough understanding of plastic deformation especially for the existence of plastic ratcheting. In order to investigate the inuence of plastic anisotropy, we consider materials with three different crystalline lattice orientations: [0 0 1] orientation, [1 1 1] orientation and [1 1 2] orientation. We rst investigate the stress distribution along the entail contact region for these three cases. Fig. 6 shows the shear stress curve xy and normal stress x curve along the contact surface for materials with three different orientations. It shows that the stresses develop differently along the entail contact zone and the common variation trend for them is that the peak normal stress is located near the trailing edge of the contact zone, while the shear stress near the leading edge develops more than that near the trailing edge. But owing to the inuence of anisotropic plasticity, the shear stress and normal stress develop differently along the entail contact zone for these three orientations. We can nd that the global level of normal stress of materials with different orientations changes more exquisitely than that of shear stress.

The dP/dA term is the local contact pressure, p(x), while dV/dA is the required increment of local wear depth, dh. Then we get the following equation for the prediction of the increment of local wear depth: dh = k1 p(x) dS (15)

where the quantity K/H is replaced here by k1 , the local wear coefcient. The implication of Eq. (15) is that the incremental wear depth at a given point on the contact is proportional to the local wear coefcient, the local contact pressure and the local increment of slip distance [11]. Similar to the work of McColl et al. [11], an automated, incremental, wear simulation tool has been developed based on the wear prediction equation of the above section. The simulation tool consists of an interaction between a special purpose Fortran program and ABAQUS. Once the element model of the initial, unworn geometry has been generated, the program can be run for any specied numbers of wear cycles to predict the corresponding worn surface proles and the evolution of surface and sub-surface contact variables. From Eq. (13) the Archard wear coefcient is dened by: k1 = V SP (16)

Direct calculation of the desired wear coefcient requires knowledge of the local contact slips and local contact pressures. As these are not readily measurable a modied form of Eq. (16) was used to determine an averaged wear coefcient from the measured wear proles using [11]: k1 = Wbhm 4Nk p (17)

where W is the wear scar width, b the width of the at specimen and hm is the average wear scar depth, with respect to x-coordinate. It should be noted that this wear coefcient is averaged across a range of contact pressures and slips. The detailed determination of wear coefcient is given in literature [11]. It is found in their research that for the at specimen, the wear coefcient changes as the variation of the normal load, however, the

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Fig. 6. The shear stress curves and the normal stress curves along the contact surface and subsurface: tangential stress is 150 MPa, the normal stress is 100 MPa, and COF is 0.8.

Fig. 7. Comparison of cumulative effective plastic strain distribution in the subsurface eld for different orientations.

Important connections between loading parameters, plastic strain mechanisms, and component lifetime require a greater understanding of how plastic strains evolve in the contact zone. This is emphasized by the fact that failure due to cyclic loading in other scenarios has been shown to depend on the type of plastic strain mechanism (e.g. Kapoor [20]). Fig. 7 gives the contour of effective plastic ratcheting strain near the trailing edge after 11 cycles. The effective plastic ratcheting strain distributions penetrate more deeply into the subsurface similar to the experimental observation [21]. In the subsurface eld below contact, the model calculations predict inhomogeneous plastic strain distributions with deeper penetration of regions of localized plastic shear strain. From another view, it shows that owing

to the anisotropy of plasticity, there are a lot of differences in the distribution of plastic strain in the trailing edge. In order to give more quantitative illustration of the effect of anisotropy plasticity, Fig. 8 shows the response of the effective plastic strain at two nodes for material with different orientations. The location of nodes 548, 543, 1488 is shown in Fig. 4(b). The plastic strain of the same node develops differently for material with different lattice orientations. From these curves we can see that the nodes near the trailing edge with [0 0 1] orientation develop more plastic strain, next is [1 1 2] orientation and the least is [1 1 1] orientation. It can be deduced from Fig. 9 that the response of cyclic shear stress and shear strain of node 1503 for three orientations has another characteristics which when material lattice is

Fig. 8. Plastic strain histories showing local response over time: (a) node 1488; (b) node 1503.

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Fig. 9. The shear stress and strain response of node 1503 of material with three orientation.

along [0 0 1] orientation there develops more plastic ratcheting strain, but along other orientations the plastic strain develops mixed combination of cyclic plasticity and plastic ratcheting. It is clear that in the very local region of contact edge, the evolution of stress and strain is very completed and there are many mechanisms cooperation. In present study, the role of relative slip on fretting behavior is investigated by conducing analyses. Fig. 10 shows the comparison of relative slip amplitude after 11 cycles for elastic viscoplasticity materials with three different orientations. It is clear that the relative slip varies with horizontal position along the contact interface, and its value in magnitude is lower at the center than the edges of contact. The relative slip amplitude of the material with [0 0 1] orientation is higher than that of materials with [1 1 1] orientation and [1 1 2] orientation. It can be explained by the anisotropy plasticity. This spatial variation of

relative slip gives rise to a corresponding variation of local wear depth with horizontal position, as described below. In order to estimate how much material is removed from the specimen, the topography of the surface is simulated as shown in Fig. 11. From curves we can see that failure location of the specimens under the conguration considered here is very close to the trailing edge. The scar at the trailing edge is much deeper than any other locations and the larger relative slip range resulted in considerably deeper surface damage. It is pointed in [8] that the fretted surface prole was affected by the contact conguration and for at-on-at contact conguration the material removal did not occur in the at portion of the fretted region and was concentrated at the edges. The simulation results here are consistent with their experiment observation. Another interesting discovery is that when material with different orientations the degree of wear also develops differently. It shows that the

Fig. 10. Comparison of relative slip amplitude after 11 cycles for elastic viscoplasticity materials.

Fig. 11. Predicted wear proles for the materials with three different orientations.

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Fig. 12. Comparison of shear stress and normal stress with [1 1 1] material orientation under different load combinations.

material with [0 0 1] orientation experiences more fretting wear, next is [1 1 2] orientation. This wear phenomenon simulated here corresponds to the variation trend of relative slip. 5.2. Evolution of contact variables The main parameters affecting fretting wear are reported to be normal load, slip amplitude, frequency, contact geometry, surface roughness and material properties, and so on. The inuences of contact pressure and tangential load have been investigated by a number of researchers for a range of pressures being considered in the HCF program [11]. Both of parameters are the signicant factors in fretting process. In present study, we investigate the inuence of the contact load and the tangential load on the evolution of inelastic strain, the wear prole, stress distribution along the whole contact region, at the mean time we examine the effect of plastic anisotropy during this process. Experiment results show that the failure location of the specimens tested under this contact conguration depends on the normal force and the size of the slip zone is larger with the smaller normal force than that with larger normal force [8]. Fig. 12 shows the comparison of shear stress and normal stress with [1 1 1] material orientation under different load combinations. It can be seen from these curves that under the other same conditions with the increase of normal load, the magnitude of the shear stress near the trailing edge decreases while the bulk stress has little varieties, but there exists large disperse in magnitude of stress near the leading edge. It is clear that there is a signicant variation of normal stress and shear stress at any given position along the contact width with different tangential load. Further, one of the goals of this study is to compare the relative slip and wear state in the contact region under different load combinations. The simulation is performed at different applied tangential load but under the same normal force, and at the same time at different normal load but under the same tangential load. The fact that contact slip decreases with the increase of normal load under the same applied tangential load has been schematically demonstrated in Fig. 13, while the relative contact slip increases with the increase of tangential load under same applied normal load. The magnitude of relative slip between the pad and the specimen depends upon the locations where it is measured or computed, and it also varies from zero to a maximum value

Fig. 13. Comparison of relative slip amplitude after 11 cycles with [1 1 1] material orientation under different load combinations.

along the contact surface. In addition, the microslip is concentrated mostly at the edges but does not have much affect on the at portion of the fretting scar. The complete analysis of gross slip would require consideration of crack initiation and propagation as well as material removal. Fig. 14 shows the FE-predicted evolution of the contact surface proles under different load combinations. It is found that as fretting wear proceeds; a wear scar develops in the at surface while the shape of the at surface is also modied. The lower normal force on the fretting pad results in the deeper fretting scar in the fretted region. Experiment research [8] showed that failure location of the specimens tested under at-on-at contact conguration

Fig. 14. Comparison of predicted wear proles after 11 cycles with [1 1 1] material orientation under different load combinations.

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Fig. 15. The shear stress curves and the normal stress curves along the contact surface and subsurface: tangential stress is 150 M Pa, the normal stress is 100 MPa, and COF is 0.8 with [0 0 1] orientation.

Fig. 16. Comparison of relative slip amplitude and Predicted wear proles for elastic viscoplasticity materials: P = 100 MPa; Q = 150 MPa.

Fig. 17. The evolution of plastic strain of node 1503 with time under different load combinations for materials with: (a) [0 0 1] orientation; (b) [1 1 1] orientation.

depended on the normal force and the specimens failed very close to the trailing contact edge. It is apparent that the local contact slip-based approach gives rather good volume predictions and at least the predicted trend correlate the experiment results. In order to give thorough investigate the inuence of plastic anisotropy, Fig. 15 shows the shear stress curves and the normal stress curves along the contact surface and subsurface when tangential stress is 150 MPa, the normal stress is 100 MPa, and COF is 0.8. Comparing Fig. 15 with Fig. 6 it can be seen that with the increase the normal load under other same conditions, the plastic anisotropy has less inuence on the magnitude of stress along the contact zone. Fig. 16 shows the comparison of relative slip amplitude and predicted wear surface for elastic viscoplasticity materials: P = 100 MPa, Q = 150 MPa.

Fig. 17 shows the evolution of plastic strain of node 1503 with time under different load combinations for the case of materials with [0 0 1] orientation and materials with [1 1 1] orientation. The load condition has inuence the evolution of the plastic deformation of contact zone. The tangential load has larger inuence of the evolution of the plastic strain comparing with that of normal load. Second, the evolution of plastic strain depends on the material orientation. 6. Discussion The plastic strain predictions in the study of Ambrico and Begley [22] illustrated that for the cylindrical geometry under moderate to high normal load, cyclic plasticity is more persistent than ratcheting. There are very few studies on at-on-at contact

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conguration [8]. One of the difculties involving these geometries is the alignment of the at portion of the pad on the at specimen. Misalignment might induce stress singularity at the transition from the at portion to the edge [23]. For the geometry conguration simulated here, ratcheting strains may be more important because they may persist to a larger number of cycles, since sharp discontinuities in the contact geometry require much more material movement before ratcheting is eliminated. Experimental results such as contact scars provide some implications of ratcheting phenomena during the fretting fatigue process. The material calculations are consistent with these results. The progressive cyclic ratcheting of the plastic shear strain dominates the reversed cyclic plastic shear strain after several cycles. Owing to the rate dependent of the ow rule in the Chaboche model, it admits progressive cycle-by-cycle viscous strain (viscous ratcheting). This leads to a persistent source of ratchet strain accumulation in this model for a local cyclic notch root problem such as fretting. The plastic strain region develops near the trailing edge, and it increases with the increasing of cyclic number, the region near the leading edge develops little plastic strain comparing with the region of trailing edge. This simulation result is in agreement with experimental results [21]. In present literatures [4,5,22] on plastic analysis for fretting process, three complete tangential load cycles are sufcient to capture steady state response for the cases considered there, because on that situation steady state was determined by examining cyclic plastic strain, since ratcheting strains shake down. But for the contact conguration studied here, ratcheting strains may be more important, so three complete cycles are not enough to give insight of plastic development during the load services. For limit computational expense, here we simulate 11 complete cycles to get thorough understanding of plastic deformation especially for the existence of plastic ratcheting. Wear debris in the form of thin platelets is observed in wear of sliding, rolling and eroding components. The mechanisms of wear are manifestations of plastic ratcheting of material in a thin sub-surface layer. It is driven by: (i) stress concentration at the edges of the hard slider; (ii) roughness on the slider, which causes the high contact pressure at the taller asperities to traverse all over the surface; and (iii) erosion where instead of sliding contacts, impacting erodent subjects the sub-surface layer to high contact stresses [12]. The present paper has considered gross slip situations only, while the fretting fatigue behavior under partial slip condition has been extensively investigated in several studies. The analysis for the gross slip condition requires elaborate analysis involving consideration of material non-linearity but also removal of material. In [11], McColl et al. used a kind of local contact slipbased approach to give rather good wear volume prediction. The numerically prediction worn surface proles of the at specimen after 18,000 cycles has been compared with experimental results. The predicted values of scar with and maximum wear depth were tted well with corresponding experimental results. In present work, we use the same method used by McColl et al. to cope with the wear volume loss during fretting process. Here, a commercial nite element code (ABAQUS) is adopted as the frictional contact solver part of the tool facilitates generalization

to more complex components, for academic research purposes, to assess, for example, the interaction between fretting wear and crack nucleation associated with changes in stress eld. Fretting scars on the specimen surface are examined through the model developed here to identify the characteristics of fretting damage, the surface prole of specimen scar. In case of gross slipping, the surface prole is different from the stickslip condition because of fretting wear. 7. Conclusion The most signicant deformation characteristic of single crystal nickel-base superalloy observed in the experiments is the strong inuence of crystal orientation on the stressstrain response. In present study, we rst investigate the effect of crystal orientation or the plastic anisotropy on the fretting behavior of materials. A unied cyclic viscoplasticity Chaboche model at nite deformations that incorporates fully explicit contact analysis is used to investigate the plastic strain history in fretting process. A detailed nite element model, which simulates the frictional contact behavior of a at-on-at fretting conguration, is described. The main purpose in using nite element analyses in the wear calculations is to compute the contact stresses and the sliding distances in the contact zone. Then a method for fretting wear simulation based on a modied Archard equation has been applied to gross slip at-on-at tests. The present study validates the experiment phenomena from the view of numerical simulation that failure location of the specimens under the at-on-at conguration is very close to the trailing edge. The scar at the trailing edge is much deeper than any other locations and the larger relative slip range resulted in considerably deeper surface damage. Another interesting discovery is that when material with different orientations the degree of wear also develops differently. It shows that the material with [0 0 1] orientation experiences more fretting wear, next is [1 1 2] orientation. This spatial variation of slip gives rise to a corresponding variation of local wear depth with horizontal position, as described above. The wear phenomenon simulated here corresponds to the relative slip trend. A number of researches have suggested that the contact load and the tangential load are the key variables, which determine the crack nucleation process. The simulation results show that contact slip decreases with increasing normal load under the same applied tangential load, while the relative contact slip increases with increasing tangential load under same applied normal load. The magnitude of relative slip between the pad and the specimen depends upon the locations where it is measured or computed. In addition, the microslip is concentrated mostly at the edges but does not have much affect on the at portion of the fretting scar. In addition, the larger relative slip range results in considerably deeper surface damage. Acknowledgements This research was initiated with the support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (10402022).

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L. Feng, J. Xu / Wear 260 (2006) 12741284 [13] L. Feng, J.Q. Xu, Evaluation of cyclic inelastic response in fretting based on unied Chaboche model, Int. J. Fatigue 27 (2005) 1062 1075. [14] J.L. Chaboche, Constitutive equations for cyclic plasticity and viscoplasticity, Int. J. Plast. 5 (1989) 247302. [15] S. Han, S. Li, D.J. Smith, Comparison of phenomenological and crystallographic models for single crystal nickel base superalloys. I. Analytical identication, Mech. Mater. 33 (2001) 251266. [16] L. Feng, G. Zhang, K.S. Zhang, Discussion of cyclic plasticity and viscoplasticity of single crystal nickel base superalloy in large strain analysis: comparison of anisotropic macroscopic model and crystallographic model, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 46 (2004) 11571171. [17] S.X. Li, D.J. Smith, Development of an anisotropic model for single crystal superalloys for combined fatigue and creep loading, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 40 (10) (1998) 937948. [18] M. Kuroda, Interpretation of the behavior of metals under large plastic shear deformations: a macroscopic approach, Int. J. Plastic. 13 (1997) 359383. [19] S. Han, S. Li, D.J. Smith, Comparison of phenomenological and crystallographic models for single crystal nickel base superalloys. II. Numerical simulations, Mech. Mater. 33 (2001) 267282. [20] A. Kapoor, A re-evaluation of the life to rupture ductile metals by cyclic plastic strain, Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct. 17 (1994) 201219. [21] J.M. Ambrico, M.R. Begley, The role of macroscopic plastic deformation in fretting fatigue life predictions, Int. J. Fatigue 23 (2001) 121128. [22] J.M. Ambrico, M.R. Begley, Plasticity in fretting contact, JMPS 48 (11) (2000) 23912417. [23] A. Kapoor, Wear by plastic ratcheting, Wear 212 (1) (1997) 119130.

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