Lecture 3

Superposition and Standing Waves

Superposition and interference
2
Two traveling waves can pass through each other without
being destroyed or altered (two particles cannot). This is a
consequence of the superposition principle.

The combination of separate waves in the same region of
space to produce a resultant wave is called interference.
For mechanical waves, linear waves have
amplitudes much smaller than their
wavelengths.
Waves can be combined in the same location in space. The
superposition principle is used for wave combinations
analysis :
if two or more traveling waves are moving through a
medium, the resultant value of the wave function at any
point is the algebraic sum of the values of the wave
functions of the individual waves.
Linear waves obey the superposition principle.
Superposition 1
Two pulses are traveling in opposite directions.
The wave function of the pulse moving to the right is y
1

and for the one moving to the left is y
2
.
The pulses have different shapes.
The displacement of the elements is positive for both.
When the waves start to overlap (b), the resultant wave
function is y
1
+ y
2
.
3
Superposition 2
When crest meets crest (c) the
resultant wave has a larger
amplitude than either of the
original waves.
The two pulses then separate (d),
and they continue moving in their
original directions.
The shapes of the pulses remain
unchanged.
This type of superposition is
called constructive interference.
4
Constructive interference
5
Destructive interference
Two pulses traveling in opposite
directions
Their displacements are inverted
with respect to each other
When they overlap, their
displacements partially cancel
each other
When these pulses overlap, the
resultant pulse is y
1
+ y
2.

This type of superposition is
called destructive interference.
6
Types of interference
Constructive interference occurs when the displacements
caused by the two pulses are in the same direction;
the amplitude of the resultant pulse is greater than
either individual pulse.
7

Destructive interference occurs when the displacements
caused by the two pulses are in opposite directions;
the amplitude of the resultant pulse is less than
either individual pulse.
Superposition of sinusoidal waves
Assume two waves are traveling in the same direction, with
the same frequency, wavelength and amplitude.
The waves differ only in phase:
y
1
= A sin (kx et) and y
2
= A sin (kx et + |)

8
( ) ( )
1 2
1 1
Since sin sin 2sin cos
2 2
Let and , we have :
2 cos sin
2 2
a b a b a b
a kx t b kx t
y y y A kx t
e e |
| |
e
+ = +
= = +
| | | |
= + = +
| |
\ . \ .
The resultant wave function, y is also sinusoidal.
The resultant wave has the same frequency and wavelength
as the original waves.
The amplitude of the resultant wave is
The phase of the resultant wave is
2
|
| |
|
\ .
2 cos
2
A
|
| |
|
\ .
9
Superposition of sinusoidal waves
Sinusoidal waves with constructive
interference
10
When | = 0, or | = nt, where n is an even integer (n = 2, 4,
6,) then cos (| /2) = 1
The amplitude of the resultant wave is 2A.
The crests of one wave coincide with the crests of the
other wave.
The waves are everywhere in phase and the waves
interfere constructively.
In general, constructive interference occurs when cos (| /2)
= 1. That is true, when | = 0, 2t, 4t,, i.e. | is an even
multiple of t.
Sinusoidal waves with destructive
interference
When | = nt, where n = 1, 3, 5,, then cos (|/2) = 0.

The amplitude of the resultant wave is 0.

Crests of one wave coincide with troughs of the other wave.

The waves interfere destructively.
11
General interference of sinusoidal waves
12
In general, when | is other than 0 or an even multiple of t,
the amplitude of the resultant is between 0 and 2A,
i.e. 0 s | s nt, then, 0 s amplitudes 2A.

The wave functions (linear) still add (superposition).

The interference is neither constructive nor destructive.
Summary of interference of sinusoidal waves
Constructive interference occurs when | = nt where n is
an even integer (including 0).
Amplitude of the resultant is 2A.

Destructive interference occurs when | = nt where n is
an odd integer.
Amplitude is 0.

General interference occurs when 0 < | < nt .
Amplitude is 0 < A
resultant
< 2A
13
Interference in sound waves 1
Sound from S can reach R by two
different paths.
The distance along any path from
speaker to receiver is called the path
length, r.
The lower path length, r
1
, is fixed.
The upper path length, r
2
, can be
varied.
Whenever Ar = |r
2
r
1
| = n,
constructive interference occurs,
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
A maximum in sound intensity is
detected at the receiver.
14
An acoustical system for
demonstrating interference
of sound waves
adjustable
Interference in sound waves 2
Whenever Ar = |r
2
r
1
| = (n is odd), destructive
interference occurs. Hence, no sound is detected at the
receiver.
A phase difference may arise between two waves
generated by the same source when they travel along
paths of unequal lengths.

15
2
n
| |
|
\ .
Constructive interference
occurs when the path
difference is 0, , 2, 3,
Destructive interference occurs
when the path difference is
/2, 3/2, 5/2,
Example 3.1
16
QUESTION:
Two small loudspeakers, A and B, are driven
by the same amplifier and emit pure
sinusoidal waves in phase. (a) For what
frequencies does constructive interference
occur at point P? (b) For what frequencies
does destructive interference occur?
SOLUTION: Using Pythagorean theorem, 4.47 m and BP 4.12 m
The path difference is therefore 4.47 m 4.12 m 0.35 m
AP
d
= =
= =
( )
Constructive interference occurs when 0, , 2 ,... or 0, / , 2 / ,... /
350 m/s
So, the possible frequencies are 1, 2, 3,...
0.35 m

n
d d v f v f nv f
nv
f n n
d
= = =
= = =
( )
( )
1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 3000 Hz,...
3 3 5
Destructive interference occurs when , ,... or , , ,...
2 2 2 2 2
350 m/s
So, the possible frequencies are 1, 3, 5,...
2 2 0.35 m

n
v v v
d d
f f f
nv
f n n
d

=
= =
= = =
500 Hz, 1500 Hz, 2500 Hz,... =
Example 3.2
17
QUESTION:
Two identical loudspeakers placed 3.00 m apart are driven by
the same oscillator. A listener is originally at point O, located
8.00 m from the centre of line connecting the two speakers.
The listener then moves to point P, which is a perpendicular
distance 0.350 m from O, and she experiences the first
minimum in sound intensity. What is the frequency of the
oscillator?
Example 3.2 (continued)
18
SOLUTION:
Because the sound waves from two separate sources combine, we apply
the waves in interference analysis model.

Figure shows the physical arrangement of the speakers, along with two
shaded right triangles that can be drawn on the basis of the lengths
described. The first minimum occurs when the two waves reaching the
listener at point P are 180 out of phase, in other words, when their path
difference Ar equals /2.
The path lengths:


Hence, the path difference is r
2
r
1
, = 0.13 m. Because this path difference
must equal A/2 for the first minimum, = 0.26 m.
To obtain the oscillator frequency, we use v=f, where v is the speed of
sound in air, 343 m/s:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1
2 2
2
8.00 m 1.15 m 8.08 m
8.00 m 1.85 m 8.21 m
r
r
= + =
= + =
343 m/s
1.3 kHz
0.26 m
v
f

= = =
Standing waves
Assume two waves with the same
amplitude, frequency and wavelength,
traveling in opposite directions in a medium
y
1
= A sin (kx et) and
y
2
= A sin (kx + et)
They interfere according to the
superposition principle.
19
The resultant wave is y = (2A sin kx) cos wt.

This is the wave function of a standing wave.
There is no (kx wt) term, and therefore it is
not a traveling wave.

In observing a standing wave, there is no
sense of motion in the direction of
propagation of either of the original waves.
When the sound
waves overlap,
identical waves
travelling in
opposite
directions will
combine to form
standing waves.
(3.1)
Standing wave example
An oscillation pattern with a stationary outline that
results from the superposition of two identical waves
traveling in opposite directions.
The amplitude of the simple harmonic motion of a given
element is 2A sin(kx). This depends on the location x of the
element in the medium.
Each individual element vibrates at e.
20
Multiflash photography
of a standing wave on a
string.
Nodes and antinodes 1
A node occurs at a point of zero amplitude.
This corresponds to positions x where kx = 2t x/ = nt



An antinode occurs at a point of maximum displacement,
2A.
This corresponds to positions x where kx = 2tx/ =
(m+1/2)t; m = 0,1,2,; or kx = 2tx/ = nt/2, n =1,3,5,

0, 1, 2, 3,
2
n
x n

= = .
1, 3, 5,
4
n
x n

= =
21
(3.2)
(3.3)
( )
2 2
Amplitude: 2 sin 2 sin , where
x
A kx A k
t t

| |
= =
|
\ .
Nodes and antinodes 2
The distance between adjacent antinodes is /2.
The distance between adjacent nodes is /2.
The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is /4.


22
The diagrams below show standing-wave patterns
produced at various times by two waves of equal
amplitude traveling in opposite directions.

Standing wave
patterns
produced at
various times by
two waves of
equal amplitude
traveling in
opposite
directions
23
Standing waves
Standing waves in a string 1
Consider a string fixed at both
ends, with a length L.
Standing waves are set up by a
continuous superposition of
waves incident on and reflected
from the ends.
There is a boundary condition on the waves: the ends of the
strings must necessarily be nodes. They are fixed and therefore
must have zero displacement.
The boundary condition results in the string having a set of
normal modes of vibration.
The normal modes of oscillation for the string can be
described by imposing the requirements that the ends be
nodes and that the separation of nodes and antinodes is
/4.
We identify an analysis model called
waves under boundary conditions
model.
Each mode has a
characteristic frequency.
Standing waves in a string 2
This is the first normal mode that is
consistent with the boundary conditions.
There are nodes at both ends and one
antinode in the middle.
This is the longest wavelength mode,
25
Consecutive normal modes add an
antinode at each step.
The section of the standing wave from
one node to the next is called a loop.
The second mode corresponds to = L.
The third mode corresponds to = 2L/3.
1
2 .
2
L L = =
26
String vibration
Standing waves on a string 3
27
2
2
n
n
v v n T
f
L
L
n

= = =
| |
|
\ .
2
1, 2, 3,...
n
L
n
n
= =
(3.4)
(3.5)
The wavelengths of the normal modes for a string of length
L fixed at both ends are:



where n is the n
th
normal mode of oscillation

These are the possible modes for the string.

The natural frequencies are




f
n
are also called quantised frequencies
Waves on a string, harmonic series
The fundamental frequency corresponds to n = 1. It is
the lowest frequency,
1




The frequencies of the remaining natural modes are
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, i.e.




Frequencies of normal modes that exhibit this
relationship form a harmonic series.

The normal modes are called harmonics.
28
1
1
1
2 2
v v T
f
L L
= = =
1

n
f n =
(3.6)
29
Example 3.3
Figure below shows a pattern of resonant oscillation of a string of
mass m = 2.5 g and length L = 0.8 m and that is under tension T =
325.0 N.
(A) What is the wavelength of the transverse waves producing the
standing waves pattern, and what is the harmonic number n?
(B) What is the frequency f of the transverse waves and of the
oscillations of the moving string elements?
(C) What is the maximum magnitude of the transverse velocity, u
m
of
the element oscillating at coordinate x = 0.18 m?
QUESTION:
30
Example 3.3 (continued)
(A) Two full wavelengths fit into the length L = 0.8 m of the string,
Thus, we have
SOLUTION:
0.8 m
2 0.4 m
2 2
L
L = = = =
By counting the number of loops (or half-wavelengths), we can
obtain the harmonic number as n = 4.
( )( )
3
325 N 0.8 m
322.49 m/s
/ 2.50 10 kg
T T TL
v
m L m

= = = = =

(B) The speed of wave

( )
322.49 m/s 322.49 m/s
Frequency 806.2 Hz or 4 806 Hz
0.4 m 2 2 0.8 m
v v
f f n
L
= = = = = =
(C) The displacement ( ) ( )
2 sin cos
m
y y kx t e = (

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Transverse speed 2 sin cos 2 sin sin
m m
y
u y kx t y kx t
t t
e e e
c c
= = = ( (

c c
( )( )( )
( )
3
2 0.18 m
Maximum magnitude 2 2.0 10 m 2 806.2 Hz sin 6.26 m/s
0.4 m
m
u
t
t

| |
= =
|
\ .
Musical instrument
The musical note is defined by its fundamental frequency.
The frequency of the string can be changed by changing
either its length or its tension.
31
For example, the tension in guitar and violin strings is
varied by a screw adjustment mechanism or by tuning pegs
located on the neck of the instrument.

As the tension is increased, the frequency of the normal
modes increases in accordance with eq (3.5). Once the
instrument is "tuned," players vary the frequency by moving
their fingers along the neck, thereby changing the length of
the oscillating portion of the string.

As the length is shortened, the frequency increases because,
as eq (3.5) specifies, the normal mode frequencies are
inversely proportional to string length.
The frequency of a string that defines the
musical note that it plays is that of the
fundamental. The string's frequency can be
varied by changing either the string's
tension or its length.
Resonance
A system is capable of oscillating in
one or more normal modes.
If a periodic force is applied to such a
system, the amplitude of the resulting
motion is greatest when the frequency
of the force is equal to one of the
natural frequencies of the system. This
phenomena is called resonance.

Because an oscillating system exhibits a large amplitude
when driven at any of its natural frequencies, these
frequencies are referred to as resonance frequencies, f
0
.
If the system is not driven at one of the natural frequencies, a
standing wave is not setup, then only small oscillation is
obtained.
33
Example 3.4
QUESTION:
A violin string 15.0 cm long and fixed at both ends oscillates in its
n = 1 mode. The speed of waves on the string is 250 m/s, and the
speed of sound in air is 348 m/s. What are the
(a) frequency and,
(b) wavelength of the emitted sound wave?
SOLUTION:
(1)(250m/s)
(a) Resonant frequency for violin, 833Hz
2 2(0.150m)
(b) The frequency of the wave on the string is the same as the frequency
of the sound wave it produces during its vibration.
nv
f
L
= = =
348 m/s
Consequently, the wavelength in air is 0.418 m
833 Hz
v
f
= = =
34
Example 3.5
High-frequency sound can be used to produce standing-
wave vibrations in a wine glass. A standing-wave vibration
in a wine glass is observed to have four nodes and four
antinodes equally spaced around the 25.0-cm circumference
of the rim of the glass. If transverse waves move around the
glass at 940 m/s, an opera singer would have to produce a
high harmonic with what frequency to shatter the glass with
a resonant vibration?
QUESTION:
SOLUTION:
The distance between two nodes or antinodes is /2. Because
four nodes are present, the wavelength around the
circumference of the glass is 4/2 = 2.
Since the circumference is 25.0 cm, we have 2=25.0 cm =12.5 cm
From
940 m/s
7520 Hz
0.125 m
v
f

= = =
The singer must match this
frequency in order to crack the glass.
Standing waves in air columns 1
35
Waves under boundary conditions
model can be applied.
Standing waves can be set up in air
columns as the result of interference
between longitudinal sound waves
traveling in opposite directions.

The phase relationship between the
incident and reflected waves depends
upon whether the end of the pipe is
opened or closed.
Organ pipes
Standing waves in air columns 2
The open end of a pipe is a displacement antinode in the
standing wave.

As the compression region of the wave exits the open
end of the pipe, the constraint of the pipe is removed
and the compressed air is free to expand into the
atmosphere.

The open end corresponds with a pressure node. It is a
point of no pressure variation.
36
Open end
Standing waves in air columns 3
A closed end of a pipe is a
displacement node in the standing
wave.
The rigid barrier at this end will not
allow longitudinal motion in the air.
The closed end corresponds with a
pressure antinode.
It is a point of maximum pressure
variations.
The pressure wave is 90
o
out of phase
with the displacement wave.
37
Closed end
Standing waves in air columns 4
Both ends are displacement antinodes.
The fundamental frequency is v/2L. This corresponds to the first
diagram.
The higher harmonics are
n
= n
1
= n (v/2L) where n = 1, 2, 3,
38
For the case of open tube
Standing waves in air columns 5
The closed end is a displacement node.
The open end is a displacement antinode.
The fundamental frequency is v/4L.
The frequencies are

n
= n = n (v/4L) where n = 1, 3, 5, odd integers only.
39
For the case of one end of the tube is close
Standing waves in air columns 6
40
How a sound can be reflected from an open end?
Sound can be represented as a pressure wave, however, and a compression region of the
sound wave is constrained by the sides of the pipe as long as the region is inside the pipe.

As the compression region exits at the open end of the pipe, the constraint of the pipe is
removed and the compressed air is free to expand into the atmosphere.

Therefore, there is a change in the character of the medium between the of the pipe and the
outside even though there is no change in the material of the medium. This change in
character is sufficient to allow some reflection.
In a pipe open (or closed) at both ends, the natural
frequencies of oscillation form a harmonic series that
includes all integral multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
In a pipe closed at one end and open at other end, the
natural frequencies of oscillations form a harmonic series
that includes only odd integral multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
41
Example 3.6
A section of drainage culvert 1.28 m in length makes a howling noise
when the wind blows across its open ends. (A) Determine the
frequencies of the first three harmonics of the culvert if it is
cylindrical in shape and open at both ends. Take v = 343 m/s as the
speed of sound in air. (B) What are the three lowest natural
frequencies of the culvert if it is blocked at one end?
QUESTION:
SOLUTION:
( )
1
2 1
3 1
343 m/s
139 Hz
2 2 1.23 m
2 279 Hz
3 418 Hz
v
f
L
f f
f f
= = =
= =
= =
( )
1
3 1
5 1
343 m/s
69.7 Hz
4 4 1.23 m
3 209 Hz
5 349 Hz
v
f
L
f f
f f
= = =
= =
= =
(A) (B)
Multiplying by
odd integers
Multiplying by
integers
Find the first harmonic
Find the first harmonic
Standing waves in rods 1
42
A rod is clamped in the
middle.

The clamp forces a
displacement node.

The ends of the rod are free
to vibrate and so will
correspond to displacement
antinodes.

Standing waves in rods 2
By clamping the rod at other
points, other normal modes
of oscillation can be
produced.

Here the rod is clamped at
L/4 from one end.

This produces the second
normal mode.
43
44
An aluminium rod is clamped one quarter of the way along its length
and set into longitudinal vibration by a variable-frequency driving
source. The lowest frequency that produces resonance is 4000 Hz.
The speed of sound in an aluminium rod is 5100 m/s. Find the length
of the rod.
Example 3.7
QUESTION:
SOLUTION:
When the rod is clamped at one-quarter
of its length, the vibration pattern reads
A-N-A-N-A and the rod length is
L =
5100 m/s
Therefore, 1.16 m
4400 Hz
v
L
f
= = =