WRITINGAPROPOSAL INEDUCATION

AcademicLanguageandLiteracyDevelopment FacultyofEducation
February2012

TABLEOFCONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................2 PurposeofaProposal.......................................................................................................................................2 ComponentsofaProposal(structure).............................................................................................................2 Aspectsofacademicwriting.............................................................................................................................6

4.1Acknowledgingsources.......................................................................................................................7 4.2Informationprominentandauthorprominentreferences...............................................................7 4.3Verbsofattribution ............................................................................................................................8 . 4.4Attributionandcriticalanalysis........................................................................................................10 4.5Verbtense.........................................................................................................................................10 4.6Listofreferences...............................................................................................................................11 5 Facilitatingyourwritingprocess..................................................................................................12

5.1Lettingyourownvoicebeheard(hedging)....................................................................................12 5.2Imaginingyouraudience...................................................................................................................13 5.3Signposting........................................................................................................................................14 5.4Mapping............................................................................................................................................14 5.5Usefuldiscoursemarkers..................................................................................................................14 6 7 Commonproblems(grammar,style,conventions).....................................................................15 ReportingwithStyle.....................................................................................................................19

ListofReferences....................................................................................................................................20

TheTasksinthisbookletaredesignedtobeusedinourworkshopsandstudygroups. Ifyourequirehelpdoingthembyyourself,pleaseconsultyourAcademicLanguageandLiteracy DevelopmentAdvisors

1.

Introduction

Thisbookletisdesignedtohelpyouasyoubegintowriteyourresearchproposal.PhDandcourseworkminor thesis students must write a proposal early in their allotted study period. We write research proposals to convince others that we have a research project that is worthwhile and that we have the skills and the strategiestocompleteit. Remember,yoursupervisorisyourfirstpointofcontactforanyquestionsrelatedtoyourresearch.Youshould thereforediscussallaspectsofyourproposalwithyoursupervisorthroughoutyourcandidature. If you need help with issues such as language and expression, structuring, understanding referencing and citationetc.,youmayconsultDrRaqibChowdhuryon99055396(raqib.chowdhury@monash.edu)orDrAnna Podorova on 9904 4346 (anna.podorova@monash.edu) in the Faculty. Help is also available from Language SkillsAdvisorsintheuniversitylibrariesatClayton,Peninsula,GippslandandBerwickcampuses.

2.

PurposeofaProposal

Thepurposeoftheproposalistohelpyou(asastudent)tofocusanddefineyourresearchplans.Theseplans arenotbinding,inthattheymaywellchangesubstantiallyasyouprogressintheresearch.However,theyare anindicationtoyourfacultyofyourdirectionanddisciplineasaresearcher.Theyalsohelpyouprepareyour presentationfortheEthicsCommittee. Theproposalisexpectedto: Showthatyouareengagingingenuineenquiry,findingoutaboutsomethingworthwhileinaparticular context Linkyourproposedworkwiththeworkofothers,whileprovingyouareacquaintedwithmajorschools ofthoughtrelevanttothetopic Establishaparticulartheoreticalorientation Establishyourmethodologicalapproach,and Showyouhavethoughtabouttheethicalissues.

3. ComponentsofaProposal(structure)

Theproposalislikelytocontainmostoftheelementslistedinthetablebelow,althoughyoursupervisormay requiretheinclusionoromissionofparts.Checkfirstwithyoursupervisor. It is suggested that you use the following table as a checklist of items and the order in which they usually appearinproposals.


COMPONENT FUNCTION identifiestopic,writer, institutionanddegree CHARACTERISTICS proposedthesistitle (shouldbedescriptiveof focus,concise,eye catchingandpreferably usekeywordsfrom internationalinformation retrievalsystems) writer'snameand qualifications department,university anddegreetheproposal isfor useahierarchyfortitles andsubtitles usethenumbering systemasfollows:1;1.1, 1.2...;1.1.1,1.1.2...; 1.1.1.1,1.1.1.2...etc. (don'tusemorethanfour digits) mayincludehistorical, cultural,political,socialor organisational informationaboutthe contextoftheresearch mayincludeatheoretical startingpoint mayincludepersonal motivation mayincludepolicy mayproblematisethe currentstatusquo

Coverpage

listssectionsof proposalandpage references

TableofContents

providesbackground informationrelatingto the social/political/historic al/educational(etc.) contextofthestudy

Background: (preferablyamore descriptivename)

COMPONENT

FUNCTION followsfrom backgroundto persuadethereader thatthestudyis neededandwillbe useful/interesting

CHARACTERISTICS thismayinclude referencetoagapinthe researchliterature,tothe needtoapplycertain ideasinanewcontext,or tothesignificanceofyour particulartopic thewaysinwhichthe studymaybesignificant fortheeducational communitymayalsobe discussed thepurposeisexpressed intermsofthebroader contextofthestudy theresearchquestion(s) (usuallyWhat,How,Why, orWhatif)shouldbe few,sothatthefocusis manageable theaimswillberelatedto thepurposeandthe questions thisisnotexpectedtobe extensivefortheproposal youshouldhavedonean initialsurveyofthemain theoristsandalibrary informationsearchto establishyourdirections andformulateatentative listofreadings youshoulddemonstrate criticalanalysis yourreviewshouldbe shapedbyyourargument andshouldseekto

Needforthestudy/ Rationale Usuallythisiscombined withtheprevious section

statesclearlyand succinctlythepurpose ofthestudy outlinesthekey researchquestions andaims

Purposeandaimsof thestudy

Reviewofthe literature

showsyoursupervisor anddepartmentthat youareawareof significant writers/researchersin thefield,andto indicatewhich issues/topicsyouwill focusoninyour review(thismay changelater) showsthatyoucanbe judiciousinyour selectionofissuesto focusonandtakean approachofcritical

COMPONENT

FUNCTION inquiry situatesyourown researchwithinthe field

CHARACTERISTICS establishyourtheoretical orientation

outlinesanddescribesthe researchplanswaysinwhich itwillbeconducted

includesyour understandingsofthe natureofknowledgeand howthisaffectsyour choiceofresearch approach includesdescriptionof andrationalefor selectionofparticipants, methodsofdata collectionandanalysis, andproceduresyouwill usetoensureethical practice includesastatement aboutthedelimitations (scope)ofthestudy thismaytaketheformof achart,timelineor flowchart(oranyother)

Researchdesign

Timetable/Plan(may bepartofresearch design)

depictsthetasks proposedandthe stages/timesfortheir completion describesthe sequenceandfocusof eachproposed chapter

Proposedthesis structure

eachchapter'sproposed contentsisdescribedina fewlinesorasmall paragraph,or aproposedtableof contentsispresented thisisonlyaprediction, andmaybeexcludedif therationaleforthestudy hasbeenwelldeveloped

Significance/Expected Outcomesofthestudy

predictsthe significanceofthe studyandexpected outcomes.Thesemay

COMPONENT

FUNCTION relatecloselytoaims

CHARACTERISTICS earlierintheproposal

Glossaryofterms

listsspecialisedterms orwordsandtheir meanings(e.g.,from anotherculture, acronyms,key conceptsina relativelynewfield) displaysdocuments whicharerelevantto maintext,butwhose presenceinthetext woulddisturbrather thanenhancetheflow oftheargumentor writing listsworksthathave beenconsultedthus farandappeartobe useful

thisisplacedinaposition whichiseasytolocate (e.g.,beforeorafterthe maintextparts)

Appendices

includesdocuments,pilot studymaterial,questions forinterviews,survey instruments,explanatory statementtoparticipants etc.

References

useconventions recommendedbyyou supervisor,orusethe APAStyleGuide,orfollow theconventionsina prestigiousjournalinthe field

4. Aspectsofacademicwriting

In this part we discuss some aspects of good academic writing. Section 4.1 introduces a link which outlines some common rules of citation and referencing in academic writing. 4.2 looks at two types of intext attributions, while 4.3 provides a list of common verbs and expressions of attribution. Section 4.4 discusses how to use attribution in critical analysis. Some examples of verbtense use are presented in section 4.5. Finally,thebasicsofwritingalistofreferencesareexploredinSection4.61.
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This paragraph itself is an example of an advance organiser, one such can be useful in introductory paragraphs throughoutthedifferentpartsofaproposal.

4.1Acknowledgingsources Theartofreferring tothewordsand ideasofotherwriters (citingandreferencing)involvesmanyrulesand requires subtle uses of vocabulary (such as words of attribution and evaluation) and grammar (such as verb tensepastandpresent). Aninformativeandinteractivetutorialwithreasonablydetailedrulesabouttheconventionsandmechanicsof citingandreferencingcanbefoundontheMonashLibrarywebsiteat: http://www.lib.monash.edu/tutorials/citing/ 4.2Informationprominentandauthorprominentreferences Swales(1990,pp.149,153)showshowyoucandecidewhethertofocusonthesourceofanideaoronthe idea itself in your writing. He provides two categories of referencing: author prominent, where the authors nameappearsinyoursentence,orinformationprominent,wheretheauthorsnameappearsonlyinbrackets. Anadaptationofhisexamples2follows: Category Author prominent Brie(1988) showedthatthe moonismadeof cheese. Previousresearch hasestablished thatthemoonis madeofcheese (Brie,1988). Themoons cheesy compositionwas establishedby Brie(1988). Ithasbeenshown thatthemoonis madeofcheese (Brie,1988). AccordingtoBrie (1988),themoon ismadeofcheese. Itiscurrently arguedthatthe moonismadeof cheese(Brie, 1988). Briestheory (1988)contends thatthemoonis madeofcheese. Themoonmay bemadeof cheese(Brie, 1988,butcf. Rock,1989).

Information prominent

It is important to be aware of the effect of your choice to use information or authorprominent intext referencing.Ifthefocusisontheauthor,thenthereadercanseetheideasanddiscussionasclearlyrelatingto thatauthorsthinking.Youcanoftengivemoredetailsaboutastudy.Thiscanmakeiteasierforthewriterto see ideas as individual and discuss important ideas, facilitating a critical approach (whether positive or negative).Aninformationprominentwayofcitingandreferencingcansoundveryauthoritativeandcanalso soundliketruthtellingeventhoughyouhavenoideaatallwhetheritisthetruth!Ifyouuseinformation prominentreferencing,trytobeawareoftheeffectonthereader.Iftheinformationseemstobeassertinga truthyouarenotsureof,trytouseadifferentverbtoshedmoredoubt.Givealittlemoredetail.Trynotto usecategoricalandgeneralisingstatementsfollowedbyareferenceallthetime.

2Thesearealsoexamplesofthedifferentwaysofparaphrasingsomeoneelsesideas

TASK1:Comparethefollowingtwoboxes,identifyingthesubstantialdifferencesinmeaningconveyed.

Inclusion is the fairest and most productive approach to educating children with special needs (Smith,1999;Tollington,2000).Thevisuallyimpairedachievehighlevelsofsocialinteractionand intellectualdevelopmentinmainstreamschools(Johnstone,2001). And, Smith(1999),writingaboutschoolinginVictoria,Australia,arguesthatinclusionisthefairestand mostproductiveapproachtoeducatingchildrenwithspecialneeds(seealsoTollington,2000).Ina study of 10 young adolescent students with visual impairment, Johnstone (2001) found that all participants achieved high levels of intellectual development for their year level and that they perceivedimprovedwellbeinginsocialinteraction. 4.3Verbsofattribution Below are some verbs and their synonyms for you to draw on when you want to talk about someone elses ideasorwordsathesaurusofverbsofattribution.Trytoworkoutwhichverbsgiveamorepositiveviewof the ideas you are reporting others as saying, which verbs are simply very neutral ways of restating what an authorsaysorshowthatauthorspositiveornegativeattitudestotheideas,andfinally,whichverbsexpress yourownslightlynegativeattitudestowardstheauthorsideas. Show: demonstrate,establish Persuade: assure,convince,satisfy Argue: reason,discuss,debate,consider Support: uphold,underpin,advocate Examine: discuss,explore,investigate,scrutinise Propose: advance,propound,proffer,suggest(theviewthat) Advise: suggest,recommend,advocate,exhort,encourage,urge, Believe: hold,profess(theviewthat) Emphasise: accentuate,stress,underscore State: express,comment,remark,declare,articulate,describe, instruct,inform,report Evaluate: appraise,assess Hypothesise: speculate,postulate Disagree: dispute,refute,contradict,differ,object,dissent Reject: refute,repudiate,remonstrate(against),disclaim,dismiss Claim: allege,assert,affirm,contend,maintain Anargumentcanbe: foundedon basedon groundedinatheory/view/setofdata embeddedin underpinnedby

Note that the above words are all valueladen. Your choice of word will reveal to your reader your stance toward the author you are reporting on. It will show whether or not you consider her claims to be substantiated. ArnaudetandBarrett(1984,p.1535)provideausefulresourceonverbsofattributionreproducedinthebox below: Neutralverbsofrestatement Add inform(of,about) remind(of,about) clarify present report(on) describe remark speak/writeof Verbsofrestatementwithapositiveornegativeconnotation apprise(someoneof) explain indicate argue(about) express observe Verbsofopiniontoreportthecontentofanotherwritersopinion(orconclusionorsuggestions) Positiveopinions: affirm agree(with) applaud concur(with,in) praise support Reportingopinion(usuallyneutrally) assert believe(in) claim determine expound(on) maintain pointout think Verbsofuncertaintytoreportthecontentofanotherwritersexpressionofdoubtoruncertainty challenge dispute question disagree(with) doubt suspect(of) dismiss mistrust wonder(at) Somesentencestemstohelpyoubegin:

Muchresearchhasfocussedon.(thebenefitsofinclusioninAustralianprimaryschools)(Foreman, 2001;Lee,1999;Li&Phan,2003;Smithetal.2005)

Smith(2005)hasheadedthecritiqueof

AccordingtoJones(2001),the.

IncontrastwithLis(2002)view,Smith(2005)arguesthat

Itisclearfromtheliteraturethat.(Foreman,2001;Lee,1999;Li&Phan,2003;Smithetal.,2005)

While many authors argue that (Foreman, 2001; Lee, 1999; Li & Phan, 2003; Smith et al. 2005), othersmaintainthat(Johnston,2003;Zavarce&Gonzalez,2006)

Keepyourownlistofstemsfromthearticlesyouread! 4.4Attributionandcriticalanalysis TASK2Thefollowingparagraphisanexcerptfromanessayonapproachestointerculturaleducation.Notice thewordsthatindicatewhatthewriterthinksabouttheideasoftheotherwritersshementions.Howdoes sheuseparticularverbsofattributiontoconveyaparticularattitudetotheworkofthewriterssherefersto? Whatwordsorphrasessignalherownideas? ClanchyandBallard(1991)proposeacontinuumofattitudestoknowledgeandspecifylearningapproaches andstrategiesthatcorrespondtotheseattitudes.Drawingmainlyonanecdotalevidence,theysuggestthat their three learning approaches, namely the reproductive, analytical and speculative (p.11) approaches, are characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in Australia) or of certain cultures. In their considerationoflearningstrategies,however,theyhavepresentedonlyalimitedunderstandingoftheways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they see memorisation as a way of retaining unreconstructed(p.11)knowledge.TheworkofBiggs(1996)demonstratesthatmemorisationservesthe purposeofretainingideassothattheycanbeconsideredandunderstood. 4.5Verbtense Verbtenseinacademic writing mayexerciseagreaterinfluenceonyourreadersinterpretationof yourtext thanyoubargainedfor.Pasttensecangivemorethanatimeperspective;itcandistancethereaderfromthe ideasbeingexpressed.Thepresenttenseontheotherhandisoftenusedtomakegeneralisationsyouneed tobesureyouwantedreaderstofeelthiswasageneralisablepoint.Belowisasimplifieddescriptionofthe usesandpossibleeffectsoftenseonthemeaningmade. Thetenseyouselectforyourverbsinyouressay,reportorliteraturereviewrevealsagreatdealmoretoyour readerthanjustthetimeframe.Ittellsyourreaderwhoseideaisbeingproffered(yoursorsomeoneelses), somethingaboutyourattitudetowardstheideasyouarereportingifyouhaveattributedthemtoaresearcher or theorist, and indicates how general or specific the point is. In brief and note that this is a simplified descriptionoftheuseoftensethethreetenseswhichappearmostfrequentlyareusedinthefollowingways: Thepresenttenseisusedfor:generalisation(inoverviews,statementsofmainpoints);astatement whichisgenerallyapplicableorwhichseemsrelevant;astatementmadebyyouaswriter;ortoreport the position of a theorist/ researcher to which you feel some proximity, either in time or allegiance (e.g..Piaget(1969)outlinesthestages.).

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The past tense is used to claim nongenerality about past literature (Ostler, 1981, cited in Swales, 1990, p.152); that is, it is used to report or describe the content, findings or conclusions of past research.Thespecificityofthestudyisthusemphasised. The present perfect is used to indicate that inquiry into the specified area continues, to generalise aboutpastliterature,ortopresentaviewusinganonintegralformofreferencing(thenameofthe authordoesnotappearinthetextofthesentence;itappearsonlyinthesubsequentparentheses). Thefuturetenseisoftenusedinthemethodologysectioninaproposaltostateintention.Whenyou are describing what appears in your writing, use the present tense, not the future (its not your intention,sinceyouvealreadydoneit):e.g.,Thesectionsbelowdescribetheprocessof,not,the sectionsbelowwilldescribetheprocessof

TASK 3: Now consider the excerpt from the previous section. What subtle difference in message might you receiveasareaderifitwerewrittenasfollows? Clanchy and Ballard (1991) proposed a continuum of attitudes to knowledge and specified learning approaches and strategies that corresponded to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal evidence,theysuggestedthattheirthreelearningapproaches,namelythereproductive,analytical andspeculative(p.11)approaches,werecharacteristicofcertainstagesofschooling(inAustralia)or of certain cultures. In their consideration of learning strategies, however, they presented only a limited understanding of the ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they saw memorisationasawayofretainingunreconstructed(p.11)knowledge.TheworkofBiggs(1996)in contrast demonstrates that memorisation serves the purpose of retaining ideas so that they can be consideredandunderstood. 4.6Listofreferences The most commonly used set of referencing conventions in Education is the American Psychological Associations (2010) Publication Manual (6th ed.), commonly known as the APA. The following reference list uses APA conventions. For examples of the most common types of citation and referencing, see: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing/apaa4.pdf NotesomeverybasicAPArules: Booktitlesareinitalicsbutonlythefirstwordandpropernounsarecapitalised Journalnamesareinitalicsandcapitalisedthevolumenumberalsoappearsinitalics Thetitlesofarticlesinjournalsandchaptersofbooksareinplainfontandarenotcapitalised Whenachapterofaneditedbook(onewherethedifferentchaptersarewrittenbyadifferentauthor) is referenced, the chapter is treated in the same way as a journal article, but instead of the journal name, the book in which the chapter appeared must also be referenced in the reference list entry. NotethatthebookisintroducedbythewordIn,whichisfollowedbytheinitialsoftheauthor(first) andthenthefamilyname.Thisisthereverseofwhatyoudointherestofthelist,wherethefamily namecomesfirstandthentheinitialsofthegivenname!

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TASK4: Findthechapterofaneditedbookinthelistbelow Findanarticlefromajournal Findabook Findanelectronicsource

Doveston,M.&Keenaghan,M.(2006).Improvingclassroomdynamicstosupportstudentslearningandsocial inclusion:Acollaborativeapproach.SupportforLearning,21(1),511. Foreman,P.(2005).Disabilityandinclusion:Conceptsandprinciples.InP.Foreman(Ed.). Inclusioninaction, (pp.234).Australia:Thomson Loreman,T.,Deppeler,J.&Harvey,D.(2005).Inclusiveeducation.CrowsNest,NSW:Allen&Unwin. McLeskey,J.,Hoppey,,D.Williamson,P.&Rentz,T.(2004).Isinclusionanillusion?Anexaminationofnational and state trends toward the education of students with learning disabilities in general education classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 19 (2), 109115. Retrieved July 4, 2006 from http://www.blackwellsynergy.comezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/doi/a Stanovich,P.J.(1996)Collaborationthekeytosuccessfulinstructionintodaysinclusiveschools.Intervention inSchoolandClinic.32(1),3942. Formoredetailandmorecomplexreferencing,pleaserefertothewebsitelistedabove. 5 Facilitatingyourwritingprocess

Discussion, concept maps, questions, notetaking techniques may all facilitate your writing. Using certain software(e.g.,Endnote)canalsohelp. 5.1Lettingyourownvoicebeheard(hedging) How do you speak up in your proposal without having to say, I think or It is my opinion that (rather inelegantexpressions)?

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TASK5:ReadthefollowingexcerptfromHylands(1996,p.477)articleonhedging,acategoryoflanguageuse thathelpstoinsertyourveryownvoice.

NURTURINGHEDGESINTHEESPCURRICULUM
KENHYLAND

EnglishDepartment,CityUniversityofHongKong,TatcheeAvenue,HongKong ABSTRACT There is a popular belief that scientific writing is purely objective, impersonal and informational, designedtodisguisetheauthoranddealdirectlywithfacts.ButwhileESPcoursesoftenprovide thelinguisticmeanstoaccomplishthisinvisibility,theyoftenignorethefactthateffectiveacademic writing always carries the individuals point of view. Writers also need to present their claims cautiously, accurately and modestly to meet discourse community expectations and to gain acceptance for their statements. Such pragmatic aspects of communication however are vulnerable to crosscultural differences and L2students are rarely able tohedgetheirstatements appropriately.Thispaperarguesthathedgingdevicesareamajorpragmaticfeatureofeffective scientificwritingandthatstudentsshouldbetaughttorecogniseandusethemintheirownwork. Itexaminesthefrequency,functionsandrealisationsofhedgesanddiscussedarangeofstrategies forfamiliarisingstudentswiththeirappropriateuse. Copyright1996ElsevierScienceLtd. INTRODUCTION ThetermhedgingwasintroducedtolinguisticsbyLakoff(1972)todescribewordswhosejobitis to make things more or less fuzzy (p. 195). It has subsequently been used by sociologists to describeameanstoavoidfacethreateningbehaviourandbyappliedlinguisticstodiscussdevices suchasIthink,perhaps,mightandmaybewhichqualifythespeakersconfidenceinthetruthofa proposition. In scientific writing these effective and propositional functions work in rhetorical partnership to persuade readers to accept knowledge claims. Hedges express tentativeness and possibilityincommunicationandtheirappropriateuseisacritical,althoughlargelyneglected,area ofscientificdiscourse. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how ESP teachers can help develop L2 learners understanding of the principles and mechanics of the appropriate use of this critical pragmatic feature. First however, I will give a brief overview of hedging in academic writing, sketching its importance
5.2Imaginingyouraudience Trytofindouttheparticularrequirementsofyouraudienceinrespectofpreferredconventions.Itisalways usefultoimagineyouraudienceasanintelligentpersonwho,however,isnotanexpertinthisparticulararea

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ofyourfield.Thisisnottosaythatyoucangetawaywithpresentinginaccuratestatements,butratherthat you need to explain ideas or concepts and arguments clearly to your reader. You cannot assume that your reader always knows everything, and you should not feel that it is insulting to explain specialised concepts. Yourreaderwantstoseehowwellyouunderstandtheissuesyouhavechosentodiscuss.Nevertheless,the readerdoesnotwanttowaitforyoutogetalongwithyourargumentwhileyouareshowinghim/herhowwell youknowsomethingelseinthefield(unrelatedtoyourargumentormainissue). 5.3Signposting Itisagreathelptoyourreaderifyoumakeaclearlysignpostedmapofyourwriting.Youcandothisby: Using subheadings which indicate what you will focus on in that part of your writing. Brown (1993) recommendsusingverbsinheadingsandrewritingheadingsaftersectionsarewritten.Atallevents, dontoverlooktheusefulnessofheadingsinguidingyourreader;

Statingexplicitlythepointsyouwillfocusonintheintroductionofachapteror(foralongerpiece)at thebeginningofamajorsection;and

Repeating key words or further developing propositions from an earlier sentence in order to make cleartheconnectionbetweentheideasdiscussedearlierandthosediscussedlater.

5.4Mapping Theuseofmappingoradvanceorganisersisveryimportantinalongpieceofwork.Insuchpiecesofwriting you may insert maps at strategic points (e.g. beginnings of chapters/sections) so that readers reorient themselvesandknowwheretheyreheaded. Examplesofmapswillbegivenintheworkshops. 5.5Usefuldiscoursemarkers Thewaysinwhichpartsofyourwritingarerelatedtootherpartsaremadeclearerbydiscoursemarkers,which canbegroupedaccordingtotheirfunctioninthediscourse.Herearesomegroupsofmarkersthatmighthelp youwhenyouneedalittlevariety. Orderingpointsorsequencing Firstly,secondly,finally, Addingsomething Moreover,Furthermore,Further,Inaddition,Additionally,[NOTE:Besidesismainlyusedinspeaking]

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 Comparing(similarity) Similarly,;likewise,;equally, Comparing(differenceestablishingcontrast) However,;infact,;Ontheotherhand,;,rather,;Incontrast,;Onthecontrary,;Nevertheless,; Nonetheless,;,yet(moreformal) Introducingacause Asaresultof;Becauseof;Because;Owingto;Dueto Introducingaresult Consequently;Therefore;Hence,;Asaresult,;Thus,;So;Then; Exemplifying Forexample,;Forinstance,;Notably, Restating Inotherwords,;thatis,;namely, Generalising Ingeneral,;generally,;onthewhole, Summarising Insummary,;Inconclusion,;
AdaptedfromParrott,2000,pp.301307

6 Commonproblems(grammar,style,conventions)

Below are examples of some commonly confused words/expressions in academic writing. Can you think of more? Etal.(andothers) Only one of these two words is abbreviated. Et is a whole word meaning and, while alii, a word meaning others, is abbreviated to al. (note the full stop/period mark). For example, Held et al. (1999) confront the questionofwhetherWesterncapitalismandinstitutionsarethedriversofglobalisation. Useofthe&sign The & (ampersand) sign in referencing appears only in brackets or in the reference list at the end of your thesis. Thus, you wouldwrite Carver and Gaines (1987) conducted the first study, orThe first study that examinedstressfocusedonidentifyingonesownemotions(Carver&Gaines,1987).

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Pluralsandsingulars

*Datum/data(thedatawerecategorised) *Phenomenon/phenomena(wasunderstoodtobeaphenomenon) *Focus/foci(orfocuses)(Thefociofthisstudywere) *Criterion/criteria *Research/information(usedasnoncountablenounsinthesingular) Oftenconfusedspelling Affect/effect: Whenthesewordsmeaninfluence,affectisusedasaverbandeffectisusedasanoun. e.g.,Chocolateaffectsmyskinbadly. Theeffectsofchocolateonmyskinaredisastrous. Whenthewordsmeansomethingdifferentfrominfluencetheyareuseddifferentlygrammatically.Toeffect (verb)somethingistosuccessfullycompleteit,whileapersonsaffect(noun)referstotheirfeelings. Practice/practise

ForAustralianspelling,theverbusesans. e.g.,IwouldliketopractisetheskillsIhaveacquired. Thenounisspeltwiththecandcontainsanothernounice e.g.,Thepracticeofleavingchildrenaloneinthecarshouldbediscouraged. Its/its Itsisusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingbelongingtothethingyouhavealreadymentioned.Itsisa contractionorashortenedformofItisorIthastheapostrophestandsfortheletteromitted. E.g..ThemethodologyappearsinChapter3.Itsapproachisprincipallyquantitative.(Itsapityitcouldntalso bequalitative) Thatorwhich? Inacademicwriting,whichoftenneedstoveryspecificallydefinetheissuesthatitisdiscussing,whiletheword thatisusedmorefrequentlythanwhich.Boththesewordsintroduceinformationthatisrelatedtoaword or phrase that appeared earlier. That is used when you wish to specify more closely the defining characteristicsofthewordorphrase(thewordorphrasethatappearedearlier).Whichisusedtoprovide extrainformationratherthantospecifyordefine.Youneedacommabeforewhich,butnotbeforethat (thatmuststicktotheworditisdefining).

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Asandthat

Manywritersusebothasandthattointroducewhatotherauthorsaresaying.Theybothmeanthesame thing,soyoumustchooseonlyONEofthesewords. e.g.,AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis best. Thisshouldbeoneofthefollowing: AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguage,simplicityinlanguageuseis best. StrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis best. Intheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguage,StrunkandWhite(1959)arguethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis best.

Parallelstructures

Notethatthelastproblemsentenceaboveisonethatwascausedbythefailuretouseparallelgrammatical formsforthestemthemainfactorsthatcontribute.Thesentenceshouldread:Cognitivebiasisoneofthe mainfactorsthatcontributetotheconfidencewehaveinourdecisionmakingaswellastotheaccuracyofour confidence.Bothunderlinedtermsarenounsandtheyareprecededbyato.Theyarejoinedbywordssuch asand,aswellas,or,orpossiblyformpartofalist,whereitemsareseparatedbycommasorsemicolons. Hanging(dangling)modifiers

Inasentencewithtwoparts,thewritersintentionmightbetogivethereaderonepieceofinformationthat canenlightenusabouttheother(main)partofthesentence.Thisextrainformationseemstoremainhanging ordanglingifthewriterforgetstoindicateclearlywhoisdoingwhatinbothpartsofthesentence. E.g., AfterfailingtheCAT,theteacherhelpedthestudent. (DidtheteacherfailtheCAT?) Thisshouldread:AfterfailingtheCAT,thestudentwashelpedbytheteacher. Theruleisthatifyouhaveaningwordatthebeginningofthefirstpartofthesentence,theactionofthat wordmustbecarriedoutbythefirstwordofthesecondpartofthesentence.Thatistosay,thesubjectofthe twopartsshouldbethesame,evenifitisnotexplicitlystatedinthefirstpart.Toputitingrammaticalterms, whenweuseapresentparticiple(aningword)inaninitialclause,butdonotstatethesubject(theperson doingtheaction)weexpectthesubjecttobeidentifiedattheverybeginningofthesecondclause(afterthe comma).

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TASK6:Thefollowingsentencesareexamplesofwritingthatmaycauseconfusionduetogrammatical,stylistic errorsorreferencingconventions.Seeifyoucanworkoutwhattheproblemsare. Identifyingthecauseofstress,workrelatedstressisbetterunderstood.

Thereareanumberofareaswillberesearched.

HolmesandRaheslifeeventschecklistwasthefirststudyonstress.

Thedataisrelativelyold,yetuseful.

Carver&Gaines(1987)didoneofthefirststudieswhichexaminedstress.

Differencesamongindividualsabilitiestoappraiseandexpresstheiremotionsareeffectedbytheirsocial learning.

ItisinterestinginlightofthecriticismoftheSOCascontaminatedwithemotionality(Korotkov,1993)that Antonovskyisatpainstopointoutthecognitivenatureofthisperceptiondespiteitsemotionalsounding terminology.

Cognitivebiasisoneofthemainfactorsthatcontributetotheconfidencewehaveinourdecisionmaking aswellasbeinganaccurateconfidence.

Havingevaluatedthecurriculum,differentteachingmethodswereintroduced.

AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis best.

Therearemanystudiesininclusiveeducationfocusonsocialisation.

Weshouldallawareofhownegativefeedbackaffectsstudents.

Johnsonet.al.(2003)reviewedmanyresearchesongiftedmathematicalthinkers.

These researchers undertook the study by first reviewing the literature on giftedness, then interviewing mathsstudentswithhighgradesandidentifiedthetraitsofmathematicalgiftedness.

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ReportingwithStyle

TASK7:Astylishreportercombinesthevirtuesofclarityandgoodlanguagesense.Tryyourhandatimproving thestyleoftheitemsbelow: 1. Eachandeverygoodwriternevereverusestautologicalexpressionsorsaysthesamethingtwice(inthe samesentence). 2. Eachsubjectprefacedbyeachuseaverbinthesingular. 3. Agoodwritershouldalwaysremembertoneversplitaninfinitive(oratleastnotalways). 4. Therewasadifferenceofopinionamongthetwoteachers,eventhoughthePrinciplehadmadeevery efforttocreateharmonybetweenallstaffmembers. 5. The GAT (General Achievement Test) was used for validation of results. While the VCE provided the mainsourceofassessment. 6. Thatistherelativepronoun,whichweuseinadefiningclause,whilewhichisusedinaclause,which givesanextrabitofinformation,whichisaparentheticalclause.Whichisprecededbyacomma,but thatisnt. 7. Thenewpolicywhichwasintroducedin1999wasoneofthemostproblematicpoliciesforteachersthat haseverbeenused. 8. AndIthoughttomyself,Whatawonderfulworld.Canwethinktoanyoneelse? 9. Itisnoteverydaythatyouseesuchaneverydayoccurrence. 10. A good researcher must have stamina, which is necessary for accurately revealing what the data are tryingtosay.Moreover,clearcriteriaforgoodresearchisveryimportant. 11. Ourresearchesledustotheveryimportantissueoftheeconomicalcontext. 12. The writing of complex ideas often involves the use of parallel structures, which build up a series of ideas,addslayersofmeaningandactingasakindofechoofthefirststructure(oftenaverb).

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ListofReferences AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.(2010).PublicationmanualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(6th Edn).Washington,D.C.:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation. Arnaudet, M.L. & Barrett, M.E. (1984). Approaches to academic reading and writing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHallRegents. Hyland,K.(1996).NurturinghedgesintheESPcurriculum.System,24(4),477490. Parrott,Martin.(2000).GrammarforEnglishLanguageTeachers.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Strunk,W.&White,E.B.(1959).Theelementsofstyle.NewYork:MacmillanPublishingCompany. Swales,J.(1990).Genreanalysis:Englishinacademicandresearchsettings.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press.

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 The Academic Language and Literacy Development Unit, Faculty of Education, Monash University, wishes to acknowledgethestaffwhohavecontributedtoproducingthisbooklet: AcademicLanguageandLiteracyAdvisors: MsRosemaryViete DrRaqibChowdhury DrAnnaPodorova MsSueMarch TeamLeader,Teaching/TechnologyLearningCentres: MsBronwynDethick

Copyright(2012).NOTFORREPRODUCTION.AllmaterialsproducedforthiscourseofstudyarereproducedunderParts VB/VA of the Copyright Act 1968, or with permission of the copyright owner or under terms of database agreements. Thesematerialsareprotectedbycopyright.Monashstudentsarepermittedtousethesematerialsforpersonalstudy andresearchonly.Useofthesematerialsforanyotherpurposes,includingcopyingorresale,withoutexpresspermission ofthecopyrightowner,mayinfringecopyright.Thecopyrightownermaytakeactionagainstyouforinfringement.

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