TTT Handout LG Nov2008 Lecture Note On EC3 Design

Introduction Overview Objectives
Design of steel structures to Eurocode 3

Dr Leroy Gardner Senior Lecturer in Structural Engineering
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
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Session 1
Introduction
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Overview of Course
Outline: Session 1: General Introduction Session 2: Introduction to EN 1990 & EN 1991 Session 3: Overview of Eurocode 3 Session 4: Structural analysis Session 5: Design of tension members Session 6: Local buckling and cross-section classification
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Overview of Course
Outline (continued): Session 7: Design of columns Session 8: Design of beams Session 9: Design of beam-columns Session 10: Design of joints
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Dr Leroy Gardner
Introduction Overview
Dr Leroy Gardner
BEng MSc PhD DIC CEng MICE MIStructE
Senior Lecturer in Structural Engineering

Objectives
Research into stability and design of steel structures Specialist advisory work Development and assessment of Eurocode 3 Author of TTT guide to Eurocode 3 Leroy.gardner@imperial.ac.uk
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Your experience with Eurocodes

Introduce yourselves Organisation Your experience with steel design/ Eurocodes Any particular interests/concerns
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Motivation for course

Most of the Eurocodes are now published Conflicting British Standards to be withdrawn Designers need to be prepared Clear training requirements Textbooks and design guides Background information
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Designers
Introduction
Introduction of Eurocodes:
Overview Objectives
Biggest change since limit states Designers unfamiliar with format Resistance to uptake Supporting material and training Basis for other National design codes
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Designers Guide
Designers Guide to EN 1993-1-1:
Covers Eurocode 3: Part 1.1 Also Parts 1.3, 1.5 and 1.8 EN 1990 and EN 1991 Sections aligned with code
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Textbook
The behaviour and design of steel structures to EC3:

Trahair, Bradford, Nethercot & Gardner (2008)
Structural phenomena Theoretical background Code implementation Worked examples
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Historical developments
Historical development of Eurocodes: Idea of Eurocodes dates back to 1974 Family of design codes Harmonisation of treatment Removal of barriers to trade Framework for development
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Scope of Eurocodes
Introduction
Scope of structural Eurocodes:

Overview
A total of 10 codes (comprising 58 documents)

Objectives
The first 2 codes are material independent: EN 1990 Basis of structural design EN 1991 Actions on structures
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Scope of Eurocodes
Remaining 8 codes focus on materials: EN 1992 Design of concrete structures EN 1993 Design of steel structures EN 1994 Design of composite structures EN 1995 Design of timber structures EN 1996 Design of masonry structures EN 1997 Geotechnical design EN 1998 Design of structures for earthquakes EN 1999 Design of aluminium structures
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Timetable for introduction

Timetable for introduction of codes: Codes published by CEN Comit Europen de Normalisation European Committee for Standardisation National standards bodies adopt (BSI) Two years to produce National Annex Three year co-existance period Conflicting existing standards withdrawn
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Eurocodes
Codes will be published by CEN in 3 languages: English French German All codes originally developed in English, and then exactly translated Other participating counties will either use 1 of 3 language versions available, or translate at own cost.
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Objectives
Course objectives: Familiarity with layout, notation, philosophy of Eurocodes Understanding of background and design procedure for principal structural components
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Session 1
Introduction
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Session 2
EN 1990 EN 1991
Introduction to EN 1990 & EN 1991

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Overview
EN 1990
Outline:
EN 1991
Introduction to EN 1990 Introduction to EN 1991 Conclusions
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EN 1990 (2002)
EN 1990 EN 1991
EN 1990 (2002): EN 1990 Basis of structural design UK National Annex published Should read at least once.
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Basic requirements
EN 1990 EN 1991
EN 1990 states that a structure shall have adequate: Structural resistance Serviceability Durability Fire resistance Robustness
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Design situations
EN 1990 EN 1991
All relevant design situations must be examined: Persistent design situations: normal use Transient design situations: temporary conditions, e.g. during construction or repair Accidental design situations: exceptional conditions such as fire, explosion or impact Seismic design situations: where the structure is subjected to seismic events.
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Actions and Effects

EN 1990 EN 1991
Action (F):
Direct actions applied loads
CAUSE
Indirect actions imposed deformations or accelerations e.g. by temperature changes, vibrations etc Both essentially produce same effect
Effect of action (E):
EFFECT
On structural members and whole structure For example internal forces and moments, deflections ..
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Types of actions
EN 1990 EN 1991
Types of actions: Permanent, G Variable, Q (leading and non-leading) Accidental, A
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Load combinations
EN 1990 EN 1991
Fundamental combinations of actions may be determined from EN 1990 using either of: Equation 6.10 Less favourable of Equation 6.10a and 6.10b
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Load combinations
EN 1990 EN 1991
Equation 6.10: to be combined with
1.5 x combination factor x Other variable actions Actions due to prestressing
j 1
G, j
G k , j "+" PP "+" Q ,1Q k ,1 "+"

1.5 x Leading variable action
i >1
Q ,i
0 ,i Q k , i
1.35 x Permanent actions
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Load factors 1.35 and 1.5 are applied when actions are unfavourable.
Leading variable actions Qk,1

EN 1990 EN 1991
In Equation 6.10, the full value of the leading variable action is applied Q,1Qk,1 (i.e. 1.5 x characteristic imposed load) The leading variable action is the one that leads to the most unfavourable effect (i.e. the critical combination) To generate the various load combinations, each variable action should be considered in turn as the leading one, (and consideration should be given to whether loading is favourable or unfavourable.)
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Combination factor 0
EN 1990 EN 1991
The combination factor 0 is intended specifically to take account of the reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of two or more variable actions. Loading Imposed loading Wind loading Combination factor 0 0.7 0.5*
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* 0.5 is UK NA value, 0.6 is the unmodified EC value
Unfavourable and favourable loading

EN 1990 EN 1991
Loads may be considered as unfavourable or favourable in any given combination, depending on whether they increase or reduce the effects (bending moments, axial forces etc) in the structural members. For unfavourable dead loads: G = 1.35 For favourable dead loads: G = 1.00 For unfavourable variable loads: Q = 1.5 For favourable variable loads: Q = 0
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Equivalent horizontal forces

EN 1990 EN 1991
Equivalent horizontal forces: Equivalent horizontal forces (EHFs), previously known as notional horizontal loads (NHL), are required to account for imperfections that exist in all structural frames. EHFs should be included in all load combinations, and since their value is related to the level of vertical loading, they will generally be different for each load combination (and will already be factored).
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Exercise solution Equation 6.10

EN 1990 EN 1991
Load combinations for a typical structure from Equation 6.10:

Combination Dead + Imposed Dead + Wind (uplift) D+I+W (imposed leading) D+I+W (wind leading) Dead Imposed Wind EHF 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
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Note EHF are always present and already based on factored loads
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Load combinations
EN 1990 EN 1991
Equations 6.10a and 6.10b use less favourable result:

j1
G, jGk , j
"+ " PP "+ " Q ,1 0,1Q k ,1 "+ "

i> 1
Q ,i 0 ,iQ k ,i

j1
j G, jGk , j
"+ " PP "+ " Q ,1Q k ,1 "+ "

i> 1
Q ,i 0 ,i Q k ,i
Unfavourable dead load reduction factor (i.e. not applied when G = 1) = 0.925 in UK NA (0.85 is the unmodified EC value)
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Exercise solution Eqs 6.10a and 6.10b

EN 1990 EN 1991
Load combinations from Eqs 6.10a and 6.10b All combinations except last one are from Eq. 6.10b.
Combination Dead + Imposed (6.10b) Dead + Wind (uplift) (6.10b) D + I + W (6.10b) (imposed leading) D + I + W (6.10b) (wind leading) D + I + W (6.10a)* Dead Imposed Wind EHF 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
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* Unlikely to govern unless Dead >> Imposed
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Equilibrium check (EQU)

EN 1990 EN 1991
Equilibrium check (EQU): For checking sliding or overturning of the structure as a rigid body, only Eq. 6.10 may be used. Dead loads are factored by 0.9 when favourable and 1.1 when unfavourable. The critical case will generally arise when wind load is unfavourable and the leading variable action, and dead load is favourable, resulting in: 0.9Gk + 1.5Wk + EHF
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Equilibrium check (EQU)

EN 1990 EN 1991
Favourable and unfavourable loading:

Wind load unfavourable, dead load favourable, imposed load favourable Wind load unfavourable, part of dead load favourable, part unfavourable, part of imposed unfavourable
1.1 Gk + 1.05 Qk
1.5 Wk
0.9 Gk
1.5 Wk
0.9 Gk
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Overturning point
Overturning point
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SLS load combinations

EN 1990 EN 1991
The UK National Annex to EN 1993-1-1 states that deflections may be checked using the SLS characteristic combination, ignoring dead load and with some specified deflection limits. 1.0Qk + 0.5Wk + EHF 1.0Wk + 0.7Qk + EHF
(Vertical deflections) (Horizontal deflections)
Deflection limits are as given in BS 5950

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Parts of EN 1991
EN 1990
EN 1991 contains the following parts:

EN 1991
EN 1991-1: General actions EN 1991-2: Traffic loads on bridges EN 1991-3: Actions from cranes and machinery EN 1991-4: Actions in silos and tanks
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Sub-parts of EN 1991-1
EN 1990 EN 1991
EN 1991-1 contains the following sub-parts: EN 1991-1-1: Densities, self-weight, imposed loads EN 1991-1-2: Fire EN 1991-1-3: Snow loads EN 1991-1-4: Wind actions EN 1991-1-5: Thermal actions EN 1991-1-6: Actions during execution EN 1991-1-7: Impact and explosions
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Conclusions
EN 1990 EN 1991
Concluding comments: Presentation of load combinations unfamiliar Idea of leading variable actions and combination factors etc is new Other than format and notation, loading codes are similar to existing BS Using Eq. 6.10a and 6.10b (with 6.10 for EQU), four basic load combinations arise (ignoring those unlikely to govern).
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Session 2
EN 1990 EN 1991
Introduction to EN 1990 & EN 1991

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Session 3
Background Overview
Overview of Eurocode 3
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Overview
Background
Outline:
Overview
Development of Eurocode 3 Introduction to design to Eurocode 3 Conclusions
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EN 1993: Eurocode 3
Background Overview
Eurocode 3: Work began back in 1975 Eurocode 3 contains a number of parts and sub-parts The first 5 parts were published in 2005
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EN 1993: Eurocode 3
Background Overview
Eurocode 3 contains six parts: EN 1993-1 Generic rules EN 1993-2 Bridges EN 1993-3 Towers, masts & chimneys EN 1993-4 Silos, tanks & pipelines EN 1993-5 Piling EN 1993-6 Crane supporting structures
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EN 1993-1
Background
Eurocode 3: Part 1 has 12 sub-parts:

Overview
EN 1993-1-1 EN 1993-1-2 EN 1993-1-3 EN 1993-1-4 EN 1993-1-5 EN 1993-1-6

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General rules Fire Cold-formed thin gauge Stainless steel Plated elements Shells
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EN 1993-1
Background Overview
EN 1993-1-7 EN 1993-1-8 EN 1993-1-9 EN 1993-1-10 EN 1993-1-11 EN 1993-1-12
Plates transversely loaded Joints Fatigue Fracture toughness Cables High strength steels
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National Annexes
Background Overview
National Annexes: Every Eurocode will contain a National Annex National choice Non Conflicting Complementary Information Timescale
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Axes convention
Background Overview
Different axes convention:
BS 5950
Along the member Major axis Minor axis
Eurocode 3 X
X Y
Y Z
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Labelling convention
Background Overview
Labelling convention:
b z z tw h d y y h y r t y
r tf z
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z b
Subscripts
Background Overview
Extensive use of sub-scripts generally helpful: Ed means design effect (i.e. factored member force or moment) Rd means design resistance So, NEd is an axial force NRd is the resistance to axial force Sometimes tedious e.g. Ac,eff,loc
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Different symbols
Background Overview
For example:
BS5950 A Z S Ix Iy EC3 A Wel Wpl Iy Iz BS5950 P Mx V H J EC3 N My V Iw It BS5950 py pb pc r EC3 fy
LT fy
f y
i
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Gamma factors
Background Overview
Gamma factors : Appear everywhere Partial safety factors F for actions (loading) M for resistance
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Gamma factors M
Background Overview
Gamma factors M account for material and modelling uncertainties:
Partial factor M M0 M1 M2
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EC 3 value (UK NA value) 1.00 (1.00) 1.00 (1.00) 1.25 (1.10)
Application Cross-sections Member buckling Fracture
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Material properties
Background Overview
Material properties are taken from product standards (generally EN 10025-2). The Youngs modulus of steel should be taken as 210000 N/mm2.
Yield strength fy (N/mm2) t 16mm S235 S275 S355 S450 235 275 355 450 Yield strength fy (N/mm2) 16 < t 40 mm 235 265 345 430 Ultimate strength fu (N/mm2) 3 t 100 mm 360 410 470 550
Steel grade
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Structural design
Background Overview
Early sections (1-4) of EN 1993-1-1: Reference to EN 1990 and EN 1991 Identify clauses open to National choice Materials, reference to material standards Durability
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Structural design
Background Overview
Subsequent sections of EN 1993-1-1: Section 5 Structural analysis Global analysis Cross-section classification Requirements for plastic analysis Section 6 ULS General Resistance of cross-sections
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Structural design
Background
Buckling resistance of members

Overview
Built-up members SLS Annexes A, B, AB and BB
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Omissions
Background Overview
Notable omissions: Effective lengths Formulae for Mcr Deflection limits National Annex and NCCIs to resolve
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Sources of further information

Background Overview
http://www.eurocodes.co.uk/ Latest news and developments http://www.steel-sci.org/publications/ Design guides http://www.access-steel.com/ NCCIs Worked examples
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Session 3
Background Overview
Overview of Eurocode 3
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Session 4
Introduction Deformed geometry Imperfections Actions
Structural analysis
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Overview
Outline: Introduction Analysis types Second order effects Imperfections
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Analysis types
Analysis types: First order elastic Second order elastic First order plastic Second order plastic
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General approach
Introduction
General approach:
Deformed geometry Imperfections Actions
Choose an appropriate analysis Make an appropriate model Apply all actions (loads) and combinations of actions Check cross-sections, members and joints
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Frame stability
Frame Stability is assured by checking: Cross-sections Members Joints But will be unsafe unless: Frame model Loads on frame Analysis are appropriate.
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Effects of deformed geometry

EN 1993-1-1 Clause 5.2.1(2) states that deformed geometry (second order effects) shall be considered: if they increase the action effects significantly or modify significantly the structural behaviour
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Limits for ignoring deformed geometry

For elastic analysis: where
cr =
Fcr 10 FEd
cr is the factor by which the design loading would have to be increased to cause elastic instability in a global mode (cr in BS 5950-1) FEd is the design loading on the structure Fcr is the elastic critical buckling load for global instability based on initial elastic stiffness.
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Limits for ignoring deformed geometry

For plastic analysis:
cr =
Fcr 15 FEd
Stricter limit for plastic analysis due to loss of stiffness associated with material yielding. So, for cr 10 (or 15), the effects of deformed geometry may be ignored and a first order analysis will suffice
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Simple estimate for cr

Simple estimate for cr may be applied to:

Portals with shallow roof slopes Beam and column frames (each storey)
where
H h cr = Ed V Ed H,Ed
HEd horizontal reaction at bottom of the storey VEd total vertical load at bottom of the storey H,Ed storey sway when loaded with horizontal loads (eg wind, equivalent horizontal forces)
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Limits on use of simple estimate

Limit on portal rafter slope for (Clause 5.2) not steeper than 1:2 (26 degrees) Limit on axial compression in beams or rafters for (Clause 5.2):
NEd 0.09 Ncr

where NEd is the design value of compression in the beam or rafter and Ncr is its elastic buckling resistance.
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Analysis method and achievement

Distinguish between: Analysis method (1st or 2nd order) Analysis achievement i.e. can achieve 2nd order by: 1) 2nd order analysis 2) 1st and amplified sway 3) 1st and increased effective length.
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Frame stability
Limits for treatment of second order effects depend on cr:

Limits on cr Action cr>10 First order analysis
cr
Fcr FEd
Achievement First order only
10>cr>3
Second order First order analysis effects by plus amplification or approximate effective length method means Second order analysis Second order effects more accurately 12
cr<3
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Global imperfections for frames

Global initial sway imperfections:
= 0 h m
where 0 is the basic value = 1/ 200 h and m are reduction factors
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Global imperfections for frames

Much easier to apply as equivalent horizontal forces NEd, where NEd is the design compressive force in the column Saves changing the model for opposite direction in asymmetric buildings Many buildings have such complicated arrangements that it will be best to ignore the h and m reductions and use 1/200 Dont forget them.
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Actions to be specified
Actions to be specified: EN 1991-1-1: Densities, self-weight, imposed loads EN 1991-1-2: Fire EN 1991-1-3: Snow loads EN 1991-1-4: Wind actions EN 1991-1-5: Thermal actions EN 1991-1-6: Actions during execution EN 1991-1-7: Impact and explosions
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Other Actions
Introduction
Equivalent horizontal forces

Deformed geometry Imperfections Actions
- unless using initial imperfection model Derived from imperfections Applied in ALL combinations (only in gravity combinations in BS 5950)
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Checks
Introduction
Analyse structure
Deformed geometry Imperfections
Classify sections using clause 5.5 - for plastic global analysis, check clause 5.6 Check cross-sectional resistance to clause 6.2
Actions
Check buckling resistance to clause 6.3 - check built-up members to clause 6.4
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Session 4
Structural analysis
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Session 5
Introduction Design Example Exercise
Design of tension members

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Overview
Outline: Introduction Tension member design Example
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Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3 states that tensile resistance should be verified as follows:
Nt ,Ed Nt ,Rd
Tension check
Nt,Ed is the tensile design effect Nt,Rd is the design tensile resistance
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Design tensile resistance Nt,Rd

Design tensile resistance Nt,Rd is limited either by: Yielding of the gross cross-section Npl,Rd or ultimate failure (fracture) of the net crosssection (at holes for fasteners) Nu,Rd whichever is the lesser.
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Yielding of gross cross-section

The Eurocode 3 design expression for yielding of the gross cross-section (plastic resistance) given as:
Npl,Rd =
Afy M0
This criterion is applied to prevent excessive deformation of the member.

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Ultimate resistance of net section

And for the ultimate resistance of the net cross-section (defined in clause 6.2.2.2), the Eurocode 3 design expression is:
Nu,Rd
0.9A net fu M2
Anet is the reduced cross-sectional area to account for bolt holes

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Partial factors M
Plastic resistance of the gross cross-section Npl,Rd utliises M0, whilst ultimate fracture of the net cross-section Nu,Rd utilises M2.
M 0 = 1 .0
and
M2 = 1.25 (1.1 in UK NA)
The larger safety factor associated with fracture reflects the undesirable nature of the failure mode.
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Non-staggered fasteners
For a non-staggered arrangement of fasteners, the total area to be deducted should be taken as the sum of the sectional areas of the holes on any line (A-A) perpendicular to the member axis that passes through the centreline of the holes.
A
A s
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Non-staggered arrangement of fasteners
Non-staggered fasteners
Net area at bolts holes Anet on any line (AA) perpendicular to the member axis: Anet = A - nd0t A = n = d0 = t = gross cross-sectional area number of bolt holes diameter of bolt holes material thickness
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Staggered fasteners
Introduction Design Example
For a staggered arrangement of fasteners, the total area to be deducted should be taken as the greater of: 1. the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes on any line (A-A) perpendicular to the member axis 2.
Exercise
s2 nd0 t 4p
where s is the staggered pitch of two consecutive holes p is the spacing of the centres of the same two holes measured perpendicular to the member axis
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Staggered fasteners
n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal or zig-zag line progressively across the section
relates to the number of diagonal paths

A
B s
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Staggered arrangement of fasteners
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Angles connected by a single row of bolts

Single angles in tension connected by a single row of bolts through one leg, may be treated as concentrically loaded, but with an effective net section, to give the design ultimate tensile resistance as below.
With 1 bolt : With 2 bolts : With 3 or more bolts :
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Nu,Rd = Nu,Rd = Nu,Rd =
2.0 (e 2 0.5d0 )tfu M2 2 Anet fu M2 3 A net fu M2

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where 2 and 3 are reduction factors dependent upon the bolt spacing (pitch) p1. Anet is the net area of the angle. For an unequal angle connected by its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as the net section of an equivalent equal angle of leg length equal to the smaller leg of the unequal angle. Other symbols are defined below:
e1 e2 p1 p1 d0
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Definitions for e1, e2, p1 and d0
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Introduction Design
Reduction factors 2 and 3

Pitch p1
2.5d0 0.4 0.5
5.0d0 0.7 0.7
Example
2 (for 2 bolts)
Exercise
3 (for 3 or more bolts)
Note: For intermediate values of pitch p1 values of may be determined by linear interpolation. d0 is the bolt hole diameter.
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Angles with welded end connections

In the case of welded end connections: For an equal angle, or an unequal angle connected by its larger leg, the eccentricity may be neglected, and the effective area may be taken as equal to the gross area (clause 4.13(2) of EN 1993-1-8).
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Example: Tension member design

Design a single angle tie, using grade S355 steel, for the member AB shown below. Consider a bolted and a welded arrangement.
B A
NEd = 541 kN
Tension member AB in truss

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Cross-section resistance in tension is covered in clause 6.2.3 of EN 1993-1-1, with reference to clause 6.2.2 for the calculation of cross-section properties.
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Welded connection
Try a 1257510 unequal angle, welded by the longer leg. For an unequal angle connected (welded) by its larger leg, the effective area may be taken as equal to the gross area (clause 4.13(2) of EN 1993-1-8)
1257510 unequal angle
Gusset plate
1257510 unequal angle welded by longer leg

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For a nominal material thickness t of 10 mm, yield strength fy = 355 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength fu = 470 N/mm2 (from EN 10025-2). Partial factors from UK National Annex are M0 = 1.00 and M2 = 1.10. Gross area of cross-section, A = 1920 mm2 (from Section Tables).
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For yielding of the gross cross-section, plastic resistance is given as: =

Npl,Rd = Afy M0 = 1920 355 = 682x103 N = 682 kN 1.0
And for the ultimate resistance of the net cross-section, concentrically loaded (defined in clause 6.2.2.2), the Eurocode 3 design expression is:
Nu,Rd = 0.9 A net fu 0.9 1920 470 = = 738 10 3 N = 738 kN M2 1.10
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The tensile resistance Nt,Rd is taken as the lesser of these two values, and is therefore 682 kN. 682 kN > 541 kN (i.e. Nt,Rd > NEd) Unequal angle 1257510 in grade S355 steel, connected by the longer leg is therefore acceptable. For efficiency, a smaller angle may be checked.
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Bolted connection
1507510 unequal angle 24 mm diameter holes for 22 mm HSFG bolts Gusset plate
Try a 1507510 unequal angle, bolted (with a line of four 22 mm HSFG bolts, at 125 mm centres) through the longer leg. Material properties and partial factors are as for the welded case.
1507510 unequal angle bolted by longer leg

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Gross area of cross-section, A = 2170 mm2 (from Section Tables). For yielding of the gross cross-section, plastic resistance is given as:
Npl,Rd =
Afy M0
2170 355 = 770.4 10 3 N = 770 kN 1 .0
The net cross-sectional area Anet: Anet = A allowance for bolt holes = 2170 (2410) = 1930 mm2
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From Table, 3 = 0.7 (since the pitch p1 > 5d0).

Nu,Rd = 3 A net fu 0.7 1930 470 = = 577 10 3 N = 577 kN M2 1.10
The tensile resistance Nt,Rd is taken as the lesser of these two values, and is therefore 577 kN. 577 kN > 541 kN (i.e. Nt,Rd > NEd) Unequal angle 1507510 in grade S355 steel, connected by the longer leg (using four 22 mm diameter HSFG bolts) is therefore acceptable.
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Tension member design exercise

A flat bar 200 mm wide 25 mm thick is to be used as a tie (tension member). Erection conditions require that the bar be constructed from two lengths connected together with a lap splice using six M20 bolts as shown below. Assume 22 mm diameter bolt holes. Calculate the tensile strength of the bar assuming grade S275 steel.
A T 50 mm 100 mm 50 mm A T T T
25 mm thick plates
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100 mm 100 mm
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Session 5
Design of tension members

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Session 6
Introduction Local buckling Classification Class 4 Exercise
Local buckling and cross-section classification

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Overview
Outline: Introduction Local buckling Cross-section classification Class 4 effective widths
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Background
Background: For efficiency, structural members are generally composed of relatively thin elements (i.e. thicknesses substantially less than other cross-sectional dimensions) Although favourable in terms of overall structural efficiency, the slender nature of these thin elements results in susceptibility to local instabilities (buckling) under compressive stress, which must be considered in design.
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Local buckling
Local buckling
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Local buckling in structural components
Cross-section classification
Whether in the elastic or inelastic material range, cross-sectional resistance and rotation capacity are limited by the effects of local buckling. Eurocode 3 (and BS 5950) account for the effects of local buckling through cross-section classification. The classifications from BS 5950 of plastic, compact, semi-compact and slender are replaced in Eurocode 3 with Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 and Class 4, respectively.
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Factors affecting local buckling

The factors that affect local buckling (and therefore the cross-section classification) are: Width/thickness ratios of plate components Element support conditions Material strength, fy Fabrication process Applied stress system
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Cross-section classification
Classification is made by comparing actual width-to-thickness ratios of the plate elements with a set of limiting values, given in Table 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1). A plate element is Class 4 (slender) if it fails to meet the limiting values for a class 3 element. The classification of the overall cross-section is taken as the least favourable of the constituent elements (for example, a crosssection with a class 3 flange and class 1 web has an overall classification of Class 3).
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Definition of 4 classes
Introduction Local buckling
Eurocode 3 defines four classes of cross-section:

Moment
Classification Class 4 Exercise
Class 1 Mpl Mel Class 2 Class 3
Class 4 Deformation
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Compression
Cross-section resistance in compression Nc,Rd: Class 1, 2 and 3:
Nc ,Rd =
A eff fy M0
Afy M0
Class 4:
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Nc ,Rd =
Bending
Class 1 & 2 cross-sections:
Mc ,Rd = Mpl =
Wpl fy M0
Class 3 cross-sections:
Mc ,Rd = Mel =
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Wel fy M0
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Bending
Mc ,Rd =
Weff fy M0
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Compressed widths c
Introduction Local buckling Rolled Classification Class 4 Exercise
c
Definition of compressed widths flat widths:

c
Rolled
Welded
Welded
(a) Outstand flanges
(b) Internal compression parts
Limits on slenderness e.g. c/t 9

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235 / fy
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Internal compression parts

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Outstand flanges
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Angles and tubular sections

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Class 4 cross-sections
Class 4 (slender) cross-sections For class 4 (slender) cross-sections, reduced (effective) cross-section properties must be calculated to account explicitly for the occurrence of local buckling prior to yielding. Effective width formulae for individual elements are provided in Eurocode 3 Part 1.5 (EN 1993-1-5).
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Class 4 effective width concept

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Cross-section classification exercise

Determine the classification and resistance Nc,Rd for a 254 x 254 x 73 UC in pure compression, assuming grade S 355 steel.
b z tw h d y r z y tf
h = 254.1 mm b = 254.6 mm tw = 8.6 mm tf = 14.2 mm r = 12.7 mm A = 9310 mm2
Section properties for 254 x 254 x 73 UC

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Summary
Local buckling and cross-section classification: Local buckling accounted for through cross-section classification 4 Classes of cross-section Classification influences resistance Effective widths for Class 4 sections
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Session 6
Local buckling and cross-section classification

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20
10
Session 7
Background Cross-section Buckling Example Exercise
Compression members
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Outline
Overview: Background Cross-section resistance Nc,Rd Member buckling resistance Nb,Rd
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Elastic buckling theory

N Background Cross-section Buckling N
L
Example Exercise
x N (a) Unloaded member (b) Loaded member (straight) N (c) Loaded member (displaced)
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From stability theory, the elastic buckling load of a perfect pin-ended column is given by:
Ncr
2EI L2
Other boundary conditions may be accounted for through the effective (critical) length concept.
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Background Cross-section
Two bounds: Yielding and buckling
Load
Buckling
Material yielding (squashing)
NEd
Afy
Example Exercise
Lcr Euler (critical) buckling Ncr NEd
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Non-dimensional slenderness
Imperfections
Forms of imperfection: Geometric imperfections Eccentricity of loading Residual stresses Non-homogeneity of material properties End restraint etc
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Residual stresses
Welding
Hot-rolling
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Behaviour of imperfect columns

NEd
wmax = (w0+w) at mid-height e0,d is the magnitude of the initial imperfection w0
w0 = Initial imperfection
w0 w
w max
w = additional deflection x
1 e NEd 0,d 1 Ncr
NEd NRd
NEd NRd
NEd w max MRd
NEd
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1 NEde 0,d N 1 Ed MRd Ncr
Perry-Robertson
Perry observed: All columns contain imperfections and will deflect laterally from the onset of loading The maximum stress along the column length will occur at mid-height and on the inner surface The maximum stress will comprise 2 components axial stress and bending stress Failure may be assumed when the maximum stress reaches yield
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Perry-Robertson
Robertson contribution: The bending stress component is a function of the lateral deflection, which is, in turn, an amplification of the initial imperfection e0,d Robertson determined suitable values for these initial imperfections for a range of structural cross-sections Eurocode 3 uses the Perry-Robertson concept Five different imperfection amplitudes are included (through the imperfection factor ), giving five buckling curves
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Buckling curves
Background
1.2
Reduction factor
Cross-section Buckling Example Exercise
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 0.5 1 1.5
Curve a0 a0
Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d
2.5
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Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both cross-sectional and member resistance must be verified:
NEd Nc ,Rd
Cross-section check
NEd Nb,Rd
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Member buckling check
12
Cross-section resistance
Cross-section resistance in compression Nc,Rd depends on cross-section classification:

Afy M0 A eff fy M0
Nc ,Rd = Nc ,Rd =
for Class 1, 2 or 3 sections
for Class 4 sections
M0 is specified as 1.0 in EN 1993 This value will also be adopted in the UK

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Member buckling
Compression buckling resistance Nb,Rd:

A fy M1 A eff fy M1
Nb,Rd
for Class 1, 2 and 3
Nb,Rd
for (symmetric) Class 4
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Equivalence to BS 5950
Compression buckling resistance: A fy M1
Nb,Rd =
Eurocode 3
Pc = pc A
BS 5950
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15
Member buckling
Calculate non-dimensional slenderness
A fy Ncr
A eff fy Ncr
for Class 1, 2 and 3
for Class 4
Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load for the relevant buckling mode based on the gross properties of the cross-section
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16
Ncr
2EI L2
fcr
2EI AL2
2E (L / i)2
2E 2
where = L / i
and i is radius of gyration
The theoretical slenderness boundary 1 between material yielding and elastic member buckling may be found by setting fcr = fy:
fy = 2E 12 1 = E fy
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The non-dimensional slenderness used in EC3 is defined as:
= 1
E fcr E fy
1 fcr 1 fy
fy fcr
Afy Ncr
Non-dimensionalising in terms of the material as well as the geometry makes it easier to compare the buckling behaviour of columns of different strength material.
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Background
N
Cross-section
Material yielding (in-plane bending)
NEd
Afy
Buckling Example Exercise
Lcr
Elastic member buckling (LTB)
NEd
1.0
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Member buckling
Calculate reduction factor,
1 + ( 2 2 ) 0 .5
= 0.5 (1 + ( 0.2) + 2 )
is the imperfection factor
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10
Imperfection factor
Imperfection factors for 5 buckling curves:
Buckling curve Imperfection factor
a0 0.13
0.21
0.34
0.49
0.76
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Buckling curve selection

z z z b z
Cross-section
Limits
Buckling about axis
Buckling curve S235 S275 S355 S420

a b b c b c d d b c c d
S460
tf 40 mm
yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z
a0 a0 a a a a c c b c c d
h/b > 1.2

40 mm < tf 100 mm
y
Rolled Isections
tw h y
tf 100 mm
r tf
h/b 1.2
tf > 100 mm
Welded Isections
tf 40 mm
y tf z y y tf
tf > 40 mm
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11

hot finished Background Cross-section
z tf y tw b z
any any
a c
Hollow sections
a0 c
cold formed
generally (except as below) thick welds: a > 0.5tf b/tf < 30 h/tw < 30
any
Buckling Example Exercise
Welded box sections
any
U-, T- and solid sections
any
L-sections
any
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Effective (buckling) lengths Lcr

End restraint (in the plane under consideration) Effectively restrained in direction at both ends Effectively held in position at both ends Partially restrained in direction at both ends Restrained in direction at one end Not restrained in direction at either end One end Other end Effectively restrained in direction Not held in position Partially restrained in direction Not restrained in direction
Buckling length Lcr 0.7 L 0.85 L 0.85 L 1.0 L
Effectively held in position and restrained in direction
1.2 L 1.5 L 2.0 L
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12
Effective (buckling) lengths Lcr

Non-sway
Sway
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Column buckling design procedure

Design procedure for column buckling: 1. Determine design axial load NEd 2. Select section and determine geometry 3. Classify cross-section (if Class 1-3, no account need be made for local buckling) 4. Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr 5. Calculate Ncr and Afy
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13
Column buckling design procedure

6. Non-dimensional slenderness = 7. Determine imperfection factor
A fy Ncr
8. Calculate buckling reduction factor 9. Design buckling resistance Nb,Rd = 10. Check
NEd 1.0 Nb,Rd
A fy M1
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Member buckling resistance example

A circular hollow section member is to be used as an internal column in a multi-storey building. The column has pinned boundary conditions at each end, and the inter-storey height is 4 m.
NEd = 2110 kN
4.0 m
The critical combination of actions results in a design axial force of 2110 kN.
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14

Assess the suitability of a hot-rolled 244.510 CHS in grade S 355 steel for this application.
d
t
= 244.5 mm = 10.0 mm = 7370 mm2
t A
Wel,y = 415000 mm3

d
Wpl,y = 550000 mm3 I = 50730000 mm4
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29

For a nominal material thickness (t = 10.0 mm) of less than or equal to 16 mm the nominal values of yield strength fy for grade S 355 steel is 355 N/mm2 (from EN 10210-1). From clause 3.2.6: E = 210000 N/mm2
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15

Cross-section classification (clause 5.5.2):
Background Cross-section Buckling
235 / fy = 235 / 355 = 0.81
Tubular sections (Table 5.2, sheet 3)

Example Exercise
d/t = 244.5/10.0 = 24.5 Limit for Class 1 section = 50 2 = 40.7 > 24.5 Cross-section is Class 1
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Cross-section compression resistance (clause 6.2.4):

Nc ,Rd = Afy M0 for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross - sections
Nc ,Rd =
7370 355 = 2616 10 3 N = 2616 kN 1.00
2616 > 2110 kN Cross section resistance is OK

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16

Member buckling resistance in compression (clause 6.3.1):

Nb ,Rd = = A fy M1 1 + 2 2 for Class 1, 2 & 3 cross - sections but 1.0
where = 0.5 1 + ( - 0.2 ) + 2 Afy Ncr
and =
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for Class 1, 2 & 3 cross - sections

33

Elastic critical force and non-dimensional slenderness for flexural buckling Ncr
Ncr = 2EI 2 210000 50730000 = = 6571 kN 2 4000 2 L cr 7370 355 = 0.63 6571 10 3
From Table 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1: For a hot-rolled CHS, use buckling curve a
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17

Background Cross-section Buckling
Cross-section
Limits
Buckling about axis
Buckling curve S235 S275 S355 S420
S460
hot finished
Example Exercise Hollow sections
any any
a c
a0 c
cold formed
Extract from Table 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1: For a hot-rolled CHS, use buckling curve a
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35
Graphical approach
1.2
Reduction factor
1.0
0.88
Curve a0 Curve a0 Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 0.5
0.63
1.5
2.5
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18

From Table 6.1 of EN 1993-1-1, for buckling curve a, = 0.21

= 0.5[1 + 0.21(0.63 0.2) + 0.63 2 ] = 0.74 1 = = 0.88 0.74 + 0.74 2 0.63 2 0.88 7370 355 = 2297 10 3 N = 2297 kN 1 .0
Buckling resistance is OK.
Nb ,Rd =
2297 > 2110 kN
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The chosen cross-section, 244.5x10 CHS, in grade S 355 steel is acceptable.
37
Member buckling resistance exercise

A UC section member is to be used as an internal column in a multi-storey building. The column has pinned boundary conditions at each end, and the inter-storey height is 4.5 m.
NEd = 305.6 kN
4.5 m
The critical combination of actions results in a design axial force of 305.6 kN.
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19
Member buckling resistance exercise

Background Cross-section Buckling Example
Try a 152x152x30 UC in grade S 275 steel.

b z tw h d y r z y tf
Exercise
h b tw tf r A Iy Iz
= 157.6 mm = 152.9 mm = 6.5 mm = 9.4 mm = 7.6 mm = 3830 mm2 = 17480000 mm4 = 5600000 mm4
Section properties for 152x152x30 UC

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Session 7
Compression members
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20
Session 8
Background In-plane bending Shear Serviceability LTB Exercises
Beams
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Outline
Overview: Background In-plane bending Shear Deflections Lateral torsional buckling
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Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both cross-sectional and member bending resistance must be verified:
M Ed M c ,Rd
Cross-section check (In-plane bending)
MEd Mb ,Rd
Member buckling check
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Beam behaviour analogous to yielding/buckling of columns. M

Wyfy Material yielding (in-plane bending)
MEd
MEd
Elastic member buckling Mcr
Lcr
1.0
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LT
4
Cross-sections in bending
Class 1 & 2 cross-sections:
Mc ,Rd = Mpl =
Wpl fy M0
Mc ,Rd = M el =
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Wel fy M0
5
Cross-sections in bending
Mc ,Rd =
Weff fy M0
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Section moduli W
Subscripts are used to differentiate between the plastic, elastic or effective section modulus Plastic modulus Elastic modulus
z
Wpl Wel
(S in BS 5950) (Z in BS 5950) (Zeff in BS 5950)
Effective modulus Weff
The partial factor M0 is applied to all crosssection bending resistances, and equal 1.0.
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Shear resistance
The design shear force is denoted by VEd (shear force design effect). The design shear resistance of a crosssection is denoted by Vc,Rd and may be calculated based on a plastic (Vpl,Rd) or an elastic distribution of shear stress.
VEd 1.0 Vc ,Rd
Shear check
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Plastic shear resistance Vpl,Rd

The usual approach is to use the plastic shear resistance Vpl,Rd The plastic shear resistance is essentially defined as the yield strength in shear multiplied by a shear area Av:
Vpl,Rd =
A v (fy / 3 ) M0
9
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Shear area Av
The shear area Av is in effect the area of the cross-section that can be mobilised to resist the applied shear force with a moderate allowance for plastic redistribution For sections where the load is applied parallel to the web, this is essentially the area of the web (with some allowance for the root radii in rolled sections).
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Shear areas Av
Background In-plane bending Shear Serviceability LTB
Shear areas Av are given in clause 6.2.6(3). Rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web: Av = A 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf but hwtw
Rolled channel sections, load parallel to web: Av = A 2btf + (tw + r)tf Rolled RHS of uniform thickness, load parallel to depth:
Exercises
Av = Ah/(b+h) CHS and tubes of uniform thickness:
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Av = 2A/
11
Definition of terms
A is the cross-sectional area b is the overall section breadth h is the overall section depth hw is the overall web depth (measured between flanges) r is the root radius tf is the flange thickness tw is the web thickness (taken as the minimum value if the web is not of constant thickness) = 1.0 (from UK NA)
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Shear buckling
The resistance of the web to shear buckling should also be checked, though this is unlikely to affect cross-sections of standard hot-rolled proportions. Shear buckling need not be considered provided:
hw 72 tw where = for unstiffened webs
235 ; = 1.0 (from UK NA) fy

13
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Shear resistance example

Background In-plane bending Shear
Determine the shear resistance of a rolled channel section 229x89 in grade S 275 steel loaded parallel to the web.
b z tw h y r z tf y h = 228.6 mm b = 88.9 mm tw = 8.6 mm tf = 13.3 mm r = 13.7 mm A = 4160 mm2
Serviceability LTB Exercises
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Section properties for 229x89 rolled channel section
14

For a nominal material thickness (tf=13.3 mm and tw = 8.6 mm) of less than or equal to 16 mm the nominal values of yield strength fy for grade S 275 steel (to EN 10025-2) is found from Table 3.1 to be 275 N/mm2. Shear resistance is determined according to clause 6.2.6
Vpl,Rd =
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A v (fy / 3 ) M0
15

Shear area Av For a rolled channel section, loaded parallel to the web, the shear area is given by:
Av = A 2btf + (tw + r)tf
= 4160 (288.913.3) + (8.6+13.7)13.3
= 2092 mm2
Vpl,Rd =
2092 (275 / 3 ) = 332000 N = 332 kN 1.00
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For the same cross-section BS 5950 (2000) gives a shear resistance of 324 kN.
16
Serviceability
Excessive serviceability deflections may impair the function of a structure, for example, leading to cracking of plaster, misalignments of crane rails, causing difficulty in opening doors, etc. Deflection checks should therefore be performed against suitable limiting values. From the UK National Annex, deflection checks should be made under unfactored variable actions Qk.
17
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Serviceability
Vertical deflection limits

Design situation Cantilevers Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish Other beams (except purlins and sheeting rails) Purlins and sheeting rails Deflection limit Length/180 Span/360 Span/200 To suit cladding
Horizontal deflection limits

Design situation Tops of columns in single storey buildings, except portal frames Columns in portal frame buildings, not supporting crane runways In each storey of a building with more than one storey Deflection limit Height/300 To suit cladding Height of storey/300
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Lateral torsional buckling


Lateral torsional buckling is the member buckling mode associated with slender beams loaded about their major axis, without continuous lateral restraint. If continuous lateral restraint is provided to the beam, then lateral torsional buckling will be prevented and failure will occur in another mode, generally in-plane bending (and/or shear).
19
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Background In-plane bending Shear Serviceability LTB
Can be discounted when:

Minor axis bending CHS, SHS, circular or square bar Fully laterally restrained beams
Exercises
LT < 0.2 (or 0.4 in some cases)

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10
Lateral torsional buckling resistance

Checks should be carried out on all unrestrained segments of beams (between the points where lateral restraint exists).
Lateral restraint
Lateral restraint
Lateral restraint Lcr = 1.0 L
Beam on plan
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Eurocode 3
Three methods to check LTB in EC3: The primary method adopts the lateral torsional buckling curves given by equations 6.56 and 6.57, and is set out in clause 6.3.2.2 (general case) and clause 6.3.2.3 (for rolled sections and equivalent welded sections). The second is a simplified assessment method for beams with restraints in buildings, and is set out in clause 6.3.2.4. The third is a general method for lateral and lateral torsional buckling of structural components, given in clause 6.3.4.
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11

Eurocode 3 design approach for lateral torsional buckling is analogous to the column buckling treatment. The design buckling resistance Mb,Rd of a laterally unrestrained beam (or segment of beam) should be taken as:
Mb,Rd = LT Wy
fy M1
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Reduction factor for LTB
Equivalence to BS 5950
Lateral torsional buckling resistance:

LT Wy fy M1
Mb,Rd =
Eurocode 3
Mb = pb Sx (or Zx)
Wy will be Wpl,y or Wel,y
BS 5950
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12
Buckling curves general case

Lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case are given below:
LT
1 LT +
2 LT
2 LT
but LT 1.0
LT = 0.5 [ 1 + LT ( LT 0.2) + 2 ] LT
Plateau length Imperfection factor from Table 6.3
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Background
For the general case, refer to Table 6.4:

In-plane bending Shear Serviceability LTB Exercises
Cross-section Rolled I-sections Welded Isections Other crosssections
Limits h/b 2 h/b > 2 h/b 2 h/b > 2 -
Buckling curve a b c d d
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13
Imperfection factor LT
Imperfection factors LT for 4 buckling curves:
Buckling curve
d 0.76
Imperfection 0.21 0.34 0.49 factor LT
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27
LTB curves
Background In-plane bending
4 buckling curves for LTB (a, b, c and d)

1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Reduction factor LT
Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d
Shear Serviceability LTB Exercises
0.2
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LT
28
14
Buckling curves rolled or equivalent welded sections case
LTB curves for the rolled or equivalent welded sections case are given below; Table 6.5 is used to select buckling curve:
LT
1
2 LT + LT 2 LT
LT 1.0 1 but LT LT
LT = 0.5 [ 1 + LT ( LT LT ,0 ) + 2 ] LT
factor
Recommended value = 0.75
Plateau length
Recommended value = 0.4 29
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LTB curves
Background In-plane bending
Comparison between general curves and curves for rolled and equivalent welded sections (I-sections h/b>2)
1.20
Reduction factor LT
Shear Serviceability LTB Exercises
1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 0 0.5 1 1.5
General (h/b>2) Rolled (h/b>2)
2.5
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LT
30
15
Calculate lateral torsional buckling slenderness:
LT
Wy f y Mcr
Buckling curves as for compression (except curve a0) Wy depends on section classification Mcr is the elastic critical LTB moment
31
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Elastic critical buckling moment Mcr

Designers familiar with BS 5950 will be accustomed to simplified calculations, where determination of the elastic critical moment for lateral torsional buckling Mcr is aided, for example, by inclusion of the geometric quantities u and v in section tables. Such simplifications do not appear in the primary Eurocode method.
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16
Mcr under uniform moment

For typical end conditions, and under uniform moment the elastic critical lateral torsional buckling moment Mcr is:
Mcr ,0
G IT Iw Iz Lcr
2EIz = 2 L cr
Iw L cr 2GIT + 2 EIz Iz
0 .5
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is the shear modulus is the torsion constant is the warping constant is the minor axis second moment of area is the buckling length of the beam
33
Mcr under non-uniform moment

Numerical solutions have been calculated for a number of other loading conditions. For uniform doubly-symmetric cross-sections, loaded through the shear centre at the level of the centroidal axis, and with the standard conditions of restraint described, Mcr may be calculated by:
2EIz Mcr = C1 2 L cr
0 .5
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17
C1 factor end moments

For end moment loading C1 may be approximated by the equation below, though other approximations also exist. C1= 1.88 1.40 + 0.522 but C1 2.70
where is the ratio of the end moments (defined in the following table).
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C1 factor transverse loading

w
C1 values for transverse loading

Loading and support conditions w 1.132 Bending moment diagram Value of C1
Serviceability
F
1.285
LTB Exercises
F
= =
1.365
F 1.565
C L
F 1.046
=
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18
Simplified assessment of LT
For hot-rolled doubly symmetric I and H sections without destabilising loads, LTmay be conservatively simplified to:
LT =
1 0 .9 z = C1
E fy
1 0 .9 z 1 C1
z = L / iz ; 1 =
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As a further simplification, C1 may also be conservatively taken = 1.0.
37
Simplified assessment of LT
Substituting in numerical values for 1 , the following simplified expressions result. S235
LT = 1 L / iz C1 104
S275
LT = 1 L / iz C1 96
S355
LT = 1 L / iz C1 85
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C1 may be conservatively taken = 1.0, though the level of conservatism increases the more the actual bending moment diagram differs from uniform moment.
38
19
Design procedure for LTB

Background In-plane bending Shear Serviceability
Design procedure for LTB: 1. Determine BMD and SFD from design loads 2. Select section and determine geometry 3. Classify cross-section (Class 1, 2, 3 or 4)
LTB Exercises
4. Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr depends on boundary conditions and load level 5. Calculate Mcr and Wyfy
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39
Design procedure for LTB

6. Non-dimensional slenderness LT = 7. Determine imperfection factor LT
Wy fy Mcr
8. Calculate buckling reduction factor LT 9. Design buckling resistance Mb,Rd = LT

M
Wy fy M1
Ed 10. Check 1.0 for each unrestrained Mb,Rd portion
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20
Simplified method (Cl. 6.3.2.4)

Simplified method for beams with restraints in buildings (Clause 6.3.2.4) This method treats the compression flange of the beam and part of the web as a strut:
b b
Compression h Tension
Compression flange + 1/3 of the compressed area of web
Strut
41
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Beam
General method (Cl. 6.3.4)

General method for lateral and lateral torsional buckling of structural components May be applied to single members, plane frames etc. Requires determination of plastic and elastic (buckling) resistance of structure, which subsequently defines global slenderness Generally requires FE
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21
Restrained beam exercise

The simply supported 610229125 UB of S275 steel shown below has a span of 6.0 m. Check moment resistance, shear and deflections.
Dead load = 60 kN/m Imposed load = 70 kN/m
6.0 m Beam is fully laterally restrained

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Restrained beam exercise

Background
b
In-plane bending Shear Serviceability
tw h d y y
LTB
r
Exercises
tf
h b tw tf r A Wy,pl Iy
= 612.2 mm = 229.0 mm = 11.9 mm = 19.6 mm = 12.7 mm = 15900 mm2 = 3676103 mm3 = 986.1106 mm4
610229125 UB
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22
LTB Example
Background
Description
In-plane bending Shear Serviceability LTB Exercises
A simply-supported primary beam is required to span 10.8 m and to support two secondary beams as shown below. The secondary beams are connected through fin plates to the web of the primary beam, and full lateral restraint may be assumed at these points. Select a suitable member for the primary beam assuming grade S 275 steel.
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45
LTB Example
General arrangement
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23
LTB Example
Design loading is as follows:
425.1 kN A
319.6 kN D
2.5 m
3.2 m
5.1 m
Loading
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47
LTB Example
Background
267.1 kN A B 52.5 kN SF 477.6 kN C D
In-plane bending Shear Serviceability LTB
Shear force diagram

B C D
A
Exercises
BM
1194 kNm
1362 kNm
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Bending moment diagram
48
24
LTB Example
For the purposes of this example, lateral torsional buckling curves for the general case will be utilised. Lateral torsional buckling checks to be carried out on segments BC and CD. By inspection, segment AB is not critical. Try 762267173 UB in grade S 275 steel.
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49
LTB Example
b z
tw
r z
tf
h b tw tf r A Wy,pl Iz It Iw
= 762.2 mm = 266.7 mm = 14.3 mm = 21.6 mm = 16.5 mm = 22000 mm2 = 6198103 mm3 = 68.50106 mm4 = 2670103 mm4 = 9390109 mm6 50
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LTB Example
For a nominal material thickness (tf = 21.6 mm and tw = 14.3 mm) of between 16 mm and 40 mm the nominal values of yield strength fy for grade S 275 steel (to EN 10025-2) is 265 N/mm2. From clause 3.2.6: E = 210000 N/mm2 and G 81000 N/mm2.
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LTB Example
Background In-plane bending Shear Serviceability
Cross-section classification (clause 5.5.2):
= 235 / fy = 235 / 265 = 0.94

Outstand flanges (Table 5.2, sheet 2) cf = (b tw 2r) / 2 = 109.7 mm
LTB
cf / tf
Exercises
= 109.7 / 21.6 = 5.08
Limit for Class 1 flange = 9 = 8.48 > 5.08 Flange is Class 1

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52
26
LTB Example
Web internal part in bending (Table 5.2, sheet 1) cw = h 2tf 2r = 686.0 mm cw / tw= 686.0 / 14.3 = 48.0 Limit for Class 1 web = 72 = 67.8 > 48.0 Web is Class 1 Overall cross-section classification is therefore Class 1.
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53
LTB Example
Bending resistance of cross-section (clause 6.2.5):
Mc ,y,Rd = =
Wpl,y fy M0
for Class 1 and 2 sec tions
6198 10 3 265 = 1642 10 6 Nmm 1. 0
= 1642 kNm > 1362 kNm

Cross-section resistance in bending is OK.
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27
LTB Example
Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6.3.2.2) Segment BC:
MEd = 1362 kNm Mb ,Rd = LT Wy fy M1
where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sections Determine Mcr for segment BC (Lcr = 3200 mm)
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0 .5
55
LTB Example
For end moment loading C1 may be approximated from: C1 = 1.88 1.40 + 0.522 but C1 2.70
is the ratio of the end moments =

1194 = 0.88 1362
C1 = 1.05
Mcr = 1.05 2 210000 68.5 10 6 3200 2 9390 10 9 3200 2 81000 2670 10 3 + 6 2 210000 68.5 10 6 68.5 10
0 .5
= 5699x106 Nmm = 5699 kNm

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28
LTB Example
Non-dimensional lateral torsional slenderness for segment BC:

LT = Wy fy Mcr = 6198 103 265 = 0.54 5699 106
Select buckling curve and imperfection factor LT: From Table 6.4: h/b = 762.2/266.7 = 2.85
For a rolled I-section with h/b > 2, use buckling curve b

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57
LTB Example
From Table 6.3 of EN 1993-1-1: For buckling curve b, LT = 0.34 Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, LT Segment BC:
LT
1
2 LT + LT 2 LT
but LT 1.0
where LT = 0.5 [ 1 + LT ( LT 0.2) + 2 ] LT

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29
LTB Example
LT = 0.5[1+0.34(0.54-0.2) + 0.542] = 0.70
LT =
1 0.70 + 0.702 0.54 2
= 0.87
Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd Segment BC:

Mb,Rd fy M1 265 1 .0
= LT Wy
= 0.87 6198 10 3
= 1425 10 6 Nmm = 1425 kNm

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59
LTB Example
MEd 1362 = = 0.96 1.0 Segment BC is OK Mb ,Rd 1425
Lateral torsional buckling check (clause 6.3.2.2) Segment CD: MEd = 1362 kNm Mb ,Rd = LT Wy fy M1
where Wy = Wpl,y for Class 1 and 2 sections Determine Mcr for segment CD (Lcr = 5100 mm)
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60
30
LTB Example
0 .5
Determine from Table: is the ratio of the end moments = C1 = 1.88

Mcr = 1.88 2 210000 68.5 10 6 9390 10 9 5100 2 81000 2670 10 3 + 6 5100 2 2 210000 68.5 10 6 68.5 10
0. 5
0 =0 1362
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= 4311106 Nmm = 4311 kNm
61
LTB Example
Non-dimensional lateral torsional slenderness for segment CD:

Wy fy Mcr 6198 103 265 = 0.62 4311 106
LT =
The buckling curve and imperfection factor LT are as for segment BC.
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62
31
LTB Example
Calculate reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, LT Segment CD:
LT
1
2 LT + LT 2 LT
but LT 1.0
where LT = 0.5 [ 1 + LT ( LT 0.2) + 2 ] LT

= 0.5[1+0.34(0.62-0.2) + 0.622] = 0.76
LT = 1 0.76 + 0.76 2 0.62 2 = 0.83
63
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LTB Example
Lateral torsional buckling resistance Mb,Rd Segment CD:

Mb,Rd
= LT Wy
fy M1
= 0.83 6198 10 3
265 1 .0
= 1360 10 6 Nmm = 1360 kNm

MEd 1362 = = 1.00 Mb ,Rd 1360
Segment CD is critical and marginally fails LTB check.

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32
Session 8
Beams
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65
33
Session 9
Introduction Cross-section Members Annex A & B Simple construction
Beam-columns
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Introduction
Beam-columns: Cross-section check Member buckling check
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Cross-section checks
Cross-section checks similar to BS 5950, including a simplified linear interaction, as below:
My,Ed Mz,Ed NEd + + 1 NRd My,Rd Mz,Rd

More sophisticated expressions are also provided for Class 1 and 2 for greater efficiency.
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Beam-columns member checks

Introduction Cross-section
Two philosophies: Interaction method - Clause 6.3.3
Members Annex A & B Simple construction
Interaction k factors from Annex A or B. General method - Clause 6.3.4 Not for hand calculations (requires FE or similar)
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Simple construction
In general, both Eqs. 6.61 and 6.62 must be examined and satisfied:
My,Ed M NEd + k yy + k yz z ,Ed 1 Nb ,y,Rd Mb ,Rd Mc ,z ,Rd My,Ed M NEd + k zy + k zz z ,Ed 1 Nb ,z ,Rd Mb ,Rd Mc ,z ,Rd
Eq. 6.61
Eq. 6.62
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Interaction factors kij

Annex A (Method 1) French-Belgian Derived the necessary coefficients explicitly - so far as it is possible Correct by calibration for plasticity etc. - with FE and test results Annex B (Method 2) German-Austrian Derived all coefficients from FE - Calibrated with test results
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Good news - simple construction

Simple construction is commonly used for the design of multi-storey buildings (particularly in the UK). Beams are designed as simply supported Columns are designed for nominal moments arising from the eccentricity at the beam-tocolumn connection.
7
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Simple construction
Multi-storey frame:
Wk & NHF Wk & NHF Wk & NHF Wk & NHF Gkr & Qkr Gkf & Qkf Gkf & Qkf Gkf & Qkf
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Simple construction
In general, both Eqs. 6.61 and 6.62 must be examined and satisfied:
My,Ed M NEd + k yy + k yz z ,Ed 1 Nb ,y,Rd Mb ,Rd Mc ,z ,Rd My,Ed M NEd + k zy + k zz z ,Ed 1 Nb ,z ,Rd Mb ,Rd Mc ,z ,Rd
Eq. 6.61
Eq. 6.62
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NCCI Simplification
For columns in simple construction, the first term (i.e. the axial load) of both expressions (Eq. 6.61 and 6.62) dominates. For UC sections, Iy > Iz (usually around 3 times greater), so Nb,y,Rd > Nb,z,Rd (greater difference for higher slenderness). Therefore, for practical simple construction situations and UC sections, Eq. 6.62 will always govern.
My,Ed M NEd + k zy + k zz z ,Ed 1 Nb ,z ,Rd Mb ,Rd Mc ,z ,Rd

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Eq. 6.62
10
NCCI Simplification
Given that the moment components are small for simple construction, the interaction factors can be conservatively simplified without any significant overall loss of efficiency, resulting in: kzy = 1.0 and kzz = 1.5
My,Ed M NEd + 1 .0 + 1.5 z ,Ed 1 Nb ,z ,Rd Mb ,Rd Mc ,z ,Rd

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Eq. 6.62
11
Recommendations
Recommendations: For pencil and paper calculations, use: - Clause 6.3.3 with Annex B Use NCCI simplification for columns in simple construction Make spreadsheets to check calculations Full worked examples in Designers Guide and Trahair et al textbook.
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12
Session 9
Beam-columns
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13
Session 10
Introduction Bolted joints Welded joints
Joints
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Outline
Overview: Introduction Bolted joints Welded joints
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EN 1993-1-8
Part 1.8 of Eurocode 3 is some 50% longer than the general Part 1.1. It provides a much more extensive treatment of the whole subject area of connections than a UK designer would expect to find in a code.
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EN 1993-1-8
Essentially, the coverage of Part 1.8 focuses on 4 topics: 1. Fasteners (Sections 3 and 4 of Part 1.8) covering the basic strength of bolts in shear, the resistance of fillet welds etc. 2. The role of connections in overall frame design (Section 5 of Part 1.8), covering the various possible approaches to joint classification and global frame analysis.
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EN 1993-1-8
3. Joints between I-sections (Section 6 of Part 1.8), being more akin to the BCSA/SCI Green Books treatment than to the current content of BS 5950 Part 1. 4. Joints between structural hollow sections (Section 7 of Part 1.8), being very similar to several existing CIDECT guides.
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Bolted joints
Bolted joints:
Shear resistance Fv,Rd Bearing resistance Fb,Rd Tension resistance Ft,Rd Combined shear and tension Bolt spacing
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Bolted joints
Bolt shear resistance per shear plane for ordinary bolts:
Fv,Rd =
where:
vfubA M2
v = 0.6 for classes 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8 where the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt, and for all classes where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the bolt = 0.5 for classes 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 where the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt
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Bolted joints
fub is the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt A is the tensile stress area As (i.e. area at threads) when the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt or the gross cross-sectional area when the shear plane passes through the unthreaded (shank) portion of the bolt. M2 may be taken as 1.25
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Bolted joints
Bearing resistance Fb,Rd
Bearing resistance is governed by the projected contact area between a bolt and connected parts, the ultimate material strength (of the bolt or the connected parts), and may be limited by bolt spacing and edge and end distances. From EN 1993-1-8, bearing resistance is given by:
Fb ,Rd =
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k 1b fudt M2
9
Bolted joints
Definitions of terms:
b is the smallest of: d; fub/fu or 1.0, and accounts for various failure modes d is the bolt diameter t is the minimum thickness of the connected parts M2 may be taken as 1.25 fu is the ultimate tensile strength of the connected parts d and k1 relate to bolt spacing and edge and end distances.
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10
Bolted joints
Combined tension and shear
In some situations, bolts may experience tension and shear in combination. In general, bolt capacities would be expected to reduce when high values of shear and tension are coexistent. EN 1993-1-8 provides the following interaction expression to deal with such cases:
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
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Ft ,Ed 1.4 Ft ,Rd
1.0
11
Bolted joints
Spacing requirements Minimum bolt spacings and edge and end distances are as below, where d0 is the fastener (bolt) hole diameter. These values are defined in Table 3.3 of EN 1993-1-8. Minimum spacing of bolts in the direction of load transfer p1 = 2.2d0 Minimum end distance in the direction of load transfer e1 = 1.2d0
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12
Bolted joints
Minimum spacing of bolts perpendicular to the direction of load transfer p2 = 2.4d0 Minimum edge distance perpendicular to the direction of load transfer e2 = 1.2d0
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13
Bolted joint example

Description Calculate the strength of the bolts in the lap splice shown below assuming the use of M20 Grade 4.6 bolts in 22 mm clearance holes and Grade S275 plate.
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14

Shear resistance:
Bolts are in single shear, and it is assumed that the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolts: v = 0.6, fub = 400 N/mm2, A = As = 245 mm2, M2= 1.25 Shear resistance per bolt Fv,Rd:
Fv ,Rd =
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v fub A 0.6 400 245 = = 47040 N = 47.0 kN M2 1.25

15

Bearing resistance:
Bearing resistance per bolt Fb,Rd:
Fb ,Rd =
k 1 b fu dt M2
From geometry: p1 = 60 mm, e1 = 40 mm, e2 = 40 mm, d0 = 22 mm. From EN 10025-2, fu of plate (Grade S275, t > 3 mm) = 410 N/mm2.
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16

For end bolts, d = For inner bolts, d =
e1 = (40/66) = 0.61 3d0
p1 = (60/66 0.25) = 0.66 3d0 e For edge bolts, k1 is the smaller of (2.8 2 1.7) or 2.5 d0
(2.8(40/22) 1.7) = fub/fu = 400/410 = 0.98 3.4. k1 = 2.5
b is the smaller of: d, fu/fub or 1.0 For end bolts b = 0.61, and for inner bolts b = 0.66
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17

Therefore, for end bolts,
Fb ,Rd =
k 1 b fudt 2.5 0.61 410 20 16 = = 160 .1 kN M2 1.25
And, for inner bolt,

Fb ,Rd = k 1 b fudt 2.5 0.66 410 20 16 = = 173 .2 kN M2 1.25
Clearly the resistance of the joint is controlled by the strength in shear. Therefore, the resistance of the tension splice as governed by the shear resistance of the bolts = 3 47.0 = 141 kN.
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18
Welded joints
Design of welded joints:

Butt welds Fillet welds - directional method - simplified method
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19
Welded joints
Butt welds
Strength of butt weld taken as that of parent metal (i.e. fy in tension or compression or fy/ 3 in shear) provided that suitable electrodes are used. Throat thickness taken as minimum depth of penetration, reduced by 3 mm for most partialpenetration butt welds.
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20
10
Welded joints
Two methods are permitted for the design of fillet welds:

the directional method, in which the forces transmitted by a unit length of weld are resolved into parallel and perpendicular components. the simplified method, in which only longitudinal shear is considered.
These approaches broadly mirror those used in BS5950: Part 1.
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21
Welded joints
Simplified approach
Introduction
Check Fw,Ed Fw,Rd

Bolted joints Welded joints
Fw,Ed is the design value of the weld force per unit length Fw,Rd is the design resistance of the weld per unit length The design resistance of the weld per unit length may be calculated as follows:
Fw ,Rd = fvw ,d a
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11
Welded joints
fvw,d is the design shear strength of the weld
a is the throat thickness of the weld
fvw ,d =
fu w M2 3
fu is the minimum ultimate tensile strength of the connected parts w is a correlation factor that depends on the material grade M2 may be taken as 1.25
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23
Welded joints
Values for correlation factor w

Steel grade S235 Thickness range (mm) t3 3 < t 100 S275 t3 3 < t 100 S355 t3 3 < t 100 Ultimate strength fu (N/mm2) 360 360 430 410 510 470 Correlation factor w 0.80
0.85
0.90
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24
12
Welded joint example

Description
A 15020 mm tie in Grade S275 steel carrying 400 kN is spliced using a singlesided cover plate 10020 mm as shown in the figure below. Design a suitable fillet weld to carry the applied load.
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25

Try 8 mm fillet welds: Throat thickness a = 0.7 s = 0.78 = 5.6 mm
Design shear strength of weld: From Table, fu = 410 N/mm2 and w = 0.85
fvw ,d = 410 = 223 N / mm2 0.85 1.25 3
26
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13

The design resistance of the weld per unit length (i.e. per mm run) Fvw,d: Fvw,d = fvw,d a = 2235.6 = 1248 N/mm = 1.25 kN/mm Total resistance of weld = 1.25350 = 437 kN (> 400 kN) Above arrangement, using 8 mm fillet welds, with a 350 mm weld length is acceptable.
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27
Session 10
Joints
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28
14
Conclusions
The construction industry has not previously faced the challenge of implementing a complete suite of new codes encompassing all the major materials and loading requirements This burden will not be eased by the format and terminology of the Eurocodes both of which are different from British Standards.
National Strategy for Implementation of the Structural Eurocodes (IStructE, 2004)
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29
Conclusions
The Eurocodes will become the Europe wide means of designing Civil and Structural engineering works and so, they are of vital importance to both the design and construction sectors of the Civil and Building Industries.
European Union website
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30
15
Conclusions
Conclusions: Advanced design codes Greater in scope Biggest change since limit states Unfamiliar format/ resistance to uptake Guidance material and training emerging Basis for other National design codes
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31
Eurocode 3
Thank you
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32
16
Table 1: Values for yield strength fy and ultimate strength fu (from EN 10025-2)
Yield strength 2 fy (N/mm ) t 16 mm S235 S275 S355 S450 235 275 355 450 Yield strength fy (N/mm2) 16 < t 40 mm 235 265 345 430 Ultimate strength fu (N/mm2) 3 < t 100 mm 360 410 470 550
Steel grade
Table 2 (sheet 1): Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression parts (Table 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1)
Table 2 (sheet 2): Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression parts (Table 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1)
Table 3: Selection of buckling curve for a cross-section (Table 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1)
Buckling curve Cross-section Limits Buckling about axis S 235 S 275 S 355 S 420 a b b c b c d d b c c d
S 460
Rolled I-sections
h/b > 1.2
b z
tf 40 mm
yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z yy z-z
a0 a0 a a a a c c b c c d
tw h y y
40 mm < tf 100 mm
r z z Welded Isections y z Hollow sections y tf z y z
tf
h/b 1.2
tf 100 mm
tf > 100 mm
tf 40 mm y tf tf > 40 mm
hot finished
any
a0
cold formed z
any
tf y tw
Welded box sections
generally (except as below)
any
y b z
thick welds: a > 0.5tf b/tf < 30 h/tw < 30
any
U-, T- and solid sections
any
L-sections
any
Table 4: Imperfection factors for buckling curves (Table 6.1 of EN 1993-1-1)
Buckling curve Imperfection factor
a0 0.13
a 0.21
b 0.34
c 0.49
d 0.76
1.2
1.0
Curve a0 a0 Curve a
Reduction factor
0.8
Curve b Curve c
0.6
Curve d
0.4
0.2
0.0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 1: Eurocode 3 Part 1.1 buckling curves (Figure 6.4 of EN 1993-1-1)

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Introduction Overview Objectives

Design of steel structures to Eurocode 3

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Senior Lecturer in Structural Engineering

Your experience with Eurocodes

Motivation for course

Designers Guide to EN 1993-1-1:

The behaviour and design of steel structures to EC3:

Structural phenomena Theoretical background Code implementation Worked examples

Scope of structural Eurocodes:

A total of 10 codes (comprising 58 documents)

Timetable for introduction

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Introduction to EN 1990 & EN 1991

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Introduction to EN 1990 Introduction to EN 1991 Conclusions

Actions and Effects

Effect of action (E):

Types of actions: Permanent, G Variable, Q (leading and non-leading) Accidental, A

Equation 6.10: to be combined with

1.5 x combination factor x Other variable actions Actions due to prestressing

G k , j "+" PP "+" Q ,1Q k ,1 "+"

1.35 x Permanent actions

Leading variable actions Qk,1

* 0.5 is UK NA value, 0.6 is the unmodified EC value

Unfavourable and favourable loading

Equivalent horizontal forces

Exercise solution Equation 6.10

Load combinations for a typical structure from Equation 6.10:

Equations 6.10a and 6.10b use less favourable result:

"+ " PP "+ " Q ,1 0,1Q k ,1 "+ "

"+ " PP "+ " Q ,1Q k ,1 "+ "

Exercise solution Eqs 6.10a and 6.10b

* Unlikely to govern unless Dead >> Imposed

Equilibrium check (EQU)

Equilibrium check (EQU)

Favourable and unfavourable loading:

SLS load combinations

Deflection limits are as given in BS 5950

EN 1991 contains the following parts:

Introduction to EN 1990 & EN 1991

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Development of Eurocode 3 Introduction to design to Eurocode 3 Conclusions

Eurocode 3: Part 1 has 12 sub-parts:

EN 1993-1-1 EN 1993-1-2 EN 1993-1-3 EN 1993-1-4 EN 1993-1-5 EN 1993-1-6

EN 1993-1-7 EN 1993-1-8 EN 1993-1-9 EN 1993-1-10 EN 1993-1-11 EN 1993-1-12

Different axes convention:

Gamma factors M account for material and modelling uncertainties:

EC 3 value (UK NA value) 1.00 (1.00) 1.00 (1.00) 1.25 (1.10)

Application Cross-sections Member buckling Fracture

Buckling resistance of members

Built-up members SLS Annexes A, B, AB and BB

Sources of further information

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

Outline: Introduction Analysis types Second order effects Imperfections

Effects of deformed geometry

Limits for ignoring deformed geometry

For elastic analysis: where

Limits for ignoring deformed geometry

For plastic analysis:

Simple estimate for cr