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E LECTIVE II: A DVANCED M ANUFACTURING P ROCESS

Kerala University B.Tech, Semester VI
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2013

AJ N AYAR

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St. Thomas Institute for Science & Technology Department of Mechanical Engineering

January 04, 2012 Module 1

Advances in casting Newer casting processes: Plaster mold and Ceramic mold casting; Vacuum casting; Evaporative pattern casting; Ceramic shell investment casting; Slush casting; Squeeze casting; Semisolid metal forming: Rapid solidication for Amorphous alloys
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Powder metallurgy processes: Methods of Powder production; Blending of metal powders; Compaction of metal powders; Sintering Hot pressing; Isostatic pressing; Hot and cold (HIP and CIP); Selective laser sintering;
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Other shaping processes: Metal Injection moulding, Pressureless compaction, Ceramic moulds; Spray deposition; Finishing of sintered parts

Casting Casting is a very old process ( 4000 B.C) wherein by pouring molten metal into a mould cavity which upon solidication takes the shape of that cavity. The solidied metal is called the casting Done with the aid of moulds, patterns and cores and various other additive processes The whole process is dependent on the ow of molten material, solidication, cooling, heat transfer and the type of mould material Varied Types: Sand casting, Die casting, Centrifugal and semi-centrifugal casting, continuous casting
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Mould
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Expendable Made of plaster, ceramics etc mixed with various binders or bonding agents. Capable of withstanding high temp. Mould broken to remove casting Permanent made of metals that maintain their strength at high temp. Used repeatedly and designed in such a way that castings can be easily removed. Casting subjected to higher cooling rate and hence microstructure and grain size is affected
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Composite Made of two of three materials like sand, graphites, metals,. . . Used in various casting process to improve mould strength, control cooling rates and optimise overall economics.
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Patterns
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One-piece pattern Used for simple shapes and low-quantity production

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Split patterns Two piece pattern made such that each part represents a different shape. Used to make complicated shape castings
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Match plate patterns Two piece patterns are constructed by securing each half of one or more split patterns on opposite side of a single plate
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Cores
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Used for making cavities or passages inside the castings. Placed in the mould cavity before casting. Should possess strength, permeability, collapsibility, heat withstanding ability, etc., Anchored by core prints. Sometimes chaplets are used. Cores are made like moulds are.
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. 1. Plaster Mould Casting

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Similar to sand casting, except that the mould is made of plaster of

1 paris (gypsum or calcium sulphate, CaSO4 2 H2 O). Is also a ceramic mould casting. Components are mixed with water and poured over pattern Talc and silica our added to improve strength and setting time of the plaster Once plaster is set ( 15 mins) pattern is removed and mould is dried at 120 260 C. Gypsum recrystallises causing the plaster to set by the interlocking of crystals. Aassembling moulds form mould cavity; molten metal poured into it. Parting agents like oils and waxes maybe liberally applied to ensure pattern easily strips from mould. Patterns used are aluminium alloys, thermosetting plastics, brass or zinc alloys. Wood patterns are not used, since repeated contact with plaster slurry deprives mould quality Typical parts made are lock components, gears, valves, ttings, tooling and ornaments. Castings as small as 30 g to as large as 45 kg, but generally < 10 kg

Merits
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High Dimensional accuracy. The surface nish is 1.25 m to 3 m. Castings have ne details with good surface nish The low thermal conductivity of the plaster moulds increases the cooling time of the castings, which results in a uniform grains structure and less warpage Wall thickness can be 1 mm2.5 mm Produces minimal scrap material Cost advantage on complex parts
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Limitations
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Very low permeability. Gases evolved during solidication cannot escape; Molten material to be poured in vacuum or pressurised Mould needs to be subjected to the Antioch process or else need to be made of foamed plaster, to increase permeability Max. temperature which the mould can withstand is 1200 C Can be used only for non-ferrous materials as gypsum reacts chemically with ferrous metals, giving bad casting surfaces Long cooling times restrict production volume

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2. Ceramic Mould Casting

Also called cope-and-drag investment casting Combination of plaster mould casting and investment casting Ferrous and high-temperature non-ferrous materials like

aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, and zinc alloys Weight limits are 100 grams to several thousand kilograms (3.5 oz to several tons) A draft of 1 is typically required. The typical surface nish of the mould is 24 , obtained by pressing clay mixture with some percentage of moisture in dies under a pressure of 1-10 ton/sq inch. After they are stripped from the dies and baked in a furnace at temperatures that range between 899C & 1316C

Two types of ceramic mould casting: Shaw process Unicast process

Shaw process Also known as the Osborn-Shaw process Mixture of refractory aggregate, hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, alcohol and a gelling agent used to create a mould slurry

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Slurry mixture is poured into slightly tapered ask over a reusable pattern The slurry hardens almost immediately to a rubbery state (vulcanized rubber consistency). The ask and pattern is then removed. Mould is torch ignited causing ceramic microcrazes (very small cracks) and volatiles to burn-off. Cracks are important, as they allow gases to escape preventing the metal from owing through; allows mould expansion due to thermal expansion and contraction of ceramic After the burn-off, the mould is baked at 980 C to remove any remaining volatiles. Prior to pouring metal, the mould is pre-warmed to control shrinkage . Unicast process Very similar to the Shaw process Does not require the mould to be ignited and then cured in a furnace. Allows pattern removal after partial curing Then completely cured by ring at approximately 1,040 C. For casting a low melting point metal, complete curing can be skipped, because the mould has enough strength in the "green state" (un-red)

Merits
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Reusable pattern is used, Excellent surface nish, good dimensional and dimensional tolerances (0.1 mm to 0.003 mm) Thin cross-sections, and intricate shapes can be cast. Cross-sections as thin as 1.3 mm and no upper limit For undercuts and other difcult to cast features, part of the pattern can be made from wax in conjunction with a standard pattern; essentially using investment and ceramic mould casting techniques together High temp-resistance of the moulding material allows it to be used for casting ferrous and other high-temp alloys Parts weighing as much as 700 kg have been cast
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Limitations
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Ceramic is not reusable Somewhat expensive Cost effective only for small/medium-sized production runs

3. Vacuum Casting
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Also called countergravity lowpressure (CL) process Fine sand and urethane is moulded over dies and cured with amine vapour (as catalyst to cure and harden the mold and/or core) Mould is held with robotic arm for partial immersion into the molten material inside an induction furnace (for clean, energy-efcient and well-controllable melting process) Metal melted either in air (CLA) or vacuum (CLV) Vacuum reduces the air pressure inside to about two-thirds of atmospheric pressure, drawing the molten metal (55 C above liquidus temp) into the cavities through the bottom gate and begins solidication within seconds An alternative to the investmen, shellmould and greensand casting Complex shapes with uniform properties and thin walls (0.75 mm) are possible and carbon, low and highalloy steel parts weighing approx. 75 kg can be made CLA parts are made at high volume and low cost CLV parts contain reactive metals like: Al, Ti, Zr, Hf Process can be automated and production costs can be reduced to that of greensand casting.

Merits Flow rate of molten metal into the mould cavity can be accurately controlled,especially in the ll out of thinner casting sections, improving overall metal casting soundness; often easier to automate than gravity pouring Metal drawn into the mold cavity is from below the surface of the molten metal bath, avoiding slag and inclusions Critical metal temperature variations more consistently controlled since the mold is taken to the furnace rather than vice versa; Good surface nish; excellent dimensional tolerances; . Advantages of the CLV-process include Zero degree draft Wall thicknesses of 0.125 in. over large areas and 0.09 in. in small areas Tight tolerances; unlimited pattern life When pattern changes are required they are easy to alter at a relatively low cost 125-150 RMS surface nish Excellent reproduction of details and repeatability
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Limitation The disadvantage of the vacuum in this method is that the vacuum must be left on until the gating has solidied.

. 4. Evaporative pattern casting

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Also called expendablepattern (Lost Foam), evaporative pattern or lostpattern casting Uses a polystyrene pattern which evaporates upon contact with molten material, to form the cavity Raw expendable polystyrene (EPS) beads are placed in preheated die (Al) Polystyrene expands to take shape of cavity. Additional heats helps fuse and bond beads together Die is the cooled and opened to obtain the pattern Pattern is coated with water based refractory slurry, dried and placed in a ask Flask is lled with loose sand to support the pattern. Bonding agents give additional strength Molten material is poured directly into the mould without removing the pattern. This vapourises the pattern and lls the mould cavity completely. The heat polymerizes the polystyrene the byproducts are vented into the sand Flow velocity of the molten material in the mould depends on the rate of degradation of the polymer and many methods are followed to increase the velocity for eg. using patterns with hollow regions Polymers require considerable energy to degrade and so large thermal gradients occur at metal-polymer interface helping faster cooling of the molten metal

Merits
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Process is relatively simple and has design exibility, since there are no parting lines, cores, riser systems etc. Flasks for containing the mould sand and the pattern is relatively inexpensive to make Polystyrene is inexpensive and can be easily processed into patterns having complex shapes, sizes and ne details The casting requires minimum nishing and cleaning operations Can be automated and is economical for long production runs
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Limitations
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Cost to produce the die used for expanding the polystyrene beads to make the pattern is considerably high

5. Ceramic shell investment casting

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A variation of the Investmentcasting process (used since 4000 B.C.) The term investment is derived from the fact that the pattern is invested with refractory/ ceramic coating material The pattern is made of injecting molten wax or plastic into a metal die which has the shape of the pattern. A number of patterns can be joined together to make one mould, called a tree It is dipped rst into ethyl silicate gel and subsequently into a uidised bed of ne grained fused silica or zircon our. Then pattern is dipped into coarser-grained silica to build additional coating and proper thickness for withstanding the thermal shock of pouring molten metal The one piece mould is dried in air and heated to a temp of 90 C-175 C and then held in an inverted position to melt out all the wax/plastic. It is then red to 650 C-1050 C for 4 hours to dry the water of crystallization and burn of residual wax. The molten metal may be poured in a vacuum to extract evolved gases and reduce oxidation. The mold is broken after the metal poured in has solidied and the casting is removed
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Porosity occurs at the core-casting interface due to accumulation of the gas expelled if the pre-heated mould temperature is too high. The correct cooling rate is affected and solidication starts from wall to the core. To eliminate porosity, lowering of the mould temperature makes sure that the rate of cooling is not affected. To further reduce microporosity castings are subjected to hot isostatic pressing Ceramic cores used are removed by leaching with caustic solutions under high pressure and temperature To improve the micro-structure of the casting with uniform equi-axed grains along the entire length, nucleant addition to the molten metal, close control of its superheat , pouring techniques and control of cooling rate is monitored

Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern (c) Wax is melted out and mould is lled, under vacuum, with molten superalloy (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape.

Merits Suitable for casting alloys with high temperature alloys, ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Almost any metal can be cast Capable of producing intricate shapes with parts weighing 1 g to 35 kg. Also those having large dia and weighing as much as 1 tonne Produces castings with good surface nish and close dimensional tolerances No ash or parting lines If wax is used for pttern making, it can be recovered and reused Few or no nishing operations required Typical castings are ofce equipments, mechanical components such as gears cams, valves etc
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Limitations The main disadvantage is the overall cost. Some of the reasons for the high cost include specialized equipment, costly refractories and binders, many operations to make a mould, a lot of labor is needed and occasional minute defects

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6. Slush casting
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Slush casting is a type of permanent mould casting, therefore many of the basic principles of a permanent mould process will apply The main principle of this casting process relies on the fact that when a metal casting hardens in a mould, it will solidify from the mould wall towards the inside of the casting. In other words a metal skin forms rst, (as the external geometry of the part). This skin thickens as more of the metal castings material converts to a solid state. In slush mould casting, during the solidication of the material, when the solid-liquid boundary has reached a certain point the mould is turned over and the remaining liquid metal from the casting is poured out. This will leave only the solidied skin with the exterior geometry of the cast part and a hollow interior. The longer the casting was allowed to solidify, before pouring out the excess metal, the greater the castings wall thickness will be. The cast part is then removed from the die and allowed to cool.
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Merits
Slush casting is mainly suited to lower melting point materials, zinc, tin, or aluminium alloys are commonly slush cast in manufacturing industry The hollow castings manufactured by this process are lighter than solid parts, and save on material Good surface nish and accurate exterior geometry are possible with the slush casting manufacturing process This casting process is used primarily to manufacture toys and parts that are ornamental in nature, such as lamp bases and statues.
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Limitations
With this process need arises for a mechanical means of turning over the mould in order to pour out the molten metal from the cast part When manufacturing by slush casting it is difcult to accurately control the castings strength and other mechanical properties The castings internal geometry cannot be effectively controlled

Solidied skin on a steel casting The remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the gure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle.

7. Squeeze casting
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Also called liquid-metal forging, developed in the 1960s The squeeze casting process uses an accurately measured or metered quantity of molten metal which is poured into a heated mould via a launder. The mould is closed to produce an internal cavity in the shape of the required component. The molten metal is forced/displaced into the available space of the die cavity. As with most casting processes, using a permanent pattern, the mould is coated with a suitable release agent and for squeeze casting it is usually in the form of a graphite coating. Pressure is continuously applied, with the aid of machinery including die, punch and ejector pin, to the molten metal until it solidies into required component Pressure applied by punch keeps the entrapped gases in the molten solution and the contact at the die-metal interface promotes high heat transfer Application of pressure overcomes feeding problems that arise when casting metals with long freezing range. Press is withdrawn and component is ejected. Squeeze casting is most suited to the production of light alloy components in large production quantities. Retractable and disposable cores can be used to create complex internal features
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Merits Very limited nishing operations required post casting process Low levels of porosity Good surface texture Fine micro-structures with higher strength components Imparts higher yield strength, toughness, stiffness and lower porosity No waste material, 100% utilization Complex shapes and ne surface details for parts made to near-net shape can be achieved. Offers a broader range of shapes and components than other manufacturing methods
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Limitations Cost of squeeze casting is generally higher than other conventional casting processes Costs are very high due to complex tooling No exibility as tooling is dedicated to specic components Process needs to be accurately controlled which slows the cycle time down and increases process costs. High costs mean high production volumes are necessary to justify

equipment investment

8. Semisolid metal (SSM) forming

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Also called semisolid metal working, this was a process developed in the 1970s Semi-solid casting processes such as thixomoulding use the thixotropic property of some alloys (mostly light metals) (bismuth, magnesium etc). Within certain temperature ranges, with appropriate preparation, an alloy can be put into a semi-solid state, which can be injected with less shrinkage and better overall properties than by normal injection molding. Rheological properties of vigorously agitated semi-solid metals were discovered to be of paramount use in the success of this casting process.
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Rheology is the study of ow and deformation of materials under applied forces. Thixotropy is shear thinning property. Gels or uids that are viscous under normal conditions, become less viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed. They then take a xed time to return to a more viscous state

Thixocasting, the major SSM route employed today involves the manufacture of billets of the desired micro-structure (usually by continuous casting), and the subsequent reheating and forming of the billets in the semi-solid state The desired structure in the continuous castings is obtained in most cases by electromagnetic stirring
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In Thixomolding, a modication of the thixocasting process, chips of ne structure are fed to a machine (like a plastic injection moulding machine). The chips are partially melted obtaining a structure suitable for semi-solid forming. Presently the process appears to be limited to relatively low fractions solid and to magnesium or lower melting point alloys Rheocasting processes being exploited today fall into two general categories.
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Liquid metal is poured into a container of approximately the size of the billet to be fed to the shot chamber of a forming machine. Desired structure is then obtained in the billet by some combination of cooling, grain renement, and/or convection. Billet is fed to the forming machine at the proper temp Desired slurry structure is obtained within a bath of some considerable size. Desired quantities of the semi-solid metal are then extracted from the bath and formed by one or another process

In future the primary market for semi-solid formed parts will be the light alloys (Al and Mg), and to a limited extent composites, with these metals as matrices. Market applications will be for high-end automotive and electronic components.

Merits The most important is the non-turbulent lling of the die, which results from the high and controllable viscosity of the semi-solid material. Eliminates air entrapment encountered in the conventional die-casting process and results in parts of high integrity with superior mechanical properties. For many alloys, heat treatment results in further property improvements. The semi-solid forming process produces parts with less shrinkage porosity than those produced by conventional die casting. Die lling temperature is lower and heat content of the metal less, resulting in less thermal shock and lower cycle times The main specic advantage of the Thixocasting route is that the forming facility is freed from having to deal with liquid metal, and the process can be highly automated using approaches similar to those employed in forging and stamping Disadvantages It has been difcult to obtain fully homogeneous billets in electromagnetically stirred continuous castings. Typical billets have some degree of in-homogeneity with respect to both structure and composition. There is metal loss on reheating the billets which may amount to as much as 10 percent of the total part weight. Gates and risers from formed parts cannot be recycled within the forming facility, but must be sent back to the ingot producer. Thus, the metal former pays a premium to the continuous caster, not only for the unique structure in the metal he sells to a customer but on that as well that he returns to the primary producer
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9. Rapid solidication for Amorphous alloys An amorphous metal (also known metallic glass or glassy metal) is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy, with a disordered atomic-scale structure

Conventional crystalline microstructure, amorphous structure, nanocrystalline structure

Rapid Solidication Technology allows the production of metallic ribbons in the amorphous (glassy) state. This technique involves cooling molten metal at rates as high as 106 K/s so that it does not sufcient have time to crystallize
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This results isextension of solid solubility, grain renement and reduced micro-segregation The lack of long range atomic order results in superior soft magnetic properties Via a special annealing treatment some amorphous compositions may be transformed into nano-crystalline materials In a special method called metal spinning, alloy is smelted by induction in a ceramic crucible. It is then propelled at high speed under high gas pressure onto a rotating copper disk (chill block) which chills the alloy rapidly (splat cooling) Amorphous and nano-crystalline soft magnetic alloys are the basis for many innovative applications as magnetic cores, inductive components or in labels for electronic article surveillance (EAS)

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Powder metallurgy (P/M) processes Parts are made from compacting ne metal powders in suitable dies and by heating without melting i.e., sintering Used by Egyptians in 3000 B.C to make iron tools Products made using this process range from balls for ball-point pens, gears, cams, bushings etc. Commonly used metals in P/M are Fe, Cu, Al, Tn, Ni, Ti and refractory metals Has become competitive with other processes like casting and forging Can make complex parts of high strength weighing up to 50 kg even though generally it is limited to weights less than 2.5 kg Ceramics are processed through the following steps: crushing or grinding the raw materials to ne particles mixing them with various additives to impart certain characteristics Shaping, drying and ring of the material Subjected to additional processing for better dimensional control and surface nish Glass products are processed by melting glass and forming it in moulds, machines and other devices Strength can be improved by thermal and chemical treatments
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This process consists of the the following operations Powder production Blending Compaction Sintering Finishing Operations . Powder production Several methods for production of powders Particle size range from 0.1 m to 1000 m Metal sources are generally bulk metals and alloys, ores, salts and other compounds Shape, size distribution, porosity, chemical purity and bulk & surface characteristics depend on the particular process used Important charactreistics which affect the ow and permeability during compaction and the sintering process are
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Methods of Powder production

Atomisation . Liquid -metal stream is produced by injecting molten metal through small orices and broken up by jets of air stream. Size varies and depends on temp, rate of ow, nozzle size and jet characteristics Reduction . Reduction (removal of oxygen) of ne metal oxides using gases like H and CO to metal state, forms spongy and porous powders with uniformly sized spherical or angular shapes Electrolytic..deposition Utilises aqueous solutions or fused salts to produce the purest powders available Carbonysis . Metal carbonyls (Fe(CO)5 and Ni(CO)4 ) are formed when reacting with CO. When decomposed into Fe and Ni, they turn into small, dense, uniform, spherical and high purity particles Comminution . Comminution or Pulverising involves crushing, milling in a ball mill or grinding brittle and less ductile metals into small particles. Powder produced have angular shapes when brittle materials are used, while aky if ductile materials are used Mechanical..alloying . Powders of two or more pure metals are mixed in a ball mill. Under impact of hard balls, the powders fracture and join together by diffusion forming alloy powders
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 Nanopowders . New developments have aided in the production of nanopowders of Cu, Al, Fe, Ti and other metals. Since these powders ignite spontaneously (pyrophoric) or readily contaminated when exposed to air they are shipped in slurry form under hexane gas. When subjected to large plastic deformation (compression & shear) during processing, particles size is reduced and material becomes pore-free and possess enhanced properties Microencapsulated..powders . Metal powders are coated with a binder. For electrical applications, (magnetic components of ignition coils) binder acts as insulator. preventing eddy current losses. Powders are compacted by warm pressing and used with the binder in place Other..Methods . precipitation: from a chemical solution metal chips by machining vapour condensation New developments also include extractive metallurgical processes, a) those based on reaction of volatile halides with liquid metals and b) controlled reduction and reduction/carburization of solid oxides

Blending of metal powders

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Blending is the second step in P/M process. It is carried out as Because powders made by various process have different shapes and sizes, they must be mixed to obtan uniformity. The ideal mix time is one in which all the particles of each material are distributed uniformly Powders of different metals and materials can be mixed in order to impart spcial physical and mechanical properties and characteristics to the P/M product Lubricants (typically stearic acid or zinc stearate in a proportion of 0.25% to 5% by weight) can be mixed with powders to improve ow characteristics. Ensures reduced friction between particles, improved ow of powder to dies and longer die life.

Powder mixing under controlled conditions to avoid contamination or deterioration. Deterioration caused by excessive mixing which may alter shape and work-harden the particles making compaction difcult. Mixing done in inert atmosphere or air(to avoid oxidation) or in
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liquids to improve lubrication and uniform mixing Controlled by microprocessors to improve and maintain quality in a variety of blending equipments . High surface area-to-volume increases the explosive nature of metal powders (Al, Mg, Ti, Zr, Th) Precautions include: a) grounding equipment b) preventing sparks c) avoiding dust clouds, open ames and chemical reactions
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Compaction of metal powders

Blended powders are pressed into shapes in dies To obtain shape, density, particle-to-particle contact and to make part sufciently strong for further processing Presses used are actuated hydraulically or or mechanically Pressed powder known as green compact and is generally carried out at room temperature although it can be done at elevated temperatures. Must ow easily to feed properly into the die cavity Density depends on pressure applied. More the pressure, the more dense it becomes and approaches the bulk density of the metal Particle size and particle distribution determines the porosity level when

packed together
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Higher density imparts higher strength and elastic modulus of the part. Higher density implies higher amount of solid metal in the same volume and hence greater resistance to external forces Friction between metal-powder particles, friction between the punches and the die walls affects the density variation within the part
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Equipments used Selection of press depends on part size and conguration, density requirements and production rate Press capacities are of the order of 1.8 to 2.7 MN (200300 tons). Higher capacities are used for special applications. Hydraulic presses are available with tonnage as high as 45 MN (5000 tons) Pressure required for the pressing the metal powders are in the range from 70 MPa to 800 MPa. This pressure depends on the characteristics and shape of the particles, method of blending and type of lubricant
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Isostatic Pressing Powder compaction method involving hydrostatic pressure application from multiple directions through a liquid or gaseous medium surrounding the compacted part Can densify castings without distortion of complex casting features. 100% densication is possible No die friction forces for PM parts. No die to control shape No size constraints very large parts are possible Super-alloy components for aircraft/ aerospace industries Used to eliminate internal porosity and properties
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Two major types

Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) Metal powder placed in exible rubber mould made of neoprene rubber, urethane, polyvinyl chloride or elastomers Assembly is pressurised hydrostatically in a chamber, (water) Common pressure of 400 MPa to 1000 MPa. Typical application is for automotive cylinder liners After removal the part still needs to be sintered Tooling for the dry-bag version are costly & difcult to build Designed and automated, process provides 15-25 cycles/min There are two types of CIP:
Wet bag method: Mould is removed and relled after each pressure cycle. Good for compaction of large & complicated parts Dry bag method, mould is an integral part of the vessel. Used for compaction of simpler and smaller parts
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Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) Powder is placed in a container usually made of high-melting-point sheet metal and the pressurising medium is inert gas and vitreous (glass-like) uid Common conditions are 100 MPa at 1100C and the trend is towards higher pressures and temperatures Main advantage is the ability to produce compacts having 100% density, good metallurgical bonding of particles and good mechanical properties Uniformity of pressure from all directions and absence of die-wall friction produces comp[acts of uniform grain structure and density Capable of handling larger parts than other compacting processes Wider dimensional tolerances are observed which is a limitation compared to other compacting processes Greater cost and time required Applicable only for small production quantities
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Sintering Sintering is the process of taking green compacts (metal in the form of a powder), compacting it by placing under a high heat for a long period of time. Bonding takes place between the porous aggregate particles and once cooled the powder has bonded to form a solid piece

Prior to sintering compact is brittle and its strength known as

green strength is low

Strength and nature of part depends on diffusion mechanism,

plastic ow, evaporation of volatile materials, recrystallisation, grain growth and pore shrinkage
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Principal variables are temperature, time and furnace atmosphere Temperatures are usually within 7090% of the melting point Times range from few minutes (10 for Fe, Cu) to hours (8 for Ti, W) Proper control of furnace atmosphere is important to obtain

optimum properties. Oxygen free atmosphere is essential to prevent oxidation of powders Gases most commonly used are hydrogen, burned ammonia, hydrocarbon gases and nitrogen Sintering mechanisms are complex
In one method as temp increases adjacent particles begin to bond by a diffusion mechanism, increasing its mechanical properties In vapour-phase transport, metal atoms release to the vapour phase as it is heated very close to its melting point. At convergent geometries melting temp is locally higher and vapour re-solidies In liquid-phase sintering, when two adjacent particles are of different metals, alloying can take place. One particle (lower m.p) melts because of surface tension and surrounds the other particle. Concentration of heavier components may be higher at bottom due to gravity. Hence microgravity research is under process
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Sintering proceeds in three stages Neck growth proceeds rapidly; powder particles remain discrete Most densication occurs, the structure recrystallizes and particles diffuse into each other Isolated pores tend to become spheroidal and densication continues at a much lower rate
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To allow efcient stacking of product in the furnace separator

sheets are used. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.
Available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in ne medium and coarse particle sizes Porosities cannot be completely eliminated because voids remain

after compaction and gases evolve during sintering

Porosities may consist either of a network of interconnected pores

or of closed holes
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Selective laser sintering (SLS) An additive manufacturing technique using high power laser (for example, a CO2 laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal, ceramic, or glass powders into a mass with a desired 3D shape Fuses powdered material by scanning cross-sections, generated from a 3-D digital description, on the surface of a powder bed After each cross-section is scanned, the powder bed is lowered by one layer thickness, a new layer of material is applied on top
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An SLS machine uses pulsed laser because nished part density

depends on peak laser power, rather than laser duration

Bulk powder material is preheated in the powder bed somewhat

below its melting point

In single-component powders, the laser melts only the outer

surface of the particles fusing the solid non-melted cores to each other and to the previous layer Most SLS machines use two-component powders, typically either coated powder or a powder mixture SLS can produce parts from a relatively wide range of powder materials commercially available, like polymers or polystyrene, metals including steel, Ti, alloy mixtures, and composites Up to 100% density can be achieved with material properties comparable to those from conventional manufacturing methods Large numbers of parts can be packed within the powder bed, allowing very high productivity SLS does not require support structures because the part being constructed is surrounded by unsintered powder at all times

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Other Shaping Processes 1. Metal Injection moulding (MIM) Very ne powders (<10m) are blended with either a polymer or a wax based binder and undergoes a process similar to die casting Moulded greens are placed in a low-temp oven to burn off plastic or removed using solvent. They are then sintered Complex shapes with very small wall thickness can be moulded Mechanical properties are nearly similar to wrought products Dimensional tolerances are good Carbon and stainless steel, tool steels, bronze and Ti are metals suitable for this process. Typical parts made are for watches small gun barrels, surgical knives etc.. Parts produced compete well against investment-cast parts. But does not well with zinc and Al die casting and screw machining Major limitation is the high cost of the ne metal powders; relatively small part size and weights ( 250 g)
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2. Pressure-less compaction Die lled with metal powder by gravity & the powder is sintered directly in the die Because of resulting low density, this method is used for porous parts such as lters
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3. Ceramic Moulds The moulds for shaping metal powders are rst made by the technique used in investment casting Filled with metal powder and placed in a steel container, with particulate matter lled in the space between the mould and container Container is evacuated, sealed and subjected to HIP Ti-alloy compressor rotors for missile engines are made using this method
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4. Spray deposition It is a shape generation process. Best known is Osprey Process Base components are
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a) atomiser b) spray camber with inert atmosphere c) mould for making preforms After metal is atomised it is deposited onto a cooled preformed mould made of copper or ceramic where it solidies Metal particles bond together, developing a density that is normally above 99% of solid-metal density May be subjected to additional shaping and consolidation processes like forging rolling extrusion etc. Grain size is ne and mechanical properties are comparable to wrought products of same alloy

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3. Finishing of sintered parts

Coining and Sizing: Compaction operation performed under high pressure in presses. The purpose is to impart dimensional accuracy to the sintered part and to improve its strength and surface nish by further densication Forging: Preformed and sintered alloy powder is hot or cold forged. The products have good surface nish, good dimensional tolerances and a uniform ne grain size. Superior properties obtained using this technology makes it suitable for highly stressed automotive and jet-engine components Impregnation: The porosity of the P/M parts is utilised by impregnating the sintered part with oil. Bearing and bushings made using this method have continuous supply of lubricant (capillary action) They no longer require grease ttings Inltration: Slug of a low m.p metal is placed against the sintered part and the assembly is heated to melt the slug.The molten metal inltrates the pores by capillary action to form a relatively pore free part having good density and strength. Hardness and tensile strength is increased and pores are lled