The Middle Enlightenment The Middle1 Enlightenment has been defined in many different ways, but at its broadest

was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural movement of the mid to late eighteenth century. It stressed reason, logic, criticism and freedom of thought over dogma, blind faith and superstition. Logic wasnt a new invention, having been used by the previous generations of enlightenment thinkers and the ancient Greeks, but it was now included in a worldview which argued that empirical observation and the examination of human life could reveal the truth behind human society and self, as well as the universe. All would have to be rational and understandable. The middle Enlightenment proved that there could be a science of man, and that the history of mankind was one of progress, which could be continued and optimistically perfected with the right application and evolution of modern thinking2. Consequently, the middle Enlightenment also argued that human life and character could be improved through the use of education and reason. The Enlightenment thereby brought interested thinkers into direct conflict with the political and religious establishment;3 these thinkers could have been described as intellectual terrorists against the norm. They challenged religion with the scientific method, often instead favoring deism. The Enlightenment thinkers wanted to do more than understand, they wanted change for, as they believed, the better: they

The middle enlightenment is best represented between 1740 and 1763

The idea of perfectionism would find its apex during this period of the enlightenment and will frequent the works of philosophy into the future.
3

The establishment of the time being that of Absolutist rulers and the Catholic church.

thought reason and science would improve the lives of not just the aristocracy but of society as a whole. The second wave of Enlightenment thinking began in France with the Encyclopdistes.4 The premise of their enterprise was that there is a moral architecture to knowledge. Mixing personal comment with the attempt to codify knowledge, Denis Diderot and Jean le Rondd'Alembert sought liberation for the mind in the ability to grasp knowledge. The Enlightenment, from here after would be imbedded with two competing strains. One was characterized by an intense spirituality, and faith in religion and the church. In opposition to this, there was a growing streak of anti-clericalism which mocked the differences between the supposed ideals of the church, and the practice of priests. For Voltaire, Crush Infamy!" would be a battle cry for the ideal of a triumphant, rational society. By the mid-century, what was regarded by many as the pinnacle of purely Enlightenment thinking was being reached with Voltairewhose combination of wit, insight, and anger made him the most hailed man of letters since Erasmus. Born Franois Marie Arouet in 1694, he was exiled to England between 1726 and 1729, and there he studied Locke, Newton, and the English Monarchy. Voltaire's ethos was that "Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities"that if people believed in what is unreasonable, they will do what is unreasonable5.

The encyclopedistes are the collection of philosophers who banned together to contribute works in a collaborative effort with the purpose to pen down what was known at the time.
5

Questions sur les miracles (1765) Voltaire

This point is, perhaps, the central point of contention over the Enlightenment: whether the construction of reason and credibility creates, inherently, as many problems as it deals with. From the perspective of many crucial figures of the Enlightenment, credible reports, viewed through the lens of reason applied knowledge, empirical observation, and knowledge should be compiled into a source which stood as the authoritative one. The opposing view, which was held with increasing force by the Romantic Movement and its supporters, is that this process is inherently corrupted by social convention, and has truth which is unique, individual and not capable of being expressed. The Enlightenment balanced then, on the call for "natural" freedom which was good, without a "license" which would, in their view, degrade modern thought. Thus the Age of Enlightenment sought reform of the Monarchy by laws which were in the best interest of its subjects, and the "enlightened" ordering of society. The idea of enlightened ordering was reflected in the sciences by, for example, Carl Linnaeus' categorization of biology6.In mid-century Germany, the idea of philosophy as a critical discipline began with the work of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Johann Gottfried Herder. Both argued that formal unities that underlie language and structure hold deeper meaning than a surface reading, and that philosophy could be a tool for improving the virtue, political and personal, of the individual.7 This strain of thinking would influence Kant's critiques, as well as subsequent philosophers seeking an instrument to examine works, beliefs and social organization, and it is particularly notable in the history of later German philosophy. These ideas became dangerous when it reached the point where the idea that natural freedom was more self-

Systema Naturae (1758) Virtue is meant as being the individuals ability to reason coupled with moral consequence.

ordering than hierarchy, since hierarchy was the social reality. As that social reality repeatedly disappointed the fundamentally optimistic ideal that reform could end disasters, there became a progressively more strident naturalism which would, eventually, lead to the Romantic Movement. Thinkers of the middle wave of the EnlightenmentJean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant as well as Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and the young Johann Wolfgang von Goethe adopted the increasingly used biological metaphor of selforganization and evolutionary forces. This represented the impending end of the Enlightenment: which believed that nature, while basically good, was not basically self-ordering instead, it had to be ordered with reasoning and maturity. The impending Romantic view saw the universe as self-ordering, and that chaos was, in a real sense, the result of excesses of rational intrusion on an organic and natural world. Rousseau: In 1742 Rousseau went to Paris, where he earned his living as a music teacher, music copyist, and political secretary. He became a close friend of the French philosopher Denis Diderot, who commissioned him to write articles on music for the French Encyclopdie. JeanJacques Rousseau was deeply concerned with human sentiment and human intellect, but he generally opposed the critical and atheistic outlook of the philosophers and their belief in material progress. Rousseau believed in God, thought that human nature was inherently good but that society corrupted it, and preached a return to nature and to the simple rustic life. His treatise, (The Social Contract 1762,) helped provide a philosophical basis for the impending turmoil in

France. In this work he asserted the rights of equality and of individual liberty for all people and proposed a democratic8 means of government in which power would rest with the governed. In 1750 Rousseau won an award for his, (Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts, 1750), and in 1752 his opera Le Devin du village (The Village Sage) was first performed. In his prizewinning discourse and in his Discourse on the Origin and Foundation of Inequality among Mankind (1755), he proposed the view that science, art, and social institutions have corrupted humankind and that the natural, or primitive, state is morally superior to the civilized state9. The persuasive rhetoric of these writings provoked interestingly negative comments from the French philosopher Voltaire, who attacked Rousseaus views, and subsequently the two philosophers became bitter enemies. Rousseau left Paris in 1756 and secluded himself at Montmorency, where he wrote the romance The New Heloise (1761). In his famous political treatise The Social Contract (1762) he developed a case for civil liberty and helped prepare the ideological background of the French Revolution10 by defending the popular will against divine right. Rousseau, in his Social Contract (1762), accepted Hobbes's theory of a social contract. In the influential novel mile (1762) Rousseau expounded a new theory of education emphasizing the importance of expression rather than oppression to produce a well-balanced, freethinking child that was above the restraint of a feeble education system.

Rousseau fails to specify what form of democracy would best represent the sentiment of the people, He more argues for any representative government.
9

This thought can be seen as an example of naturalism that rang through Rousseaus writings

10

Rousseaus works would often be cited amidst the turmoil of, The Reign of Terror and during the events of, The French Revolution.

Although Rousseau contributed greatly to the movement in Western Europe for individual freedom and against the absolutism of church and state, his conception of the state as the embodiment of the will of the people and his arguments for strict enforcement of political and religious conformity are regarded as totalitarian11 ideology. Rousseaus theory of education led to more permissive and more child oriented methods of education. The New Heloise, (1761) introduced a new style of extreme emotional expression, concern with intense personal experience, and exploration of the conflicts between moral and sensual values. In these writings Rousseau influenced romanticism in literature and philosophy. He also affected the development of the psychological literature and philosophy of existentialism12, particularly in his insistence on free will, his rejection of the doctrine of original sin, and his defense of learning through experience rather than analysis. The spirit and ideas of Rousseaus work stand midway between the 18th-century Enlightenment, with its passionate defense of reason and individual rights, and early 19th-century romanticism13, which defended intense subjective experience against rational thought. Rousseau criticized civilization as a corruption of humanitys nature and developed Hobbess doctrine that the state is based on a social contract with its citizens and represents the

11

Totalitarianism is where the state, usually under the power of a single political person, faction, or class, recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible.
12

Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of philosophers since the 19th century who, despite large differences in their positions, generally focused on the condition of human existence, and an individual's emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts, or the meaning or purpose of life.
13

Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution.

popular will.14 Rousseau was also concerned with human sentiment and human intellect, but he generally opposed the critical and atheistic outlook of the philosophers and their belief in material progress. Rousseau believed in God, thought that human nature was inherently good but that society corrupted it, and preached a return to nature and to the simple rustic life. His treatise, (The Social Contract 1762) helped provide a philosophical mindset for the French Revolution. In this work he asserted the rights of equality and of individual liberty for all people and proposed a democratic means of government in which power would rest with the governed. The General Will was a term popularized by Jean Jacques Rousseau in (The Social Contract.1762) Rousseau defines the general will as the civic impulses of citizens seeking to pursue the common good within their community. (1762 The Social Contract) He contrasts the general will with the particular will of individuals seeking only their personal good. Rousseau argues that the general will of the people, not the individual will of a king or the particular wills of nobility or clergy, should produce the laws that govern that community. Malebranche insisted that,God acted through general laws that served the universal good of mankind.15 He denied that God would benefit individuals or communities through particular laws and actions. To Rousseau, the preference in politics towards achieving the general will that is, the common good over individual interestsis in part a secular version of this Christian ideal.

14

Hobbes,best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.
15

Treatise of Nature and Grace (1680)

In The Social Contract, Rousseau states that individuals in a democracy possess two wills, two competing ideologies as to how to act politically, socially, and morally. The particular will of individuals represents their selfish impulses. But according to Rousseau, individuals also possess a general will.16 They possess a public identity as citizens. The tension between these two impulses demonstrates the conflict between the particular and the general will of individuals. Rousseau envisioned a direct democracy where citizens would meet in public assemblies and pass laws reflecting the interests and goals of the community. In this sense, the function of government for Rousseau was not simply to protect the private rights of individuals; Rousseaus democratic theory amplified the obligation of citizens to create a moral community where the general good triumphs over the particular will and personal interests. He identified the general will with a public conception of freedom, in which participation in the common life of a community liberates citizens from the chains of a narrow, selfish individualism. Voltaire: In his 1734 publication (The Philosophical Letters,) Voltaire admired English customs and institutions while attacking their French counterparts. Voltaire is also known for his attacks on religion and is usually called a deist 17this belief is reflected in his masterpiece, the philosophical tale Candide (1759), which showcases the strife heaped upon the world in the name of religion. For some years Voltaire led a migratory existence, but he finally settled in 1758 and completed his most ambitious work, the (Essay on General History and on the Customs and the Character

16

The general will is a concept in political philosophy referring to the desire or interest of a people as a whole.

17

A Deist is someone who believes that God created the world and its natural laws but takes no part in its further functioning.

of Nations, 1756). In this work, a study of human progress, Voltaire decries supernaturalism18 and denounces religion and the power of the clergy, Although he makes evident his own belief in the existence of God. Essentially, he rejected everything irrational and incomprehensible and called upon his contemporaries to act against intolerance, tyranny, and superstition. His morality was founded on a belief in freedom of thought and respect for all individuals, and he maintained that literature should be useful and concerned with the problems of the day. These views made Voltaire a central figure in the 18th-century philosophical movement typified by the writers of the famous French Encyclopdie. Because he pleaded for a socially involved type of literature, this by itself resulted in a new genre in the literature field. Hume: David Hume, Scottish historian and philosopher, who influenced the development of skepticism and empiricism, two schools of philosophy. Hume occupied himself intensively with the problems of speculative philosophy and during this period wrote his most important philosophical work, A Treatise of Human Nature (1740), which embodies the essence of his thinking. In spite of its importance, Hume returned to his family estate; there he turned his attention to the problems of ethics and political economy and wrote Essays Moral and Political (2 volumes, 1741-42), which attained immediate success. His Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding (afterward entitled An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding)

18

Supernaturalism is anything above or beyond what one holds to be natural or exists outside natural law and the observable universe. Science limits its explanations for phenomena to natural explanations, a process known as methodological naturalism, and cannot consider supernatural explanations, as they cannot be investigated empirically.

appeared in 1748. This book, perhaps his best-known work, is in effect to consolidate the Treatise. Hume rejected the idea of causation, maintaining that reason can never show us the connection of one object with another. When the mind, therefore, passes from the idea or impression of one object to the idea or belief of another, it is not determined by reason, but by certain principles, which associate together the ideas of these objects and unite them in the imagination. (Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 1748) Hume's rejection of causation implies a rejection of scientific laws, which are based on the general premise that one event causes another and always will. According to Hume's philosophy, therefore, knowledge of matters of fact is impossible, although as a practical matter he freely acknowledged that people had to think in terms of cause and effect, and had to assume their perceptions, or they would go mad. He also admitted the possibility of knowledge of the relationships among ideas, such as the relationships of numbers in mathematics. Hume's skeptical approach also denied the existence both of the spiritual substance postulated by Berkeley and of Locke's material substance. Going further, Hume denied the existence of the individual self, maintaining that because people do not have a constant perception of themselves as distinct entities, they are nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions.19 In his ethical thinking, Hume held that the concept of right and wrong is not rational but arises from a regard for one's own happiness. The supreme moral good, according to his view, is benevolence, an unselfish regard for the general welfare of society that Hume regarded as consistent with individual happiness. As a historian Hume broke away from the traditional

19

Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 1748 Hume

account of wars and deeds of state and attempted to describe the economic and intellectual forces that played a part in the history of his country. His History of England20 was for many years regarded as a classic Franklin: Benjamin Franklin, whom David Hume called America's "first great man of letters," embodied the Enlightenment ideal of humane rationality. Practical yet idealistic, hard-working and enormously successful, Franklin recorded his early life in his famous Autobiography. Writer, printer, publisher, scientist, philanthropist, and diplomat, he was the most famous and respected private figure of his time. He was the first great self-made man in America, a poor democrat born in an aristocratic age that his fine example helped to liberalize. Franklin was a second-generation immigrant. His Puritan father, a chandler (candlemaker), came to Boston, Massachusetts, from England in 1683. In many ways Franklin's life illustrates the impact of the Enlightenment on a gifted individual. Self- educated but well-read in John Locke, Lord Shaftesbury, Joseph Addison, and other Enlightenment writers, Franklin learned from them to apply reason to his own life and to break with tradition -- in particular the old-fashioned Puritan tradition -- when it threatened to smother his ideals. While a youth, Franklin taught himself languages, read widely, and practiced writing for the public. When he moved from Boston to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Franklin already had the kind of education associated with the upper classes. He also had the Puritan capacity for hard, careful work, constant self- scrutiny, and the desire to better himself. These qualities steadily propelled him to

20

The History of England (Sometimes referred to as The History of Great Britain) (175462)

wealth, respectability, and honor. Franklin tried to help other ordinary people become successful by sharing his insights and discovering a characteristically American genre -- the self-help book. Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac, begun in 1732 and published for many years, made Franklin prosperous and well-known throughout the colonies. In this annual book of useful encouragement, advice, and factual information, amusing characters such as old Father Abraham and Poor Richard exhort the reader in pithy, memorable sayings. In "The Way to Wealth," which originally appeared in the Almanac, Father Abraham, "a plain clean old Man, with white Locks," quotes Poor Richard at length. "A Word to the Wise is enough," he says. "God helps them that help themselves." "Early to Bed, and early to rise, makes a Man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Poor Richard is a psychologist ("Industry pays Debts, while Despair increases them"), and he always counsels hard work ("Diligence is the Mother of Good Luck"). Do not be lazy, he advises, for "One To-day is worth two tomorrow." Sometimes he creates anecdotes to illustrate his points: "A little Neglect may breed great Mischief....For want of a Nail the Shoe was lost; for want of a Shoe the Horse was lost; and for want of a Horse the Rider was lost, being overtaken and slain by the Enemy, all for want of Care about a Horse-shoe Nail." Franklin was a genius at compressing a moral point: "What maintains one vice would bring up two Children." "A small leak will sink a great Ship." "Fools make Feasts, and wise Men eat them." Franklin's Autobiography is, in part, another self-help book. Written to advise his son, it covers only the early years. The most famous section describes his scientific scheme of selfimprovement. Franklin lists thirteen virtues: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility. He elaborates on each with a maxim; for example, the temperance maxim is "Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation." A pragmatic scientist, Franklin put the idea of perfectibility to the test,

using himself as the experimental subject. To establish good habits, Franklin invented a reusable calendar based record book in which he worked on one virtue each week, recording each success and failure. His theory is a case in point for psychological behaviorism, while his systematic method of notation is an example of behavior modification. The prospect of self-improvement blends the Enlightenment belief in perfectibility with the Puritan habit of moral self-scrutiny. Franklin saw early that writing could best advance his ideas, and he therefore deliberately perfected his supple prose style, not as an end in itself but as a tool. It is with this tool That Franklin would become the living embodiment and the quintessential American. Kant: Born in Knigsberg, Kant studied chiefly the classics, and at the university he studied physics and mathematics. Kant began lecturing first on science and mathematics, but gradually enlarging his field of concentration to cover almost all branches of philosophy. Although Kant's lectures and works written during this period established his reputation as an original philosopher, he did not receive a chair at the university until 1770, when he was made professor of logic and metaphysics. For the next 27 years he continued to teach and attracted large numbers of students to Knigsberg. Kant's unorthodox religious teachings, which were based on rationalism21 rather than revelation, brought him into the public sphere and made him the epitome of German idealism. Although the King of Prussia would disagree.22

21

rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.

22

Authors reference to disagreement between Kant and the King of Prussia, on the publishing of documents that hold anti religious sentiment.

The keystone of Kant's philosophy, sometimes called critical philosophy, is contained in his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), in which he examined the bases of human knowledge and created an individual epistemology. Like earlier philosophers, Kant differentiated modes of thinking into analytic and synthetic categories. An analytic proposition is one in which the predicate is contained in the subject, because truth is discovered by the analysis of the concept itself. Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, are those that cannot be arrived at by pure analysis. For Kant, all the common propositions that result from experience of the world are synthetic. Propositions, according to Kant, can also be divided into two other types: empirical and a priori. Empirical propositions depend entirely on sense perception, but a priori propositions have a fundamental validity and are not based on such perception. Kant's thesis in the Critique is that it is possible to make synthetic and priori judgments. This philosophical position is usually known as transcendentalism. Kant regarded the objects of the material world as fundamentally unknowable; from the point of view of reason, they serve merely as the raw material from which sensations are formed. Objects of themselves have no existence, and space and time exist only as part of the mind, as intuitions by which perceptions are measured and judged. In addition to these intuitions, Kant stated that a number of a priori concepts, which he called categories, also exist. The intuitions and the categories can be applied to make judgments about experiences and perceptions, but cannot, according to Kant, be applied to abstract ideas such as freedom and existence. Kants ethical system is based on a belief that the reason is the final authority for morality. Actions of any sort, he believed, must be undertaken from a sense of duty dictated by reason, and no action performed for or solely in obedience to law or custom can be regarded as

moral. Kant described two types of commands given by reason: the hypothetical imperative, 23 which dictates a given course of action to reach a specific end; and the categorical imperative,24 which dictates a course of action that must be followed because of its rightness and necessity. The categorical imperative is the basis of morality and was stated by Kant in these words: Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a general natural law. Kant's ethical ideas are a logical outcome of his belief in the fundamental freedom of the individual as stated in his Critique of Practical Reason (1788). This freedom he did not regard as the lawless freedom of anarchy, but rather as the freedom of self-government, the freedom to obey consciously the laws of the universe as revealed by reason. He believed that the welfare of each individual should properly be regarded as an end in itself and that the world was progressing toward an ideal society in which reason would bind every law giver to make his laws in such a way that they could have sprung from the united will of an entire people .Kant had a greater influence than any other philosopher of modern times. Kantian philosophy, particularly as developed by the German philosopher Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, was the basis on which the structure of Marxism was built; Hegel's dialectical method, which was used by Karl Marx, was an outgrowth of the method of reasoning by antinomies that Kant used. In addition to works on philosophy, Kant wrote a number of treatises on various scientific subjects, many in the field of

23 A hypothetical imperative, originally introduced in the philosophical writings of Immanuel Kant, is a commandment of reason that applies only conditionally:

24The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, as well as modern deontological ethics. Introduced in Kant's Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, it may be defined as a way of evaluating motivations for action.

physical geography. His most important scientific work was General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755), in which he advanced the hypothesis of the formation of the universe from a spinning nebula. A highly controversial and later to be proven thought from a man clearly ahead of his time. The central message of Enlightenment intellectuals was that unassisted human reason, not faith or tradition, was the principal guide to politics and all human conduct. Have courage to use your own reasonthat is the motto of Enlightenment, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote in 1784.To Enlightenment thinkers, everything, including political and religious authority, must be subject to a critique of reason if it were to command the respect of humanity. Particularly vulnerable were religious faith and superstition. Humanity was not innately corrupt, as Catholicism taught, nor was the good life found only in a blissful state of otherworldly salvation. Pleasure and happiness were worthy ends of life and could be realized in this world. The natural universe was not governed by the miraculous whimsy of a supernatural God. Rather, it was ruled by rational scientific laws, which were accessible to human beings through the scientific method of experiment and observation. This is an imperative for the concept of secular thought juxtaposed with liberty. Science and technology were the engines of progress, enabling modern people to force nature to serve their well-being and increase their happiness. Science and the conquest of superstition and ignorance provided a vehicle to endlessly improve and reform the human condition, to progress toward a future that was perfection. The Enlightenment elevated the individual and the moral legitimacy of self-interest. It aimed to free the individual from all kinds of external corporate or communal limitations. Further, it sought to reform the political, moral, intellectual, and economic worlds to serve individual interests. Voltaire, ore than anyone else,

symbolized the war against the evils, But virtually all Enlightenment theorists followed the lead of Lockes famous Letter on Toleration (1689) in demanding freedom of religion. They argued that if religion were removed from public life and public authority, it would be reserved for the private sphere of individual preference and individual practice. Public matters in a commercial society concerned markets and property, not the saving of souls. Voltaire approvingly described the Royal Exchange in London as the place where the Jew, the Mahometan, and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts.25 Faith in progress required that the aristocratic, feudal past be viewed critically, and once again Voltaire guided the Enlightenment. History, he wrote, in 1754, is little else than a long succession of useless cruelties and a collection of crimes, follies, and misfortunes. The central message of Enlightenment intellectuals was that unassisted human reason, not faith or tradition, was the principal guide to politics and all human conduct. Have courage to use your own reasonthat is the motto of Enlightenment, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote in 1784. That would prove as not only the watchword for thinkers of the enlightenment, but also as a warning to future thinkers. Reason would be the measuring stick to every theory after Kant and typifies the enlightenments purpose that is skepticism and freedom.

25

Letters on the English ( 1778) Voltaire

Works Cited Broad, Charlie Dunbar. Ethics and the History of Philosophy: Selected Essays. London: Routledge, 2001. Print. Daiches, David, Peter Jones, and Jean Jones. The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730-1790: a Hotbed of Genius. Edinburgh: Saltire Society, 1996. Print. Franklin, Benjamin, and Benjamin Franklin. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin including Poor Richard's Almanac, and Familiar Letters. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2005. Print. Hartnack, Justus. Immanuel Kant; an Explanation of His Theory of Knowledge and Moral Philosophy. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1974. Print. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathon. Tokyo: Kawade Shobo, 1967. Print. Kant, Immanuel, Paul Guyer, and Allen W. Wood. Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. Print. asters, Roger ., stria rard. olonna, and ean-Pierre Guillot. La Philosophie Politique De

Rousseau. Lyon: ENS Editions, 2002. Print. Moseley, Alexander. John Locke. London: Continuum, 2007. Print. Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995. Print. Robinson, Dave, and Judy Groves. Introducing Political Philosophy. Cambridge: Icon, 2003. Print. Rosen, F. Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. London: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, and Barbara Foxley. Emile. London: Dent, 1974. Print. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, and Roger D. Masters. On the Social Contract: with Geneva Manuscript and Polit. Economy. New York: St. Martin's Pr., 1978. Print. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Roger D. Masters, and Judith R. Masters. The First and Second Discourses. New York: St. Martin's, 1964. Print. Rousseau, ean- acques, hilip tewart, and ean ach . Julie, Or, The New Heloise: Letters of Two Lovers Who Live in a Small Town at the Foot of the Alps. Hanover: Dartmouth College, 1997. Print. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract. New York: Penguin, 2006. Print. Viroli, Maurizio, and Derek Hanson. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and 'the Well-ordered Society' Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. Print. Voltaire, and Nicholas Cronk. Letters concerning the English Nation. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. Print. Voltaire. Candide. New York: Dover Publications, 1991. Print. Wood, Allen W. Kant's Ethical Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1999. Print.