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UNIT 2 HVDC 57

Unit 2 Notes
__________________
__________________
HVDC __________________
__________________
__________________
Objectives __________________
After studying this unit you should be able to: __________________

y Understand the operation of HVDC systems __________________

__________________
y Know the Technical advantages of HVDC systems over EHV
systems __________________

HVDC
The first commercially used HVDC link (20 MW, 100 kV) in
the world was built in 1954 between the mainland of Sweden
and the island of Gotland. Since then the technique of power
transmission by HVDC has been continuously developed. In
1970 thyristor valves replaced the valves based on mercury-
arc technique. To date the biggest HVDC transmission is
ITAIPU in Brazil (two bipoles, 630 MW and 300 kV). DC
transmission is an effective means to improve system
performance. It is mainly used to compliment AC systems
rather than to displace these. In India, the first HVDC line
is Rihand-Delhi (500 kV, 800 MW). Global HVDC
transmission capacity has increased from 20 MW in 1954 to
17.9 GW in 1984.

The largest device rating is now in the range of 5 kV, 3 kA.

The highest transmission voltage reached is 600 kV. Now
the growth of DC transmission has reached an average of
2500 MW/year.

Principles of AC/DC Conversion

HVDC transmission consists of two converter stations which
are connected to each other by a DC cable or an overhead
DC line. Atypical arrangement of main components of an
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Notes HVDC transmission is shown in Figure 2.1. Two series

__________________ connected 6-pulse converters (12-pulse bridge) consisting of
__________________ valves and converter transformers are used. The valves
__________________ convert AC to DC, and the transformers provide a suitable
__________________
voltage ratio to achieve the desired direct voltage and
galvanic separation of the AC and DC systems. A smoothing
__________________
reactor in the DC circuit reduces the harmonic currents in
__________________
the DC line, and possible transient over-currents. Filters are
__________________
used to take care of harmonics generated at the conversion.
__________________ Thus, we see that in an HVDC transmission, power is taken
__________________ from one point in an AC work, where it is converted to DC in
__________________ a converter station (rectifier), transmitted to another
converter station (inverter) via line or a cable and injected
into an AC system. By varying the firing angle (a point on
the voltage wave when the gating pulse is applied and
conduction starts) the DC output voltage can be controlled
between two limits, +ve and -ve.

Figure 2.1: Main component of a HVDC transmission- A

typical arrangement

Harmonics
The AC/DC converter is a source of harmonics on AC as well
as DC sides. In order to reduce harmful effects of harmonics
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UNIT 2 HVDC 59
on the AC side, shunt filters are installed. At fundamental Notes
frequency, the filters act as shunt capacitors supplying __________________
reactive power to the converter. A smoothing reactor is __________________
installed to limit harmonics on the DC side. __________________
__________________
Reactive Power Demand
__________________
The requirement of reactive power at converter stations is __________________
due to __________________

1. The control of HVDC converter which introduces a phase __________________

shift between the fundamentals of AC current and __________________
voltage, and __________________

2. The commutation process, in which the DC current is

commutated from one valve to another, and which
introduces further phase shift.

In addition to reactive power consumption by converters,

converter transformers also consume reactive power.
Considering normal values of a (rectifier) or y (inverter), the
reactive power demand usually is in the range of 50-60% of
the transmitted active power. This figure is for each converter
station.

The reactive power may be supplied from:

1. AC filters

2. Shunt capacitors (least costly)

3. Excessive reactive power from AC network

4. Static compensators (SVS) (for fast voltage regulation),

and

5. Synchronous condensers (if AC network is weak).

While choosing reactive power generation equipment one

must consider both economic and technical aspects.

Principles of HVDC Control

One of the most important aspects of HVDC systems is its
fast and stable controllability. In DC transmission, the
transmitted power is proportional only to the difference in
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Notes terminal DC voltage between the two ends, and hence the
__________________ transmitted power can be rapidly controlled by changing the
__________________ DC voltages. The current in the system can only flow in one
__________________ direction (Figure 2.2) for a given setting. Power is
__________________
transported from rectifier to inverter and by altering the
voltages, the power flow direction is reversed.
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Figure 2.2: Current flow in one direction in the system for a

given setting

In an HVDC transmission, one of the converter stations,

generally the inverter station is so controlled that the direct
voltage of the system is fixed and has a rigid relation to the
voltage on the AC side. The other terminal station (rectifier)
adjusts the direct voltage on its terminal so the current is
controlled to the desired transmitted power.

In Figure 2.2,

Vd 1 − Vd 2
Id = (L-1)
R
Where R is the resistance of link and includes loop
transmission resistance (if any), and resistance of smoothing
reactors and converter valves. The power received is
therefore given as

 V −V 
P =  d 1 d 2  Vd 2 = I dVd 2 (L-2)
 R 
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UNIT 2 HVDC 61
The rectifier and inverter voltages are given by Notes
__________________
__________________
3 2Vlr 3X 
Vd 1 = n  cos α − cr I d  ( L − 3)
π π  __________________
  __________________
3 2Vli 3X  __________________
Vd 2 = n  cos γ − ci I d  ( L − 4)
π π 
  __________________
__________________
__________________
where n = number of series connected bridges
__________________
Vlr , Vli = line to line AC voltages at the rectifier and inverter __________________
bridges, respectively

Xcr , Xci = commutation reactance at the rectifier and inverter,

respectively

From Eq.(L-2) it is clear that the DC power per pole is

controlled by relative control of DC terminal voltages, Vd1
and Vd2. Control on DC voltage is exercised by the converter
control angles a and l as given by Eqs (L-3) and (L-4). Normal
operating range of control angles is:

α min = 50 , α max = (15 ± 3)0 , γ min = 150

The prime considerations in HVDC transmission are to

minimize reactive power at the terminals and to reduce the
system losses. For this DC voltage should be as high as
possible and a should be as low as possible.

Economic Considerations
AC vs. DC
The advantage of AC for distributing (possession of controlling
influence) power over a distance is due to the fact that power
is given by the rate at which energy is drawn from a source
that produces a flow of electricity in a circuit (expressed in
volts) voltage × (A steady flow (usually from natural causes))
current (P = VI). For a given power, a low voltage requires a
higher current and a higher voltage requires a lower current.
However, since metal conducting wires have a certain (group
action in opposition to those in power) resistance, some
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Notes power will be wasted as heat in the wires. This power is

__________________ given by P = I2R, or by P = V2/R (where V is the voltage drop
__________________ along the wire, not the overall voltage). As such, low-voltage,
__________________ high-current transmissions will suffer a much greater power
__________________ loss than high-voltage, low-current ones, even though the
__________________ overall transmitted power is the same. This holds whether
DC or AC is used. However, it was very difficult to transform
__________________
DC power to a high-voltage, low-current form efficiently,
__________________
whereas with AC this can be done with a simple and efficient
__________________
transformer. This was the key to the success of the AC
__________________
system. Modern distribution grids often use AC in the
__________________ 5,00,000 volt range.

This has begun to change in recent decades with the rise of

DC bulk power transmission systems. The mercury arc valve
and later power semiconductors such as silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCRs) finally made it possible to build efficient,
high power voltage converters using and producing either
AC or DC. With this technology, high voltage DC power
transmission can provide several advantages over AC,
especially over very long distances or through undersea
cables. However, since AC is the standard for power
distribution to customers, the power from a DC transmission
line is always converted back to AC.

The Advantage of HV Systems

Early electric power distribution schemes used direct-

current generators located near the customer's loads. As
electric power use became more widespread, the distances
between loads and generating plant increased. Since the flow
of current through the distribution wires resulted in a voltage
drop, it became difficult to regulate the voltage at the
extremities of distribution circuits.

When transmitting a given quantity of power, higher voltages

reduce the transmission loss or reduce the cost of conductors,
since a smaller current is required. Conductor cost is roughly
proportional to the current carried, and conductor loss is
roughly proportional to the square of the current, so higher
transmission voltages improve the efficiency of transmission.
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Notes
However, low voltage is convenient for utilization equipment
__________________
such as lamps and motors. The principal advantage of AC is
__________________
the use of transformers to change the voltage at which power
__________________
is used. No equivalent of the transformer exists for direct
__________________
current, so the manipulation of DC voltages is considerably
__________________
more complex. With the development of efficient AC
__________________
machines, such as induction motors, AC transmission and
__________________
utilization became the norm.
__________________

Technical Explanation __________________

__________________
Consider an AC line and a DC line employing the same
number of conductors and insulators. Let us compare the
power per conductor on the two lines. If in each case the
current is limited by temperature rise, the direct current
equals the rms alternating current, assuming that insulators
withstand the same peak voltage to ground in each case. Then
the direct voltage is 1.414 times the rms AC voltage

the DC power per conductor is

and the AC power per conductor is

where Idc and Iac are the currents per conductor, Vdc and Vac
the conductor to ground voltages, and cosq the power factor.
Now

taking
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Notes Now compare a three phase, three conductor AC line with a

__________________ bipolar two conductor DC line. The Power capabilities of the
__________________ respective circuits are
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________ Both lines carry the same power. The DC line, however, is
__________________ simpler and cheaper, having two conductors instead of three.
__________________ Further, an overhead line requires only 2/3 as many insulators
and the towers are simpler, cheaper and narrower. A
__________________
narrower right of way would be required. Both lines have
the same power loss per conductor. The percentage loss of
the DC line is only two thirds that of AC line. If cables are
used instead of line, the permissible working stress (voltage
per unit thickness of insulation) is higher for DC than for
AC and further, the power factor for DC is unity and for AC,
considerably lower than that used above. Both changes
further favour DC as compared to AC by increasing the ratio
of DC power to AC power per conductor. The resulting ratio
may be between 5 and 10. Since the power limit of an
overhead AC line is normally fixed by factors other than
conductor heating, the ratio of DC power per conductor to
AC power per conductor may be as high as 4.

HVDC Applications
The following modes of implanting a DC link in a predominant
AC system may be used:

1. Interconnection of systems of the same frequency

through a zero length DC link (back to back connection):

This does not require any DC transmission line and AC lines

terminate on the rectifier and inverter which are connected
back to back (Figure 2.3). A typical example is the E-el river
scheme in Canada connecting the Quebec hydro system with
that of New Brunswick. This helps in interconnecting two
AC systems without increasing their fault levels. In India a
400 kV, 500 MW Singrauli to Vindhyachal back to back link
is being commissioned at Vindhyachal (the breakeven
distance concept is meaningless for such schemes).
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UNIT 2 HVDC 65
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Figure 2.3: Back to Back connection

2. HVDC links are used to evacuate power from the remote

super power stations to the load centers situated several
hundred kilometers away. If there are faults in the AC
network, this will not trip the units at the power station
since the asynchronous DC link insulates the power
station from the AC system.

3. Interconnection between power systems or pools: For

smooth interchange of power between neighboring grids
irrespective of voltage and frequency fluctuations, such
links ensure retention of the tie under the most stringent
conditions of the constituent grids.

4. High power underground (submarine) distribution

system feeders: Here it is found that DC may be cheaper
at distances greater than approximately 50 km with a
power level of 1000-2000 MW. With AC we need forced
cooling due to the higher amount of heat produced. Also
there are increased dielectric losses at EHV AC.

5. Stabilizing AC system by modulating DC power flow.

Transmission Modes
Monopolar The line has one energized conductor with the
return path through the earth (Figure 2.4). It may be noted
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Notes that the earth has a much lower resistance to DC as compared

__________________ to AC. Such a line is called monopolar.
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Figure 2.4: Monopoloar line

Bipolar A bipolar transmission gives two circuits which are

almost independent of each other. Bipolar mode (Figure 2.5)
has one conductor at a positive potential with respect to
ground and a second conductor operating at negative
potential of the same magnitude (e.g. 650 kV). A bipolar line
can be operated as a monopolar line in an emergency. In some
applications continuous current through earth is not
permitted and a bipolar arrangement is the natural solution.
Homopolar lines have two or more conductors having the
same polarity, normally negative as the corona loss and radio
interference are reduced and they always operate with
ground as the return.

Since the power limit of AC lines is often fixed by factors

other than conductor heating, the ratio of DC power per
conductor to AC power may be as high as 4. A two-conductor
DC line is more reliable than a three-conductor AC line,
because in the event of a fault on one conductor, the
other conductor can continue to operate with ground return
during the fault period. The same cannot be done with the
AC line.
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Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 2.5: Bipolar lines

However, the cost of terminal equipment is much more in

case of DC (converting stations) than in case of AC
(transformer substations). If we plot the variation of cost of
power as a function of transmission distance, it will be as
shown in Figure 2.6. The slope gives cost per unit length of
the line and other accessories. The point of intersection P is
called a breakeven point which shows that, if the
transmission distance is more than OP then it is preferable
to use DC; otherwise AC should be used.

There is hardly any scope to reduce the cost of AC terminal

equipment.

Figure 2.6: Breakeven analysis

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Notes But a lot of progress has been made in the development of

__________________ converting devices and the breakeven distances are reducing
__________________ with further development of these devices.
__________________
Present day breakeven distance in favour of DC transmission
__________________ is 700 km for overhead lines. However, the breakeven
__________________ distance varies with each individual project and should
__________________ always be checked. The difference in installation costs
__________________ between AC and DC submarine or underground cables is
__________________ several times as high as the corresponding difference in
__________________
overhead line costs. This means that the breakeven distance
for a cable transmission is much shorter and is of the order
__________________
of 30-50 km.

Advantages of HVDC Systems

The advantages of the HVDC systems are as under:

1. These systems are economical for long distance bulk

power transmission by overhead lines.

2. There is greater power per conductor and simpler line

construction. .

3. Ground return is possible.

4. There is no charging current and skin effect.

5. The voltage regulation problem is much less serious for

DC, since only the IR drop is involved (IX=0). For the
same reason steady state stability is no longer a major
problem.

6. There is easy reversibility and controllability of power

at DC link. Flow through.

7. The DC line is an asynchronous or flexible link

(resynchronization is not required )and it can
interconnect two rigid systems operating at different
frequencies.

8. For a single DC line between two converter stations,

circuit breakers are unnecessary since control of the
converters can be used to block current flow during
faulty conditions.
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UNIT 2 HVDC 69
9. Each conductor can be operated as an independent Notes
circuit. __________________
__________________
10. Smaller amount of right way is required. The distance
__________________
between two outside-conductors of a 400 kV AC line is
normally 20 m, whereas the same between a __________________

corresponding DC lines is roughly half. __________________

__________________
11. There is considerable insulation economy. The peak
__________________
voltage of the 400 kV AC line is V2x 400 - 564 kV. So the
__________________
AC line requires more insulation between the tower and
conductors as well as greater clearance above the earth __________________

as compared to corresponding 400 HVDC. __________________

12. There is no technical limit to the distance over which

power may be transmitted by lines or cables because of
the absence of both charging current and stability
limitations.

13. Line losses are smaller.

14. It is possible to bring more power into an AC system via

a DC link without raising the fault level and circuit
breaker ratings.

15. No reactive compensation of DC lines is required.

16. Corona loss and radio interference are less as compared

to AC.

17. HVAC line and HVDC link can be used in parallel as an

AC-DC system.

18. The contribution of HVDC link to SCC of AC system is

considerably less as compared to that of an alternative
AC link.

19. DC cables can be worked at higher voltage gradient.

20. Low SC current is required on DC line.

Disadvantages of HVDC Systems

1. The systems are costly since installation of complicated
converters and DC switchgear is expensive.

2. Converters require considerable reactive power.

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Notes 3. Harmonics are generated which require filters.

__________________
4. Converters do not have overload capability.
__________________
__________________ 5. Lack of HVDC circuit breakers hampers multi terminal
__________________ or network operation. There is no DC device which can
__________________
perform excellent switching operations and ensure
protection. (Simultaneous control at all converters is
__________________
difficult).
__________________
__________________ 6. There is nothing like DC transformer which can change
__________________ the voltage level in a simple way. Voltage
__________________
transformation has to be provided on the AC sides of
the system.

7. Reactive power required by the load is to be supplied

locally as no reactive power can be transmitted over a
DC link.

8. Contamination of insulators in polluted areas or along

the sea coast. Pollution affects DC more than AC. More
frequent cleaning of insulators is required.

Future Trends
Considerable research and development work is under way
to provide a better understanding of the performance of
HVDC links to achieve more efficient and economic designs
of the thyristor valves and related equipment and to justify
the use of alternative AC/DC system configurations.

Future power systems would include a transmission mix of

AC and DC. Future controllers would be more and more
microprocessor based which can be modified or upgraded
without requiring hardware changes, and without bringing
the entire system down. While one controller is in action
the duplicate controller is there as a “hot standby” in case of
a sudden need. In the near future, it is expected that fibre
optic system would be used to generate firing signal and the
direct light fired thyristors would be employed for HVDC
converters. Availability of 100 mm thyristors has eliminated
the need of paralleling thyristors as these can handle currents
of the order of 4 kA. Although presently HVDC schemes
operate perfectly well without the assistance of DC circuit
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UNIT 2 HVDC 71
breakers, it is clear that the prospective extension from point Notes
to point to other DC power system configurations can gain __________________
versatility and operational flexibility with the use of DC __________________
circuit breakers. The lack of current zero presents a difficult __________________
problem to the opening of DC. It is by now clear that HVDC __________________
transmission is already a reliable, efficient and cost-effective
__________________
alternative to HVAC for many applications. [PSE, Nagrath
__________________
& Kothari]
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________