What social and behavioural factors influence the development and sustenance of "suicidal" terrorism?

What are the challenges in responding to it?

Suicidal terrorism has, by most accounts; been increasing exponentially since around the 1980's. "The rate of suicide operations has climbed from an average of three attacks per year in the early 1980s, to tens in the 2 1990's to more than 650 in 2007". This essay tries to answer the question - why? How can we respond? To open, we must note both 'suicidal' and 'terrorism' are terms that have a host of connotations and implications that can be controversial. The religious aspect of the phenomenon in many cases mean make the 'suicidal' aspect problematic. For instance in the Quran chapter: 4 verse: 29 " Destroy not yourselves, surely Allah is ever merciful to you"; punishment is said to await those who ignore the scripture. The follower of Islam uses instead 'Fedayeen' or 'Shahid'; terms that consider the action a form of 'martyrdom'. Martydom in Islam can be loosely defined as self sacrifice to further Jihad; this notion is held in a very positive light and although paradises pleasures are controversial with those who study the text the hedonistic promises of those that incite violence is crucial to understanding the religious aspect to the phenomenon. Further there is major controversy surrounding the term 'terrorism' itself, in this context; do self immolating monks in Tibet 3 constitute "terrorists in disguise" as supposed by the Chinese foreign ministry? This essay will suppose not as it lacks the externally violent dimension of the essays definition; that of "the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a Government, the civilian population, or any segment 4 thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives." The first theory to be taken on is that through profiling these terrorists we find a young impoverished 'lower 5 class' male from a family with known extremist sympathies. In fact this idea has been resoundingly 6 disproved. Time and again studies provide evidence akin to Hassan's study of 250 'aspiring' Palestinian suicide bombers that "None were uneducated, desperately poor, simple-minded, or depressed... They all seemed to 7 be entirely normal members of their families". Indeed the stereotypical irrationality and perhaps even mental instability of the terrorist is now being bought into question. Zacarias Moussaoui; the intended replacement 8 for the '20th hijacker' in the 9/11 attacks was deemed too unstable to carry out the attacks. However, whilst prejudice have been effectively undermined that which has been put in its place is rather less clear; "they 9 [suicide terrorists] come from a broad cross section of lifestyles" with " little evidence to date that those 10 who...volunteer for suicide missions have a consistently identifiable personality type". It is therefore very difficult to make generalized assertions on the behavioural characteristics of those that practice suicidal terror

As highlighted in a lecture by Thomson, Andy. On Suicide Terrorism. Hosted by: The Richard Dawkins Foundation. AAI 2007 conference. Washington D.C. http://richarddawkins.net/. 2007. Accessed 09.02.2012. 2 Skeffington, Jennifer. Social Psychological Motivations of Suicide Terrorism: A Community Level Perspective. http://harvard.academia.edu/JenniferSheehySkeffington/Papers/113323/Social_psychological_motivations_of_suicide_ter rorism_A_community_level_perspective. 2009. Accessed 10.02.1012. 3 Branigan, Tania. Dalai Lama's prayers for Tibetans 'terrorism in disguise'. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/oct/19/dalai-lama-prayers-tibetans-terrorism. 2011. Accessed: 13.02.2012. 4 Quoted in: Counter-terrorism Threat Assessment and Warning Unit. Terrorism in the United States. No 0308. Washington: U.S. Department of State. 2002. p 3. 5 Merari (1990) and Post (1990) in: Pape, Robert. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. The American Political Science Review. Vol 97. No 3. 2003. p 344 6 See: Merari , A. quoted in: Skeffington, Jennifer. Op Cit. 7 Hassan quoted in: Atran Scott. Who Wants to Be a Martyr? The New York Times. http://www.artisresearch.com/articles/Atran_Who_Wants_to_Be_a_Martyr_.pdf. 2003.Accessed 11.02.2011. 8 Thomson, Andy. On Suicide Terrorism. Hosted by: The Richard Dawkins Foundation. AAI 2007 conference. Washington D.C. http://richarddawkins.net/. 2007. Accessed 09.02.2012. 9 Pape, Robert. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. The American Political Science Review. Vol 97. No 3. 2003. p 344 10 quoted in: Skeffington, Jennifer. Op Cit.

without taking context into account. To contextualize the phenomenon then we must consider its social impetus. Socialisation is a term that effectively contextualises the individual; perceiving them as a product of external (social) influences. This essay will therefore consider the development and sustenance of suicidal terror in a few key areas that have been emphasised as crucial to creating the social conditions necessary for suicide terrorism to thrive. Firstly: religion and the extent to which it is central to understanding this phenomenon, secondly considering the importance of socio-political grievances (and/or alienation) and finally looking specifically at the cultural portrayal of martyrdom in relevant geographical locations. Finally the essay will argue that the development and sustenance of suicide terror is largely due to the perceived effectiveness of the method and thus the pragmatism of the multitude of terrorist groups that employ it. The extent to which religion plays a crucial role in motivating and therefore sustaining suicide terror is deeply contested. It is apparent that many religious terrorist groups do seemingly hold their religiosity as a motivation for terror; the widespread use of the conception of martyrdom for Jihad, attests to this in numerous Fatwa's (most notably by bin Laden in 1996 and 1998). Professor Scott Atran's study found that between 2000 and 2003 "at least 70% of attacks were religiously motivated.. with more than 100 of these by 11 Al Qaeda or its affiliates". However Jihad and indeed most religious motivation for terror should be 12 understood as originating in the defensive struggle. This makes the notion at essence a legitimization (as well as a duty) of struggle caused by socio-political grievance. The very title of the bin Laden's 1996 fatwa attests to 13 this "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places" . The role of religion then should be seen as a catalyst; "an ideological vehicle.... to mobilise and justify violent action, 14 rather than as the primary motivating factor". However the two aspects; the political and the religious, especially in Islam; should not be thought of as objectively distinct entities. Al Qaeda's broadly stated objectives of the creation of the global caliphate and jihad against western (American) invaders (both in the sense of battling corrupting Jahiliyyah and their physical presence) can be seen to merge the two motivations. Religion then is key as a driving force, a motivating, legitimating and sanctifying catalyst; but further, extreme fundamentalism is able to break down the boundaries of the political and merge the religious with the political creating a irresistible motivation for and thus sustenance of suicidal terror. However, as we have previously alluded to; Religion is not inherent to the phenomenon ."The Tamil Tigers (a 15 largely secular group with Marxist/Leninist elements ) are notorious for their suicide attacks, and the LTTE has 16 carried out at least five times more such attacks than other similar organisations put together." Here we turn to the importance of our second key area; that of socio-political grievance or socio-political alienation. To understand this motivation we should consider the stated motivations of some key proponents of this terrorist 17 technique; Hamas, although in 2006 renouncing its preferred method of suicide terror " was founded to liberate Palestine from Israeli occupation and to establish an Islamic state in the area that is now Israel, the 18 West Bank, and the Gaza Strip." Other groups that use suicide terror (since the 1980's) to achieve political (almost always nationalist) goals include: Kurdish Workers Party (PKK's); fighting for Kurdish independence since 1984 (although recently watering down their demands), Chechen terrorists undertaking a coordinated campaign since the breakup of the Soviet Union, Tamil Tigers; fighting for an independent state for the Tamil people. Then we can see the Palestine Islamic Jihad, the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade, Hezbollah, Hamas and
11 12

Atran, Scott. Quoted in: Jihad. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml. 2009. Accessed 11.02.2012. 13 Bin Laden's Fatwa. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html. 1996. Accessed: 13.02.2012. 14 Skeffington, Jennifer. Op Cit. 15 Pape, Robert. Op Cit. p 343. 16 Is the motivation for the suicide bombings of the Tamil Tigers religious or political? http://www.src.ox.ac.uk/Researcher%20bio%20and%20pubs/Tamil.pdf. Accessed: 12.02.2012. 17 Urquhart, Conal. Hamas in call to end suicide bombings. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/apr/09/israel. 2006. Accessed 12.02.2012. 18 The Hamas Charter (1988). http://www.terrorism-info.org.il/malam_multimedia/English/eng_n/pdf/hamas_charter.pdf. 2006. Accessed 12.02.2012.

others; all fighting against the Israeli occupation. Indeed; "Every suicide terrorist campaign from 1980 to 2001 has been waged by terrorist groups whose main goal has been to establish or maintain self-determination for 19 their communities homeland by compelling an enemy to withdraw." Political grievance or social alienation then is the mainstay of terrorist motivation; terrorism is ultimately a political act occurring out of the real or apparent disenfranchisement and/or oppression of a community. The final factor looks specifically at the cultural portrayal of martyrdom within the territory. This factor is crucial and can be seen directly in Palestine. "The idea of martyrdom in particular has come to be a metonymy for the Palestinian nation, superseding its superficial religious connotations and posthumously affirming the 20 martyr's national identity in a secular context". This idolization of the martyr can be seen clearly in the propagation and dissemination of martyrs posters, pictures, internet sites, videos and biographies to a greater 21 22 or lesser extent in Iraq , Chechnya and indeed in most areas in which the method is regularly employed. In commemoration of a martyrs birthday local Mosques hold audiences with speeches such as; "They are the 23 martyrs, they are life, they are hope, they are the path to Victory" . Children as young as 11 can be seen 24 praising the joys of martyrdom in Palestine. Polls indicate that "70 to 80 percent of Palestinians now support 25 26 (suicide bombing). In Sri Lanka the mother of a martyred Tamil Tigris say's "I am happy... proud". "In an

analysis of the profiles of suicide bombers who have struck in Punjab, the Punjab police said more than two-thirds had attended madrasas."27 Madrassas in Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and elsewhere are often
thought to be "recruitment grounds".
28

"When a martyr embarks upon martyrdom, he thinks of nothing but his homeland... The mother in our Arab and Islamic history has always sacrificed her children and prepared them for martyrdom. This is rooted in our 29 religion, our culture in our values, and our upbringing." This essay then argues that radicalisation is an extremely long process, coming as a result of the socialization of the individual and this is reflected in the methods of terrorist groups. Speckhard distinguishes between trauma based motivations for suicide terror; those within areas of socio-political conflict and secondary motivations; 30 "secondary traumatisation" through media outlets. Indeed Al Qaeda; with its necessarily transnational (and 31 thus inter-cultural) recruitment "thought to operate in 40 to 50 countries" is said to employ "Intense indoctrination, often lasting 18 months or more, (that) causes recruits to identify emotionally with their terrorist cell, viewing it as a family for whom they are as willing to die as a mother for her child or a soldier for 32 his buddies". Whilst considering the 'recruitment'; groups such as Hamas and Hezbollah (in Palestine and
19 20

Pape, Robert. Op Cit. p 344. Fer, Kristo. Inventing the Martyr: Martyrdom as Palestinian National Signifier. http://gccuny.academia.edu/kpetersenoverton/Papers/253796/Inventing_the_Martyr_Martyrdom_as_Palestinian_National_Signifi er. 2010. Accessed 11.02.2012. 21 Hafez, Mohammed. Martyrdom Mythology in Iraq: How Jihadists Frame Suicide Terrorism in Videos and Biographies. http://web.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/martyrdom%20mythology%20in%20iraq.pdf. 2007. Accessed 13.02.2012. 22 "Chechen Jihad" websites as discussed in: Winters, Jonah. Martyrdom in Jihad. http://bahailibrary.com/winters_martyrdom_jihad. 1997. Accessed 13.02.2012. 23 The Cult of the Suicide Bomber. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7v1C0VUhyA. 2006. Accessed: 12.02.2012. 24 11-year-old Palestinians. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8dPb1bF-s4M. 2007. Accessed. 13.02.2012. 25 Brooks, David. The Culture of Martyrdom. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/06/the-culture-ofmartyrdom/2506/. 2002. Accessed 13.02.2012. 26 Suicide bombers in Sri Lanka. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ydYiYISGVY&feature=relmfu. 2007. Accessed: 12.02.2012. 27 Madrasas in Punjab and the recruitment of suicide bombers. http://sciencereligionnews.blogspot.com/2009/05/madrasas-in-punjab-and-recruitment-of.html. 2009 Accessed 13.02.2012. 28 Warren, Nicole. Madrassa Education in Pakistan: Assisting the Talibans Resurgence. http://escholar.salve.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=pell_theses. Accessed: 13.02.2012. 29 Martyrdom and Arab Women. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AO8eLID_pVw. 2006. Accessed: 12.02.2012. 30 Speckhard, Anne. Suicide Terrorism - Genesis of. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. p 2. 31 Al-Qaeda's origins and links. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/1670089.stm. 2004. Accessed: 12.02.2012. 32 Stewart, Todd quoted in: Atran Scott. Who Wants to Be a Martyr? The New York Times. http://www.artisresearch.com/articles/Atran_Who_Wants_to_Be_a_Martyr_.pdf. 2003.Accessed 11.02.2011.

Lebanon; areas likely to induce 'trauma based' motivations) "suicide terrorists are normally walk in volunteers... not long term members (with the terrorist group or organisation) joining a few months or weeks 33 before their attack itself". The sustenance of suicidal terror is through the radicalisation of the individual; the methods employed by terrorist organisations vary but the outcome does not. We now move onto the suicide terror as a pragmatic and very effective tool. To premise the argument we 34 should see that "Terrorism has often been an effective tactic for the weaker side in a conflict" - terrorists are disenfranchised by their very nature. "Groups using suicide terrorism consistently announce specific political 35 goals and stop suicide attacks when those goals have been fully or partially achieved." Indeed this method of terror should be seen to have largely developed out of its successes; "Suicide terrorism ... was perceived to be the main factor forcing the US and French military to leave Lebanon in 1983, Israel to leave Lebanon in 2000, 36 and Turkey to grant the Kurds some autonomy in the late 1990's" as well derailing the Oslo peace accords in 37 the mid 1990's . Groups then were falling over themselves to be seen as the most radical with Hamas and the 38 Tamil Tigers (both groups accounting for the vast majority of suicide attacks ) needing to distinguish 39 themselves "in an already crowded political field." Suicide terror can be seen to be: Inexpensive; 9/11 cost approximately $400,000 to carry out with massive 40 sums spent in response and on the lower end of the spectrum approximately $150 for a typical Palestinian 41 operation. The method is also extremely effective (the ultimate smart bomb; able to react and adapt) and highly lethal "Suicide attacks in the second Palestinian intifada constituted less than 1% of attacks but 42 accounted for 51% of Israeli fatalities." It is also relatively simple to plan; no complex escape is necessary, there is a greatly reduced risk of capture or tracing and the likely media coverage gainedinflicts profound fear and anxiety and produces a negative psychological effect on an entire population and not just on the victims of 43 the actual attack. The idea of the strategic logical progression is highlighted by Khaled Meshal, key member of Hamas "Like the intifada in 1987, the current intifada had taught us that we should move forward normally 44 from popular confrontation to the rifle to suicide operations. This is the normal development." It is this effectiveness that creates such a challenge in responding to it. However "we do know that of the nearly 600 suicide missions launched in Israel and its occupied territories between 2000 and 2005, fewer than 25 percent succeeded in reaching their target. Israeli counterterrorist efforts thwarted three-quarters of them 45 using violent means." However even with some success on this 'kinetic' front the devastation caused by the few that are able to carry out their mission on the psyche of the target population is catastrophic. Here we see the role of the media as crucial; through its inherent focus on the sensationalist and emotive it acts to help entrench the tactic and even perhaps creates a cycle of implicitly promoting an increasing level of violence due to the desensitising nature of the constant horror. Therefore whilst the logic "terrorists want a lot of people

33

Pape, Robert. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. http://www.virtualprofessors.com/dying-to-winthe-strategic-logic-of-suicide-terrorism-robert-pape. 2010. Accessed 10.02.1012 34 What is Terrorism? http://www.terrorism-research.com/. Accessed: 12.02.2012. 35 Pape, Robert. Dying to win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House. 2005. p 344. 36 Ibid. p 5. 37 Brooks, David. Op cit. 38 Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press. 2006. p 137. 39 Ibid. p 137. 40 Speckhard, Anne. Op Cit. p 3. 41 Hassan, Nasra. "Letter from Gaza: An Arsenal of Believers." New Yorker, November 19, 2001. p 39. 42 Merari , A. quoted in: Skeffington, Jennifer. Social Psychological motivations of suicide terrorism: A community level perspective. http://harvard.academia.edu/JenniferSheehySkeffington/Papers/113323/Social_psychological_motivations_of_suicide_ter rorism_A_community_level_perspective. 2009. Accessed 10.02.1012. 43 Schweitzer, Yoram. Suicide Terrorism: Development & Characteristics. http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.dfm?articleid=112. 2000. Accessed 13.02.2012. 44 Why Is Suicide Terrorism So Popular? http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2010/05/22/why-is-suicide-terrorism-so-popular/. 2010. Accessed: 13.02.2011. 45 Spivak, Rhonda. Study: Palestinian suicide bombers 'not mentally unstable'. http://www.haaretz.com/news/studypalestinian-suicide-bombers-not-mentally-unstable-1.239990. 2008. Accessed: 13.02.2012.

watching but not a lot of people dead" might have once been apparent Jenkins himself now admits "these constraints gave way to large-scale indiscriminate violence as terrorists engaged in protracted, brutal conflicts; as the more squeamish dropped out; as terrorism became commonplace and the need for headlines 47 demanded higher body counts" . The problem then comes from the inability of state actors and others to undermine the climate of terror based upon a cultural, socio-political and religious influences. These influences are the building blocks of a society; undermining them is to fundamentally alter the social and political world. It is interesting to consider the techniques currently employed in an effort to influence the cultural consciousness in the areas worse effected 48 by the phenomenon; a direct media campaign in Palestine and the 'winning hearts and minds' campaign in 49 Iraq and Afghanistan. However the final elimination of a movement (in considering Islamic radicalism) 50 inspired by phrases such as "We love death more than you love life" is optimism to the extreme. Indeed breaking the cycle of loss necessitating justice through vengeance so prevalent within these communities, 51 found in Hassan's interviews and elsewhere is likely to take more than a media campaign or political settlement; it necessitates a complete socio-cultural shift. This essay considers the prevalent understanding of an inherent unreliability in considering the behavioural aspect to suicide terror and forwards a thesis based largely upon social factors. Through an analysis on the macro level of the social, cultural and political we should never the less provide some insight into the micro level of the individual. This thesis argues that the most important influences upon the development and sustenance of suicidal terror are threefold; firstly looking at religion as a catalyst; a legitimization and sanctification of martyrdom for a political end (whilst understanding the interconnectedness of the religious and the political). Secondly considering the socio-political grievance (and/or alienation) that should be seen as the fundamental motivation for all campaigns of terror. Finally considering the cultural portrayal of martyrdom in target societies (and its effect on those outside) and how this affects the consciousness of the would-be martyr. In consideration of the effectiveness of the technique key factors are: cost, lethality, simplicity and spread of mass terror. This very effectiveness as well as the religiously, politically and culturally embedded aspects of method provide a seemingly insurmountable challenge in responding to the phenomenon.

46

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46

Jenkins, Brian. The New Age of Terrorism. http://www.rand.org/pubs/reprints/2006/RAND_RP1215.pdf. Accessed: 13.02.2012. 47 Ibid. 48 For instance; Terrorism Has No Religion. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eHNzzeCEc-k. 2008. Accessed 13.02.2012. 49 Hearts and Minds: Aid and reconstruction in Iraq. http://www.casi.org.uk/briefing/030416aid.html. 2003. Accessed: 13.02.2012. 50 A quote originating in the 7th century taken on by Islamic fundamentalists worldwide: Baker, Brent. CBS and NBC Skip Hasan's Ominous 'We Love Death More Than You Love Life'. http://newsbusters.org/blogs/brent-baker/2009/11/10/cbsnbc-skip-hasans-ominous-we-love-death-more-you-love-life. 2009. Accessed 13.02.2012. 51 Brooks, David. The Culture of Martyrdom. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/06/the-culture-ofmartyrdom/2506/. 2002. Accessed 13.02.2012.

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