PII: SO261-2194(97)00017-3

ELSEVlER

Crop Pwrearr~n Vol. 16. No. 5. pp. 463-466, 1997 0 1997 Published hy Elsevier Science Ltd All neht? reserved. Printed m Great Britain tl261-2194197 $17.00 +lMl

Effect of weeding frequencies on grain amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) growth and yield
David 0. Ojo Box 4078, University Post Office, Ibadan, Nigeria

Field experiments were conducted at Ibadan, Nigeria (354E, 730N, 213 m a.s.1.) on naturally infested fields within the same area, using two similar adjacent fields during two early rainy seasons to determine optimal weeding frequency for weed management in grain amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.). Weeding two times at 2 and 5 weeks after transplanting (WAT) was optimal for plant
height, leaf number and shoot fresh weight; weeding three times at 2, 5 and 8 WAT was optimal for shoot dry weight and grain yield; while weeding four times at 2, 5, 8 and 11 WAT was optimal for grain protein content. The land used was dominated by Pennisetum purpureum L. 0 1997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd
Keywords: grain amaranth; weeding frequency; yield

Grain amaranth (Amaranthus cnrentus L.) has high nutritive value (Bressani, 1988, 1989) and its grain and leaves are used and processed into many food items, supplements and additives (Akingbala et al., 1994; Dahiya and Kapoor, 1994, 1995). In Nigeria the stover is processed into animal feed. Compared with maize, grain amaranth has a higher protein content (Akingbala et al., 1994). Grain amaranth is drought tolerant and highly adaptive to the tropics as a potential crop (Piha, 1995). Weeding frequency for conservative tillage in vegetables and arable crops are critical for successful economic yields (Black and Bauer, 1992; Deibert, 1989; Hoyt, Bonanno and Parker, 1996; Hoyt, Monks and Monaco, 1994; Olunuga and Akobundu, 1980; Peterson, Westfall and Cole, 1993; Petersen, Mack and Booster, 1986; Stadifer and Beste, 1985). Optimization of weeding frequency results in: soil and water conservation (Coolman and Hoyt, 1993; Morse, 1993); reduction in erosion potential, less energy and time spent in producing a crop (Frye et al., 1981; Peterson et al., 1993; Smika, 1990); more efficient land use (Tessore et al., 1981); and enhanced sustainability. The use of herbicide has shown some promise in weed control (Aliyu and Lagoke, 1995; Hoyt et al., 1996; Sinha, Lagoke and Olukosi, 1982). However, the practice does not adequately control weeds at times, may produce residual contaminants, and may cause phytotoxicity to crop plants (Aliyu and Lagoke, 1995; Richburg, Wilcut and Wehtje, 1993; Richburg et al., 1996). Consequently, alternative approaches to sustainable weed management are clearly needed.

The use of mechanical weed control is therefore seen as an integral part of a sustainable integrated weed management (IWM) system. Weeds reduce crop yield and quality by competing with crops for light, water and nutrients (Wilcut, York and Wehtje, 1994). In Nigeria uncontrolled weeds caused yield reductions ranging from 53 to 95% in pepper (Adigun et al., 1983; Eshel and Ratan, 1972) and between 42 and 54% in rice (Braveman, 1996). Contamination of harvested grain amaranth by weed seeds causes difficulty in cleaning and processing. Hoeing is the most common and most reliable method of weed control in sub-saharan Africa (SSA), particularly in Nigeria (Aliyu and Lagoke, 1995). It is the method most used by peasant farmers in vegetable and arable crop production and in the expanding cultivation of inland valley lands in the majority of SSA soils. In view of the dearth of information on the effect of weeding frequency on grain amaranth production, this investigation evaluated frequency of weeding for sustainable weed management on growth parameters and yield of grain amaranth.
Materials and methods

The field studies were carried out at Ibadan, Nigeria (354E, 730N, 213 m above sea level). The area has a bimodal rainfall pattern, with an annual mean of 1278 mm, and a mean annual temperature of 26.2C. The experiments were conducted using a naturally

Crop Protection 1997 Volume 16 Number 5 463

Amaranth

growth and yield: D.O. Ojo Table 1. Effect of weeding frequencies on plant height, leaf number, leaf area and weed biomass of grain amaranth at harvest Plant height (cm/plant) 47.4 54.8 107.7 90.3 87.0 74.5
14.6 represents I,14 week(s) hoeing, after l-5

occurring weed population within the same area on two similar adjacent fields during the early rainy seasons of 1990 and 1991. The land was previously under grass fallow, which was dominated by Pennisetum purpureum L. for 8 years. The surface (O-15 cm) soil of the experimental site had the following properties: organic carbon, 1.99%; pH, 6.52; E. cation exchange capacity, 6.22 cmol/kg; and a sandy loam texture. A randomized complete block design with four replications was used. Plot size was 6 m by 8 m. The treatments were: (i) unweeded (check); (ii) weeded once (at 2 weeks after transplanting (WAT); (iii) weeded twice (2 and 5 WAT); (iv) weeded three times (2, 5 and 8 WAT); (v) weeded four times (2, 5, 8 and 11 WAT); and (vi) weeded five times (2, 5, 8, 11 and 14 WAT) (i.e. a weed-free control). Seedlings of grain amaranth were raised in the greenhouse and transplanted when 2 weeks old at 50 cm in and within row spacing. All plots received basal applications of 45 kg/ha of nitrogen which was split-applied as calcium ammonium nitrate (one-third at 2 WAT and two-thirds at 5 WAT); single superphosphate of 20 kg/ha and muriate of potassium at 37 kg/ha. Plots were hand-hoed and manually weeded as described in the treatments above. Prior to harvesting, the weeds in each plot were harvested, oven dried and weighed. Fifty grain amaranth plants were randomly harvested per plot when mature (excluding the border rows) at 17 WAT, for data collection. Plants harvested were separated into inflorescence, leaves, stem and root. Samples were dried at 65C and weighed. Grain samples were ground to pass through a 2 mm-mesh sieve for nutrient analysis. Total nitrogen was analysed by micro-Kjeldahl digestion, followed by distillation and filtration (IITA, 1982). For determination of protein content in grain, total nitrogen was multiplied by a factor of 6.25. The data from both years for each treatment at crop harvest were combined and subjected to analysis of variance by the procedure of SAS (1986).

Treatment* Unweeded check Weeded 1 x Weeded 2 x Weeded 3 x Weeded 4 x Weeded 5 x ( = control)

LSD (P = 0.05)

Leaf number per plant 44.4 59.3 93.7 99.8 94.0 86.9
13.6 time(s),

Leaf area (cm*/plant) 772.2 1425.7 2179.5 2656.5 2564.3 2040.6

374.1 respectively (WAT) at

Weed dry wt (g/m*) 44.1 20.7 10.5 6.6 6.0 0.0

2.6

*Weeded

I x -5 x

2; 2,5; 2.5.8;

2,5,8,1 I; and 2,5,&l

transplanting

respectively

Effect of weeding frequencies on yield and yield attribute at harvest Shoot (stems and leaves) fresh weight increased significantly through 2 x weeding then decreased at the 3 x, 4 x and 5 x weeding frequencies. However, shoot dry weight increased with successive weeding frequency until the 3 x and 4 x weeding frequencies but then declined significantly at the 5 x weed-free control (Table 2). Grain protein significantly increased until the 4 x frequency and fell at the 5 x weeding frequency (Table 2). Grain yield increased significantly through 3 x frequencies and remained the same at 4 x and 5 x weeding frequencies
(Table 2).

Discussion Weeds reduce crop yield and quality by competing for light, water and nutrients (Wilcut et al., 1994). The increases in biomass, grain protein and yield of grain amaranth when weeding frequency increased, indicate the important role that frequency of weeding can play in enhancing and sustaining grain amaranth production. Optimal weeding frequency that is above and below which resources are under or over utilized, is critical for successful and sustainable economic yields (Dunan, 1996). The most rapid growth of grain amaranth is between 2 and 5 weeks after transplanting, meaning that the crop competes successfully with weeds beyond the 5-6 week growth stage. The present study
Table 2. Effect of weeding frequencies on grain amaranth yield and yield attribute at harvest Shoot fresh wt (t/ha) 5.2 8.2 14.9 11.4 8.8 6.7 2.2
hoeing, after l-5 time(s) transplaniing

Results Effect of weeding frequencies on morphological characteristics and weed biomass at harvest Leaf area and weed dry weight significantly increased and decreased, respectively, with each successive weeding frequency until the 3 x weeding frequency, when compared with the unweeded treatment (check). Thereafter weeding frequency did not contribute much to leaf area and weed biomass at the 4 x weeding. The 5 x weeding frequency led to a significant decrease in leaf area and weed biomass (Table I). Weeding frequency resulted in a significant increase in leaf number up to 2 x weeding, and thereafter no significance difference was observed due to weeding frequency (Table I). Plant height increased significantly up to the 2 x weeding frequency when compared with the unweeded check, thereafter weeding frequency generally resulted in reduced plant height (Table 1).

Treatment* Unweeded check Weeded 1 x Weeded 2 x Weeded 3 x Weeded 4 x Weeded 5 x ( = control) LSD (P = 0.05)
*Weeded 2,5,&l I x -5 x represents 1; and 2,5,8,1 I,14 week(s)

Shoot dry wt (ma) 0.8 1.1 2.0 2.4 2.4 1.9 0.3

Grain protein (ro) 4.5 8.1 12.8 16.1 20.4 19.4 1.9
respectively

Grain yield (t/ha) 0.5 0.6 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.0 0.4

respectively (WAT)

at 2; 2.5; 2,5,8;

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Amaranth suggests

growth and yield: D.O. Ojo

that the optimal weeding frequencies are 2 x for plant height, leaf number and shoot fresh weight, 3 x for shoot dry weight and grain yield; and 4 x for grain protein content. Reducing weed competition for a period of 4-6 weeks after planting is all that is necessary to obtain optimum grain amaranth production (Tables 1 and 2). The increase in biomass, grain protein and yield of grain amaranth when weeding is increased are attributed to the frequency mechanism of smothering, by which grain amaranth and indicates that escapes weed competition, vigorous interference by the crop is a pre-requisite for weed control. This view is justified by the reports of Kirby (1976), Thurston (1962) and Blackman (1996). Effective weed control does not need to eliminate weeds totally from the crop, even where ground-cover by weeds exceeds 50%. Cultural methods are technically acceptable alternatives to the use of residual herbicides (Coolman and Hoyt, 1993; Frye et al., 1981; Ismail and Hassan, 1988; Lal, 1978; Maurya and Lal, 1981; Morse, 1993; Russell, 1977; Smika, 1990). Different mechanisms influence the effect of weeds on grain amaranth yield, growth and morphology (Peterson et al., 1993; Wilcut et al., 1994). The decline in yield and morphological traits, observed after the optimal weeding frequencies are attained, are probably due to seed shattering, mechanical damage to crop plants, variability of crop and weed growth rates due to weeding, and prevailing climatic and edaphic factors. This lack of increase in yield and morphological traits with an increase in weeding frequencies is in agreement with previous studies (Haizel and Harper, 1973; Mohler and Liebman, 1987; Zimdahl, 1980).

Blackman, J. D. (1996) The effect of alternatives to soil residual herbicides on weed control, yield and quality of hops. J. Hort. Sci. 71,629-638 Braveman, M. P. (1996) Control of mannagrass and southern watergrass in water-seeded rice. Weed Tech. 10, 199661998 Bressani, R. (1988) Amaranth: the nutritive value and potential uses of the grain and by-products. Food Nuts: Bull. 10, 49-59 Bressani, R. (1989) The protein of grain amaranth.
Food Nuts BuU 5, 13-38

Coolman, R. M. and Hoyt, G. D. (1993) The effect of reduce tillage on soil environment. Hort. Technol. 3. l43- 145 Dahiya, S. and Kapoor, A. C. (1994) Acceptability and viscosity of low cost home processed supplementary foods developed for pre-school children. Plant Foods Human Nuts 46, 257-297 Dahiya, S. and Kapoor, A. C. (1995) Acceptability and viscosity of low cost home processed supplementary foods developed for pre-school children. Plant Foods Human N&l: 47, I - I2 Deibert, E. J. (1989) Reduced tillage system inlluence on yield of sunflower hybrids. J. Apron. 81, 274-279 Dunan, C. M. (1996) Modelling the effect of duration competition in irrigated onion. Weed Res. 36, 259-269 of weed of

Eshel, Y. and Ratan, J. (1972) Effect of time of application diphenamid on pepper, weeds and diseases. Weed Sci. 20, 68-71

Frye, W. W., Blevins, R. L., Murdock, L. W. and Wells, K. L. (1981) Energy conservation in no-tillage production of corn. In Crop Production with Conservation in the SOS, Publ. no. 7-81, pp. 255-262. American Society of Agricultural Engineering, St Joseph, MI Haizel, K. A. and Harper, J. L. (1973) The effects of density and the timing of removal on interference between barley, white mustard and wild oats. J. Appt. Ecol. 10, 23-31 Hoyt, G. D., Bonanno, A. R. and Parker, G. C. (1996) Influence of herbicide and tillage on weed control, yield and quality of cabbage. Weed Tech. 10,50-54 Hoyt, G. D., Monks, D. W. and Monaco, T. J. (1994) Conservation tillage for vegetable production. Hortic. Tech. 4, 129-135 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (1982) Automated and semi-automated methods for soil and plant analysis. Manual series No. 7, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria Ismail, A. M. A. and Hassan, A. H. A. (1988) Effects of herbicide and timing of removal on interference between barley and weeds.
Weed Res. 28,323-329

Conclusion For sustainable grain yield production in grain amaranth, three times (3 x ) weeding at 2, 5 and 8 weeks after transplanting is optimal. This corresponds to optimal shoot dry weight of 2.4 t/ha and leaf area of 2657 cm2/plant (Tables I and 2). Other weeding frequencies for grain yield production are a waste of energy, time and resources.

Kirby, E. J. M. (1976) Population

Agric. Bot. 14, 187-196

and competition.

J. Nat/ Inst.

Lal, R. (1978) Influence of with and between row mulching on soil temperature, soil moisture, root development and yield of maize in a tropic soil. Field Crop Res. 1, 127-139 Maurya, P. R. and Lal, R. (1981) Effect of different mulch materials on soil properties and the root growth and yield of maize and cowpea. Field Crop Res. 4, 33-45 Mohler, C. K. and Liebman, M. (1987) Weed productivity and composition in sole crops and intercrops of barley and field pea. J.

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