LIMITS & CONTINUITY

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
The concept of the limit of a function is the starting point of calculus. Without limits
calculus does not exist. Every notion in calculus can be expressed in some forms of
limits.

What is limit of a function? To understand it, let’s take the following examples :
f x = 2x @ 3 . At x = 3, the value of the function becomes
` a
Consider the function
f 3 = 2.3 @ 5 = 1. Here the function is defined and real. But, how does the function
` a

behave when x gets closer to 3 but not exactly 3? Putting a few values we see that as x
approaches 3, f(x) approaches 1.
sin 2x πff πf
D E
Consider another function f x = f ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
A If we take the interval @ ff
f
, fff
f
` a
we can find
3x 4 4
πffπ f πf
the value of the function at x = @ ff
f
,
f
ff
f
ff ff
f
f
, etc as given below,
6 15 9
πf
d eG
πf
D E
f
ff
f
F
ff
ff
f
f
e sin 2 A @ 6 e sin 2 A
πf πf 15
d d
f
ff
f f
f @ = fff
f
fff
ff
f
fff
fff
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
= 0.5513, f f
ff
f
ff f
= ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ffffff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
D E = 0.6473,
πf π
D E
6 f
ff
f 15
3 @ 3 fffffff
6 15
πf
D E
ff
f
f
d e sin 2 A
πf 9
f f ff
f f
= ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
fff
ff
f
fff
fff
ff
f
D E = 0.6138
9 πf
f
ff
f
3
9

` a sin 0f
But what happens to this function at x = 0? Putting x = 0 in f, we get f 0 = f
f
ff
ff
fff
ff
f
which
0
is undefined. So, the function f is undefined at x = 0. But we see that it is not undefined
at other x values close to 0. There it is defined and has real values. So how does the
function behave there, when x goes closer to 0, but not exactly 0?
To know the behavior, we take a few values of x closer to 0 (both from x>0 and x<0) and
put them in the function as given in the table below and note the behavior :
x 0.1 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.005
f(x) 0.66223 0.66555 0.66626 0.66649 0.66662 0.66665
x -0.1 -0.05 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 -0.005
f(x) 0.66223 0.66555 0.66626 0.66649 0.66662 0.66665

2f
The value of f(x) gets closer and closer to 0.666….. or ff
as x gets closer to 0 from both
3
sides.
sin 2x f 2f
This behavior is written as lim f x = lim ff
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
= ff
` a
, which reads “the limit of f(x) as x
xQ 0 x Q 0 3x 3
2f
tends to 0 is fff
” . It means, as the value of x gets closer and closer to 0 (i.e. x
3
2f 2f
approaches 0), f(x) is defined there and gets closer to ff
(or it approaches ff
) . [There is
3 3
an easier limit evaluation method to find this value, which is discussed later in
trigonometric limits].
2
xf @ 4f
Taking another example, lim f f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
= 4 means as the value of x gets closer and closer to
xQ 2 x @2

2
xf @ 4f
2, ffff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
gets closer to 4 (though the function is undefined at x=2).
x @2
Thus, the limit of a function f(x) at x = c gives us an idea about how this function
behaves, when the value of x goes very near to c (but not equal to c).

lim f x = L
` a
xQc
[read as “the limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L” ] means

“as x approaches c, f(x) approaches L” or

“as the value of x goes very close to c, but not equal to c, f(x)goes very close to L”.
Definition of limit :

lim f x = A
` a
The limit of a function xQa
if and only if,
for any chosen number ε > 0 , however small, there exists a number δ > 0
such that, whenever 0 < |x @ a| < δ , then |f x @ A| < ε A
` a

Note that, the limit of a function gives an idea about how the function behaves close to a
particular x value. It does not necessarily give the value of the function at x. That means,
` a ` a
lim f x and f c may or may not be equal.
xQc

Using the definitions we can prove the following limits :

lim |x| = |c|

xQ c
lim x = c
xQ c
lim a = a
xQ c

Example : Using the definition show that lim 3x @ 1 = 5 .

` a
xQ 2

Solution :
Finding a δ :
Let ε > 0 A We try to find a number δ > 0 such that,
whenever 0 < |x @ 2| < δ , then | 3x @ 1 @ 5| < ε A
` a

Now , | 3x @ 1 @ 5| = |3x @ 6| = 3|x @ 2|

` a

εf
f
f
To make | 3x @ 1 @ 5| < ε 3|x @ 2| < ε we have to make |x @ 2| <
` a
or
3
εf
ff
So we have to choose a δ such that 0< δ ≤ A
3
Showing that the δ works :
εf
f
f
If 0 < |x @ 2| < then 3|x @ 2| < ε
3
So, | 3x @ 1 @ 5| < ε
` a

# lim 3x @ 1 = 5
` a
xQ 2
 ONE SIDED LIMITS:
RIGHT AND LEFT LIMITS
To analyze the behavior of the function f(x) when x approaches a, we can separately look
at the behavior from one side only i.e. from the left side (when x<a) and from the right
side (when x>a ).
lim f x = A is the left hand limit which means “as x approaches a through values less
` a
x Q a@

than a, f(x) approaches A.”

Definition of Left-Hand Limit :
lim f x = A
` a ` a
Let f be a function defined at least on an interval c,a , then x Q a@
if and only if,
for any chosen number, ε > 0 , however small, there exists a
number δ > 0 such that, whenever a @ δ<x<a , then |f x @ A| < ε A
` a

lim+ f x = B is the right hand limit which means “as x approaches a through values
` a
xQ a

more than a, f(x) approaches B.”

Definition of Right-Hand Limit :
lim+ f x = A
b c ` a
Let f be a function defined at least on an interval a,d , then
xQ a
if and only if,
for any chosen number, ε > 0 , however small, there exists a
number δ > 0 such that, whenever a < x < a + δ , then |f x @ A| < ε A
` a

The existence of limit from the left does not imply the existence of limit from the right,
and vice versa.
 EXISTENCE OF LIMIT AT A POINT
For a function f(x), when can we say that the limit exists at a point x=a and what would
be its value in relation to the left and right limits at that point?
` a
lim f x exists and its value will be equal to A,
xQ a
if and only if,
` a ` a
lim f x and lim+ f x both exist, and both are equal to A
x Q a@ xQ a

w
w
w
w
ww
w w
w
w
w
ww
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
Example : Find lim@ p x and lim+ p x , and comment if lim p x exists.
xQ0 xQ 0 xQ 0

w
w
w
w
ww
w w
ww
w
w
ww
Solution : lim@ p x does not exist since x<0 here and p x is not defined when x<0 A
xQ0

w
w
w
w
ww
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
lim+ p x = 0 as we see that p x appproaches 0 as x approaches 0 A
xQ 0

w
w
w
w
ww
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
lim p x does not exist as lim@ p x does not exist.
xQ 0 xQ0

Example : Evaluate
|xf@ 3|
(a) lim@ ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
xQ 3 x @3

|xf
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3|
f
f
ff
f
ff
(b) lim+
xQ3 x @3
|xf@ 3|
(c) lim f f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
xQ 3 x @3

Solution :
(a) As x approaches 3 from the left, x < 3 i.e. (x-3) is negative,
and |x-3| = -(x-3), hence
` a
|xf
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3|
f
f
ff
f
ff @f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fxf
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3f
ff
ff
f
ff
lim@ = = @1
xQ 3 x @3 x @3
 (b) As x approaches 3 from the right, x > 3 i.e. (x-3) is positive,
and |x-3| = (x-3), hence
|xf
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3|
f
f
ff
f
ff xf
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3f
f
ff
f
lim+ = =1
xQ 3 x @3 x @3
|xf@ 3| |xf@ 3| |xf@ 3|
(c) As lim@ ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
≠ lim+
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
, lim
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
does not exist A
xQ 3 x @3 xQ 3 x @ 3 xQ 3 x @3

INFINITE LIMITS
Some functions increase or decrease without bounds (that is goes towards + 1 or @ 1 )
near certain values of the independent variable x. When this happens, we say that the
lim f x = + 1 or xlim f x = @1 . The
` a ` a
function has infinite limit. So we can write, xQa Qa

unction has a vertical asymptote at x = a if either of the above limits hold true.

` a
ffxf
A function of the form ff
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
f
` a will have an infinite limit at x=a if there the limit of g(x) is
g x
zero but the limit of f(x) is non –zero.
1f
Example : Evaluate lim f f
ff
ff
xQ 0 x2

Solution :
 LIMITS AT INFINITY
In some cases we may need to observe the behavior of the function when the independent
variable x increases or decreases without bound, that is, x Q + 1 or x Q @ 1 . If in
such a case the function approaches a real number A , then we can write
lim f x = A or lim f x = A
` a ` a
xQ +1 xQ@1

and f(x) has a horizontal asymptote at y = A.

2
3x @ 7f
Example : Evaluate lim f f
f
ff
f
fff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff
ff
f
f
x Q + 1 5x 2 @ 2x + 3
f
f
ff
f
ff
.

Solution :
 2
f
f
ff
f
f3x
f
fff
f
ff
f
fff
f@
f
f
ff
ff
f
f7f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
lim
xQ + 1 2
5x @ 2x d
+ 3 e
7f
ff
ff
ff
x2 3 @ 2
x
= lim f
xQ +1
f
ffff
f
d
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f f
ff
f f
ff
ff
fff
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
e
f
ff
f
f
2f 3f
x 5@ + 2
2 ff
f f f
ff
f
f
x x
d e
7f
f f
ff
ff
3@ 2
f
f
ffff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f xf
f
ff f
ff
ff
fff
ff
ff
ff
f F 1f
f
ff
= As x approaches + 1 ,
G
lim
xQ +1
d e approaches 0
2 3 x
5 @ ffff+ fff2ffff
x x
` a
f
f
fff3f
f
ff
ff
f
f@
f
f
ff
ff
f0f
ff
f f
ff
ff
fff
ff
= lim `
xQ +1 5@0 + 0
a

3f
= ff
5

THEOREMS ON LIMITS

1 A If f x = c, where c is a constant, then xlim f x =c

` a ` a
Qa

f x = A and xlim g x = B where A,B < 1

` a ` a
If xlim
Qa Qa

kf x = kA where k is a constant
` a
2 A xlim
Qa

f x F g x = xlim g x =AFB
B ` a ` aC ` a ` a
3 A xlim
Qa Qa
f x F xlim
Qa

f x A g x = xlim g x = AAB
B ` a ` aC ` a ` a
4 A xlim
Qa Qa
f x A xlim
Qa
` a
` a
ff
f
ff
fxf
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f fflim
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff
ff
ff
f
fxf
ff
ff
f
ff A
f ff
f
ff
` a = xQ a ` a = ≠
B C
5 A xlim
Qa g x
if B 0
lim g x B
xQ a
w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
`w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
w
`w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w nw
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w nw
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
n
q f x =q lim f x = p A , if p A is a real number
a n
a
6 A xlim
Qa xQ a
The uniqueness of a limit :
lim f x = A lim f x = B
` a ` a
If xQ a
and xQ a
then,
A = B

The Pinching Theorem :

If x is close to a but different from a, a function f always lies between two functions h
and g. If, as x tends to a, both h and g tend to the same limit A, then f(x) also tends to A at
x = a.
h x ≤ f x ≤ g x
` a ` a ` a
Suppose, for all x where 0 < |x @ a| < p and p>0,

lim h x = A lim g x = A,
` a ` a
If xQ a
and xQ a

lim f x = A A
` a
then xQ a
 LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

The following trigonometric limits, which can be proven by the definition, is quite useful
:
lim sin x = sin c
xQ c
lim cos x = cos c
xQ c

sin xf 1f@ cos xf

lim fff
f
ff
fff
ff
f
=1 lim ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff
ff
f
=0
xQ 0 x xQ 0 x

sin 4x
Example : Find lim fff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
xQ0 x

Solution :
sin
f
ff
f
ff
f4x
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff
lim
xQ 0 x
sin 4x
f g
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
= lim 4
xQ 0 4x
sin 4x
f g
f
f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
= 4 lim
B C
as x Q 0, we can write 4x Q 0
4x Q 0 4x
sin
f
f
ff
ff
fxf
ff
ff
f G
= 4 B1 =1
F
using lim
xQ 0 x

=4

tan 3x
Example : Find lim f f
f
ff
f
fff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
x Q 0 2x 2 + 5x
 tan
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3x
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
lim
xQ0 2x 2 + 5x
Ff
f
ff
f
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
fsin
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f3x
f
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
= lim
G
x 2x + 5 A cos 3x
` a
xQ0

Ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
fff
f
f3f
f
ff
ff
f
fsin
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f3x
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
= lim
G
3 x 2x + 5 A cos 3x
` a
xQ0

F sin 3x 1f 1f
Solution : = 3 lim f f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff ff
f
ff
f
f f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff f
f
ff
f
fff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
fG
B B
xQ0 3x 2x + 5 cos 3x
F sin
f
f
ff
ff
f3x
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff Ff
f
ff
f
f1f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff Ff
f
ff
f
f1f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
= 3 lim
G G G
B lim B lim
xQ0 3x xQ 0 2x + 5 xQ 0 cos 3x
` a 1f
f 1f
f gf g
f f
=3 1
5 1
3f
ff
=
5
 CONTINUITY

While observing the graphs of different functions we note that some functions are
f x = tan x is discontinuous at
` a
discontinuous at some points. For example, the graph of
πf
f
ff
f ` a 1f
f
ff
x= A The graph of f x = is discontinuous at x = 0.
2 x

2
` a xf @ 2x
In the above graph of f x = f
fff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
, we see that the graph is discontinuous at x=2, but
x @2
continuous at all other points.

Is there any other method, by which we know if the graph of a function is continuous or
discontinuous at a point? The answer is, we can know it by using limits.
 ` a
Definition of Continuity : A function f x is continuous at a,
=
` a ` a
if and only if xlim
Qa
f x f a

We can also define continuity as :

f is continuous at a
if and only if, for each ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that
if |x @ c| < δ then |f x @ f c | < ε A
` a ` a

thus, f(x) will be continuous at a,

1. if f(a) is defined,
` a
2. if xlim
Qa
f x exists and

lim f x = f a A
` a ` a
3. if xQ a

A function f(x) is discontinuous at x = a, if any of the above conditions of continuity fails

there.
Geometrically it means that there is no gap, split or missing point in the graph of f(x) at a.

A function f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous at every point in

πff πf
D E
f x = tan x is continuous in the interval @ ff
f
, fff
f
` a
[a,b]. So, the function as it is
4 4
continuous at all the points in this interval, whereas it is not continuous in the interval
F πf
f
ff 3π
f ff
f
ff
f
ff πf
as it is discontinuous at x = fff
f
G
, A
4 4 2
A function is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point of its domain. So,
f x = x 2 + 4 is a continuous function as it is continuous at every point in its domain (its
` a

domain is the set of real numbers R).

ONE-SIDED CONTINUITY:
` a
Definition :A function f x is
lim f x = f a
` a ` a
continuous from left at a, if and only if x Q a@
` a
A function f x is
lim+ f x = f a
` a ` a
continuous from right at a, if and only if
xQa

THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY
The most important theorems of continuity are:
If the functions f and g are continuous at a, then

1 A f + g is continuous at a,
2 A αf is continuous at a for each real α,
3 A f g is continuous at a,
ff
4A f f
ff
is continuous at a provided g a ≠ 0 A
` a
g
` a
5 A If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g a , then the composition
of functions f ο g is continuous at a A

Two more theorems on continuity are :

The Intermediate @ ValueB Theorem
C
:
` a ` a
6 A If f is continuous on a,b and C is a number between f a and f b , then
there is at least one number c between a and b for which f c = C A
` a

The Maximun @ Minimum Theorem :

B C
7 A If f is continuous on a,b , then f takes on both a maximum value M and a minimum
B C
value N on a,b A
Example : Determine the continuity of
f x = 3x @ 5 at x = -3
` a
a)
2
` a xf @ 9f
b) f x = f
fff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
at x = -3
x+3
Solution :
lim + f x = lim + 3x @ 5 = 3 @ 3 @ 5 = @ 14
a ` a ` a ` a
a
xQ@3 xQ@3

lim @ f x = lim @ 3x @ 5 = 3 @ 3 @ 5 = @ 14
` a ` a ` a
xQ@3 xQ@3

f @ 3 = 3 @ 3 @ 5 = @ 14
` a ` a

Hence, f is continuous at x = @ 3 A
2
xf @ 9f
b For f x = f ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
` a ` a ` a
we find that f @ 3 is undefined and does not exist A
x+3
Hence, f is discontinuous at x = @ 3 A
Example : Discuss the continuity of
X
2
` a \ xf @ 9f
^ ffff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
≠ 3 at x = 3.
^
f x =^ x @ 3 , x
x =3
^
Z
6,
Solution :
+f
` a` a
fxf
ff
ff
f
f f
ff
f
f3f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ffxf
ff
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f3f
ff
ff
ff
f
lim+ f x = lim+ = lim+ x + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6
` a ` a
xQ 3 x @3
xQ 3 xQ 3

similarly lim@ f x = 6
` a
xQ 3

# lim f x = 6
` a
xQ 3

and f 3 = 6
` a

As lim f x = f 3 ; f is continuous at x = 3 A
` a ` a
xQ 3

Example : Discuss the continuity of

6 + 3x, x< @ 2
V
f x =
` a
at x = -2.
x 2 @ 4, x ≥@2
Solution :
f @2 = @2 @4 =4@4 =0
` a ` a ` a2
1

lim @ f x = lim @ 6 + 3x = 6 + 3 @ 2 = 0
` a ` a ` a ` a
2
xQ@2 xQ@2
b c `
lim + f x = lim + x 2 @ 4 = @ 2 @ 4 = 0
` a a2
xQ@2 xQ@2

Hence lim f x = 0 = lim @ f x

` a ` a ` a
as lim + f x
xQ@2 xQ@2 xQ@2

As lim f x = f @ 2 ; f is continuous at x = 3 A
` a ` a
xQ@2