4.

1 Understanding Thermal Equilibrium

Thermometric Properties

Heat

Temperature

Thermal equilibrium

Application

Oven

Thermometer

Refrigerator

Types of thermometers

Calibrations

Relationship between Temperature and Heat

1. Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of a body. 2. A hot body has a high temperature whereas a cold body has a low temperature. 3. Heat is a form of energy being transferred from a hot body to a cold body. 4. Heat and temperature are two different physical quantities.

Temperature
The degree of hotness of a body Base quantity Unit: Kelvin (K) or degree Celsius (C) Can be measured using a thermometer

Heat
A form of energy Derived quantity Unit: joule (J) No specific measuring equipment

Table 4.1 The difference between heat and temperature

Mechanism Thermal Equilibrium

Energy is transferred at a faster rate from the hotter object to the colder object. Energy is also transferred from the colder object to the hotter one, but at a slower rate. There is a net flow of energy from the hotter object to the colder object.

The hotter object cools down while the colder object warms up. After some time, energy is transferred at the same rate between the two objects. There is no net heat transfer between the objects. The two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Thermal Equilibrium

When two objects are in thermal equilibrium, there is no net flow of heat between them. Two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature.

Microwave oven An oven can maintain its temperature by the use of thermostat

Refrigerator Fruits are normally kept in refrigerator to maintain their freshness

Applications of Thermal Equilibrium

Thermometer A doctor use a thermometer to measure the body temperature of the patient.

Cooling drinks A hot drink can be cooled by adding a few ice cubes to the drink

Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
The characteristic of the liquid used in liquid-in-glass thermometer How a liquid-in-glass thermometer works ? Be easily seen Expand and contract rapidly over a wide range of temperature No stick to the glass walls of the capillary tube The bulb of the thermometer contains a fixed mass of mercury. The volume of the mercury increases when it absorbs heat. The mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube. The length of the mercury column in the capillary tube indicates the magnitude of the temperature. A temperature scale is obtained by choosing two temperatures, called the fixed point. Definition of ice point and steam point. Fixed point Lower point: Ice point Upper point: steam point Definition The temperature of pure melting ice The temperature of steam from water that is boiling under standard atmospheric pressure Value 0C 100C

How can a thermometer be calibrated ?

When the two fixed points have been marked on the stem of the thermometer, the range between them is divided equally into 100 divisions or degrees. The thermometer now has a scale.

Explain the working principle of a thermometer

When the thermometer is placed in contact with hot water, heat is transferred from hot water to the thermometer. Thermal equilibrium between the thermometer and hot water is reached when the net rate of heat transfer is zero. The thermometer and the water are at the same temperature. At this point, the thermometer reading shows the thermometer of the water. It is a good conductor of heat It has a high boiling point, 357c It expands uniformly when heated It is opaque (does not allow light to pass through) and it can be seen easily. Mercury freezes at a temperature of -39C and it is therefore not suitable for measuring temperatures below this temperature, such at the north pole. Thin capillary tube A glass bulb with thinner wall Large bulb

What are characteristics of mercury that makes it suitable as a liquid-in-glass thermometer ?

How to increase the sensitivity of a mercury thermometer ?

4.2 Understanding Specific Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity

Idea

Increase in temperature of material

Specific Heat Capacity

Q = mc

Determine the specific heat capacity of aluminium

Application

Heat Capacity

The amount of heat required to change its temperature by one degree

Concept of Heat Capacity

The total amount of heat in a body is affected by: The temperature of the body (heat supplied to the body) The mass of the body The type of material

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of heat that must be supplied to increase the temperature by 1 C for a mass of 1 kg of the substance Specific heat capacity, c = Q SI unit: J kg C

Q = heat absorbed / released, unit J m= mass of the substance, unit kg = change in temperature, unit C

Quantity of heat absorbed or lost by a substance

Q = mc

Example: What does specific heat of aluminium 900 j of heat needs to be supplied to 1 900 J kg C mean ? kg of aluminium to produce a 1 C temperature increase. What does specific heat of water 4 4 200 J of heat needs to be supplied to 200 J kg C mean ? 1 kg of water to produce a 1 C temperature increase.

Physical meaning of specific heat capacity, c When two objects of equal mass are heated at equal rates, the object with the smaller specific heat capacity will have a faster temperature. When two objects of equal mass are left to cool down, the temperature of the object with smaller heat capacity will drop faster.

A substance with a small value of specific heat capacity

A substance with a high value of specific heat capacity

Heats up and cools at a faster rate For example, metal like iron, steel, copper and aluminium is used as pots and pans because they can be quickly heated up when there is only small heat absorption. Sensitive to temperature changes A thermometer has low specific heat capacities so it enables heat to be easily absorbed and released even when small quantities of heat are involved. Heats up and cools at slower rate. Require more heat to raise its temperature by a specific amount. Poor conductor of heat handle of pot Can absorb a great amount of heat without a high increase in temperature For example, water acts a heat reservoir as it can absorb a great amount of heat before it boils. Water is used as cooling agent in a car radiator.

Applications of Specific Heat Capacity

Cooking Pot

Copper Base Low specific heat capacity. The pot becomes hot very quickly. This enables quick cooking of the food in the pot. High density. The heavier base ensures that the pot is stable and will not topple over easily. Wooden Handle Large specific heat capacity. The handle will not become too hot when heat is absorbed. Poor conductor of heat. Alumni body Relatively low specific heat capacity. The pot becomes hot quickly. Low density so it will be lighter Does not react with the food in the pot.

Sea Breeze

Land has a smaller specific heat capacity than sea. Faster increase in temperature, ie; land is warmer than the sea Air above the land is heated up and rises. Cooler air from the sea moves from towards the land as sea breeze.

Land Breeze

At night, heat is lost from the land and sea. Sea has a larger specific heat capacity so sea is warmer than land. Warmer air above the sea rises. Cooler air from the land moves towards the sea as land breeze.

The cooling system of a car engine

Water has a high specific heat capacity and lower cost. So water can be a useful a cooling agent. A water pump circulates the water. Heat produced by the engine is absorbed by the water that flows along the space in engine walls. The hot water flows to the radiator where heat is lost to the cooler air that flows through the cooling fins.

4.3 Understanding Specific Latent Heat

Specific Latent Heat

Specific latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat of vaporisation

Q = mL

Q = mL

melting Solid freezing Liquid

boiling condensation Gas

Application

Latent Heat

The heat absorbed or the heat released at constant temperature during change of phase.

When a solid melts, latent heat of fusion is absorbed but the temperature remains constant at its melting point. For a liquid to solidify at its freezing point, latent heat of fusion has to be removed. When a liquid is boiling, latent heat of vaporization is absorbed but the temperature remains constant at its boiling point. When vapour condenses back into the liquid phase, latent heat of vaporization is released.

Change of State of Matter Explained by Using the Kinetic Theory

AB : The heat absorbed by the solid raises its temperature to its melting point. BC : Heat is absorbed by the solid as it melts, but the temperature remains constant. The solid melts to become a liquid at the same time.

AB : The heat absorbed by the liquid raises its temperature to its boiling point. BC : Heat is absorbed by the liquid as it boils, but the temperature remain constant. The liquid boils to become a gas at the same temperature.

PQ : Heat is given out by the liquid as it cools to its freezing point. QR : Heat is given out by the liquid as it solidifies but the temperature remains constant. The liquid solidifies to become a solid at the same temperature.

PQ : Heat is given out by the gas as it cools to the boiling point QR : Heat is given out by the gas as it condenses but the temperature remain constant. The gas condenses to become a liquid at the same temperature.

Common characteristics of the four processes in the change of phase: A substance undergoes a charge of phase at a particular temperature. Heat energy is transferred during change of phase. During change of phase, the temperature remains constant even though there is transfer of heat. Notes: The temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its particles. Temperature increases when the average kinetic energy og the particles increase. Temperature decreases when the average kinetic energy of the particles decreases. Temperature remains constant when the average kinetic energy does not change. Why does the temperature remains constant during change of phase? During change of phase, the transfer of heat does not cause a change in the kinetic energy of the molecules. During melting, the heat absorbed is used to break up the bonds between the particles. The particles are feed from their fixed positions and are able to vibrate and move among each other. When a liquids boils, the heat absorbed is used to completely break the bonds between the particles and also to do work against atmospheric pressure when the gaseous vapour expands into the atmosphere.

Latent Heat

Latent Heat of Fusion The heat absorbed by a melting solid is known as the latent heat of fusion. During melting, the heat absorbed is used to break up the bonds between the particles. The particles are freed from their fixed positions and are able to vibrate and move among each other as illustrated in Figure 4.10.

Latent Heat of Vaporisation The heat absorbed during boiling is known as the latent heat of vaporisation. When a liquid boils, the heat absorbed is used to completely break the bonds between the particles and also to do work against atmospheric pressure when the gaseous vapour expands into the atmosphere, as illustrated in Figure 4.11.

Specific Latent Heat, l The amount of heat required to change the phase of a substance depends on the mass and the type of material of the substance. The specific latent heat of a substance, l is the amount of heat required to change the phase of 1 kg of the substance at a constant temperature.

The specific latent heat,

unit: J kg

Where Q = latent heat absorbed or released by the substance M = mass of the substance If 3 kg of ice at 0 C requires 1 008 000 J of latent heat for it to melt to become water at 0 C, 1 kg of ice requires 1 008 000 336 000 J of latent heat. 3 This means that the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 336 000 J kg . The latent heat absorbed or released when a substance of mass, m changes from one phase to another is given by

Q = ml

Specific latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat of vaporisation

The amount of heat required to change 1 kg of the substance from solid to liquid phase without a change in temperature The amount of heat required to change 1 kg of the substance from the liquid to gaseous phase without a change in temperature

4.4 Understanding the Gas Laws

The Gas Laws

Boyles law

Pressure Law

Charles Law

Absolute zero

General Gas Equation

Application

Properties of Gases Property of gas Explanation based on the kinetic theory Volume The molecules move freely in random motion and fill up the whole space in the container. The volume of the gas is equal to the volume of the container. Temperature The molecules are in continuous random motion and have an average kinetic energy which is proportional to the temperature. Pressure The molecules are in continuous random motion. When a molecule collides with the wall of the container and bounces back, there is a change in momentum and a force is exerted on the wall. The force per unit area is the pressure of the gas.

Relationship between Pressure and Volume

When the volume of a gas is decreased, the number of molecules per unit volume increases, that is, the same number of molecules will move in a smaller space. The molecules collide more frequently with the walls of the container. This increase in the rate of collision results in an increase in the pressure exerted by the gas.

Boyles Law Boyles law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to its volume when the temperature is kept constant. The mathematical expression for Boyles Law is

that is PV = constant or P V = P V

Boyles Law can be shown graphically as in Figure 4.13.

Relationship between Volume and Temperature

When the temperature of a gas raised, the molecules move faster as their kinetic energy increases. The molecules push the piston so that the gas expands and the pressure remains constant.

The volume of a gas decrease when its temperature is lowered. The temperature at which the volume of the gas is expected to become zero can be obtained by extrapolating the graph of volume against temperature.

 The temperature -273 C is the lowest possible temperature and is known as the absolute zero of temperature. The corresponding temperatures in the Celsius and Kelvin scales are as follows: Temperature Absolute zero Ice point Steam point Unknown temperature Celsius scale -273 C 0 C 100 C C Kelvin scale 0K 273 K 373 K ( + 273) K

Charles Law Charles law states for a fixed mass of gas, the volume of the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature when its pressure is kept constant. The mathematical expression for Charles Law is

V T That is = constant Or =

Relationship between Pressure and Temperature When the temperature of a gas is raised, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases. The molecules move faster and collide more frequently with the walls of the container. Thus, the pressure of the gas increases.

Pressure Law Pressure law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature when its volume is kept constant. The mathematical expression for the pressure law is

P T That is = constant Or =