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ROLE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA

S.No. 1.

SYLLABUS TOPICS National Policy of Science and Technology

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Discuss about National Policy of S&T. b. Discuss the achievements and advances in fields of S&T by India.

2.

Changes in policy from time to time

a.

Discuss the scenario of changes made in policy of S&T from time to time. What is the development made in S&T during five year plan periods? Discuss.

b.

3. TOTAL

Technology Missions

a. What are Technology Missions? Briefly discuss various types of them. QUESTIONS 5

TOPICS 3

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Discuss about National Policy of S&T. Science and Technology (S&T) has always been an integral part of Indian Culture. These disciplines are vigorously pursued in institutes of higher education. Eminent scholars like Arya Bhatta, Bhaskara, Brahma Gupta, Dhanvantari, Nagarjuna and Charaka etc. contributed in fields like Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine and Chemistry during pre-historic period. Their contributions are legendary not only to Indian S&T but also to the knowledge base of man kind. The astronomical observatories in Jaipur and New Delhi; and Ashokan Iron pillar in New Delhi shows the technological capabilities of India in ancient times. The dawn of present century witnessed the great strides made by Indian Scientists like Srinivasa Ramanujan, J.C.Bose, P.C.Ray, Meghnad Saha, Sir C.V.Raman, S.N.Bose, Birbal Sahani, P.C.Mahalonbis, M.Visweswarayya etc. They left indelible imprints on world S&T scene. Presently, India is the third largest scientific and technical man power of world with 162 universities, awarding 4000 doctorates and 35,000 PG degrees. There is also CSIR with 40 research laboratories which made

some significant achievements. The S&T infrastructure in country accounts for more than 1% of G.N.P. India was the first country in the world to create a Ministry of Scientific Research and Natural Resources in 1951, for organizing and directing scientific research for national development. The next most important step was adoption of Scientific Policy Resolution by the Indian Parliament in 1958. SCIENTIFIC POLICY RESOLUTION, 1958: On March 4, 1958 the Indian Govt. announced the Scientific Policy Resolution. The resolution underlined the basic ideology for development of science in India and offered Indian science a value system which would guide its future course. The resolution took cognizance of the fact that development of technology depends on growth of science. Science was viewed to be an important factor which would lead to democratization of comforts and amenities. This, as it was felt in the resolution, would not only change the material environment but would go still deeper. Welfare state could be translated into reality specifically with help of science. The objectives described in the Scientific Policy Resolution are given below: (i) Foster, promote and sustain by all appropriate means, the cultivation of science and scientific research in all its aspects i.e., pure, applied and educational; (ii) Ensure an adequate supply, with in the country, of research scientists of the highest quality and to recognize their works as an important component of strength of nation; (iii) Encourage, and initiate, with all possible speed, programmes for training of scientific and technical personnel on a scale adequate to fulfill countrys need in science and education, agriculture, industry and defense; (iv) Ensure that creative talent of men and women is encouraged and finds full scope in scientific activity; (v) Encourage individual initiative for the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge, and for the discovery of new knowledge, in atmosphere of academic freedom; and (vi) In general, secure for the people of country all the benefits that can accrue from the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge. The resolution served as the charter of development of science in India. It clearly outlined the

priorities of Indian Science and facilitated path of growth in agricultural and industrial sectors. In 1983, Govt. issued a similar statement which, while stressing the importance of international cooperation and the diffusion of scientific knowledge, put considerable emphasis on self reliance and the development of indigenous technology. TECHNOLOGY POLICY STATEMENT, 1983: Though the Scientific Policy Resolution was adopted long ago in 1958 and a vast scientific infrastructure was built to give effect to the goals of the resolution, it was increasingly felt in the early eighties that growth of technology should also receive some kind of policy banking. With this end in view, while addressing the 70th session of Indian Science Congress (ISC) at Tirupati, A.P. on Jan 3, 1983, late Indira Gandhi, the then P.M., announced to nation what later came to be known as the Technology Policy Statement. The purpose of the statement was to give technological development a clear direction as regards the growth of the indigenous technology and acquisition of technology from out side. The principal aims of Technological Policy Statement are: (i) To attain technological competence and self reliance, to reduce vulnerability particularly in strategic and critical areas, making the maximum use of indigenous resources; To produce the maximum gainful and satisfying employment to all strata of society, with emphasis on employment of women and weaker sections of society; To use traditional skills and capabilities making them commercially competitive; To ensure the correct mix between mass production technologies and production by the masses; To ensure maximum development with minimum capital outlay; To identify obsolescence of technology in use and arrange for modernization of both equipment & technology; To develop technologies which are internationally competitive, particularly with export potential; To improve production speedily; To reduce demands on energy particularly from non-renewable resources; To recycle waste material and make full utilization of by products; and

(ii)

(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

(xi)

To ensure environmental harmony and ecological balance. 1. b. Discuss the achievements and advances in fields of S&T by India.

India has earned many recognizable and useful achievements. The latest advances due to achievements in various sectors are given below:

1. In Field of Medicine:
CSIR played a vital role in not merely making India self reliant, but also a net exporter in fields of drugs and pharmaceuticals. Some of the drugs are: SAHELI a non steroidal once a week oral contraceptive pill for women, PICROLIV a herbal drug for treatment of liver disorder, AZT anti AIDS drugs having high export potential, ASMON a herbal therapeutic for Asthma and EMAL a malaria resistant drug etc. 2. In Field of Ocean Development: Department of Ocean Development established in 1981 aimed at developing emerging frontier of Antarctic research and deep sea bed mining. Indias research vessel SAGAR KANYA has navigated from the coastal Goa and gathered a number of samples of research work.

3. In Field of Research: India established research stations at Antarctica called MAITRI and DAKSHINA GANGOTRI, to research the glacial environment and land there. Recently, Dept. of Earth established a research station at Arctic called HIMADRI. 4. In Field of Software: India became emerging leader in field of Software engineering and web based services. About 50% of GDP is contributed by service sector. Software fields like IT/ITES, BPOs, Technical and Customer Support, KPOs etc. are major contributors in that. The national IT Task Force has set a target of $ 50 billion of annual software and service exports by 2008. FLO SOLVER is the Indias first parallel computer made by CSIR. 5. In Field of Agriculture: Green Revolution is the most significant example. Under guidance and leader ship of DR. M.S.Swaminathan, the chairman of National Commission of Farmers, Indian scientists strived for development of Agriculture. SANKAR is a hybrid seed developed by the mission.

India is 6th nation to send a probe on moon recently in the mission CHANDRAYAN-I. The efforts of ISRO put India into a special and dominant position of world space scene. The event of PSLV-XI which put ten distinct international satellites at a time into sun synchronous orbit brought us international recognition. Satellites like EDUSAT, METSAT, KALPANA I, RISAT etc. are major contributors to Indian resources in remote sensing and communications etc. India is now into commercial market with arm of Department of Space called ANTRIX. ISRO also started launching international satellites. For example, it launched Israels TECSAR and Italys AGILE. 7. In Field of Nuclear Energy: India is one of the top 5 nations in missile launch. DRDO plays the lead role in defence lines. The recent 123 agreement finalized between India and US promises a lot of growth in civilian nuclear power. Also another agreement was signed with France in field of civilian nuclear cooperation. Targets are set to increase of nuclear power production from present 3% to 20% by 2020.

6. In Field of Space Development:

8. Contributions of CSIR: CSIR has contributed various products like AMUL BABY FOOD, NUTAN Stove, SARAS multi-role air craft, voters ink, SWARAJ & SONALIKA tractors etc.
2. a. Discuss the scenario of changes made in policy of S&T from time to time. Much ice was broken after the technology policy statement of 1983 was enforced. In the realm of S&T, India is much ahead of a large number of countries. How ever, the need for restructuring the policy was felt in 1990s again, considering the changes. 1. TECHNOLOGY POLICY STATEMENT, 1993: The establishment of the Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) in mid 1987 paved the way for devising a new technology policy statement in 1993, which envisaged: (i) Ensuring benefits of growth of S&T in India in terms of achieving greater spread of technical knowledge and accessibility to remote and rural areas

(ii)

Facilitating proper utilization of scientific resources in order to achieve the target of sustainable development (iii) Optimal utilization of natural resources (iv) Augmenting the process of human resource development in the field of S&T (v) Drawing up short and long term plans considering the priority areas based on socio economic development 2. NEW S&T POLICY, 2003: In order to build a blue print for future programmes of S&T and to give a direction to the initiatives to be under taken, the central govt. has announced the S&T Policy, 2003 in 90th Indian Science Congress (ISC) concluded on Jan 7, 2003 at Jnana Bharati Campus of Bangalore University. The Indian Science marked by a space summit, a science exhibition and plenary sessions on Cutting Edge Technologies that could hold the key to wealth generation in the country. A new national S&T Policy was announced during the congress. The policy seeks that it could directly face the challenges of globalization. The policy outlines the approach to S&T governance, optimal utilization of existing physical and knowledge resources, development of innovative technologies, systems and technologies for mitigation and management of natural hazards, generation and management of intellectual property and creation of awareness, amongst general masses about the use and benefits of S&T. The objectives of this policy are: (i) (ii) The new policy aims at using the full potential of modern tools of S&T to protect, update and add value to the traditional knowledge available It aims at strengthening the mechanism for quicker commercialization of indigenously developed technologies and establish on intellectual property right (IPR) regime that would maximize the incentives for generation and protection of IPR It also seeks to provide greater autonomy to R&D institutions. The policy will ensure that S&T enterprise is fully committed to its social responsibilities To accomplish national strategic and security related objectives, by using the latest advances in S&T To encourage research and application for forecasting, prevention and mitigation of natural hazards, particularly floods, cyclones, earth quakes, drought and land slides

(iii)

(iv) (v)

(vi) (vii)

(viii) (ix)

To promote the empowerment of women in S&T activities and ensure their full and equal participation To promote international S&T cooperation towards achieving the goals of national development and security; and make it a key element of our international relations Govt. also announced the institution of Rs. 25 lakh Indian Science Award, highest in the field of S&T To integrate scientific knowledge with insights from other disciplines and ensure fullest involvement of scientists and technologists in national governance so that the spirit and methods of scientific enquiry permeate deeply into all areas of public policy making

2. b. What is the development made in S&T during five year plan periods? Discuss. From the beginning of first five year plan, the programmes of various national laboratories and scientific departments have been supported by allocating resources. Planning for S&T is mainly achieved by preparing plans for the following three sectors in an independent manner: (i) Plans for scientific departments viz., Dept. of S&T, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dept. of Bio Technology, Dept. of Space, Dept. of Atomic Energy, Dept. of Electronics, Dept. of Ocean Development and Ministry of Environment and Forests. (ii) Planning for S&T component of over 30 socio economic ministries/departments including organizations like ICMR, ICAR, Central Board for Irrigation and Power etc. and (iii) A separate S&T sector in the plans of states and U.T.s. FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN (1951-56): This plan aimed at setting up of new national laboratories and research institutes, to translate results of scientific research into commercial production and to train the personnel for mining the research institutes and running industries. Exploration of resources and an extensive survey to find new resources is also carried out. SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN (1956-61): Efforts were made to promote the research work, increase the number of laboratories and institutes in the country. Metric system was adopted to bring standardization in the system. To train and generate the scientific man power in sufficient numbers and ensure its proper utilization is another task concentrated upon.

THIRD FIVE YEAR PLAN (1961-66): It aimed to strengthen existing research institutes and expand facilities for research work; encourage basic research in engineering and technology with a view to develop and manufacture scientific and industrial instruments. FOURTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-74): Stress on purposeful R&D programmes; Steel, Chemicals and Industries were other priority areas identified. FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1974-79): Attempt to restructure research programmes as far as practicable into projects with predetermined time spans, costs and expected benefits. Care is taken to avoid duplicity of research. In agriculture, emphasis on controlling crop diseases, dry farming and agricultural implements. SIXTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1980-85): This plan regarded science both as an out look and as a value system. It envisaged a close nexus between S&T and Education. The plan also emphasized on creating new research institutions with a strong mandate for theoretical and pure research. SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1985-90): This plan laid emphasis on growth, equity and social justice, self reliance, improved efficiency and productivity. EIGHTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1992-97): This plan aimed to perform basic research in the front line areas. Innovative research in exploitable areas with emphasis on emerging technologies for securing a position of leadership and self reliance is targeted. NINTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1997-2002): The research department of Doordarshan and AIR will undertake the development of systems which are not available in the open market, formulation of plans for new services in networks and broadcast related consumer electronic products. TENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2002-07): The focus is: (i) To strengthen Application Oriented Research & Development for Technology generation (ii) Promote HRD, especially in terms of encouraging bright students to take up science as career (iii) Encourage research in and application of S&T for forecasting (iv) Prevention and mitigation of natural hazards

(v)

Integrate developments with all sphere of national activities (vi) Harness S&T for improving livelihood and employment generation (vii) Environment protection and Ecological Security Also during 11th five year plan, there is a proposal for setting up a NATIONAL S&T COMMISSION. It will be responsible for all matters relating to S&T, administrative, financial, scientific audit etc. It will evolve managerial policy of all science departments and plan a model for deployment of resources. The main responsibilities will include: (i) (ii) Evolution of S&T Policy for nation Evolution of appropriate managerial structure in scientific departments/organizations (iii) Responsibility of allocation of funds (iv) Measure required making health of Indian Science very robust and to improve and sustain Indias position in World Science. 3. a. What are Technology Missions? Briefly discuss various types of them. India still faces some major problems like illiteracy, poverty, lack of nutritional food, pollution of drinking water, infant mortality, lack of enough oil seeds etc. To solve these, a need is felt more than depending on Five Year Plans. To gain greater and quick success Technology Missions was started in 1985. To contribute to human needs National Technological Missions were started. The main aim of these missions is to bring gradual changes within a set time period. These technological missions needed synchronized efforts from centre, state and district levels. Similarly, private organizations, NGOs, International Organizations should take their part for effective implementation of Technology Missions. These missions are allocated separated budget during five year plans. Planning Commission identifies 16 missions at present. All these are not National Technology Missions. Some of them are at demonstration level only. Sugar production, Cyclone Warning System, Clean Coal Technology, Leather, Bio-pesticides, Bio-Fertilizers, Aqua Culture etc. are now at demonstration level (pilot projects). In 1986, these Technological Missions are started by late P.M. Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. Doctor Sam Pitroda was

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the chief advisor to P.M. at that time. At present there are seven National Technology Missions. They are: i. Safe Drinking Water ii. Milk Production iii. Oil Production (Vegetable) iv. Tele Communications v. Immunization vi. Literacy vii. Waste land reclamation IN DETAIL: 1. NATIONAL DRINKING WATER TECHNOLOGY MISSION: It was started in 1986. Aim is to provide at least 40 litres drinking water to every person every day. During the 7 th five year plan, the mission took 1,53,390 problematic villages under its control. Again in 1990-91, 3,032 villages were adopted. Using Remote Sensing, to identify the ground water, drip drilling, conversion of salt water to drinking water at coastal areas etc. are this missions main functions. 2. TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTION: MISSION ON MILK

Dairy Development Technology Mission was created by National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), ICAR along with centre and state governments for growth in milk production. The mission identifies the present milk production scene and prescribes new methods for growth in production. It also invented some research programmes. These are implemented by national research organizations like: National Cattle Research Organization, Botanical Survey of India, Zoological Survey of India, National Grass Research organization etc. Similarly relevant programmes were given to National Live stock department board and agricultural universities. 3. TECHNOLOGY MISSION ON OIL SEEDS: The main aim of this technology mission is to increase production of oil seeds, reduce dependency on imports and thus reduce foreign currency spending. During period of 1981-86, an amount of 3900 crores foreign currency was spent in importing oil seeds. There are sufficient natural resources in India, for production of oil seeds. But the necessary technology is not with us. Till 2000, target is set to produce 26 million tonnes oil seeds, 8 million tonnes vegetable oils. In 1992-93, 20 million

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tonnes oil seeds were produced. For this purpose, seeds that have drought resistant capacity and latest agricultural methods are used. High yield foreign oil seeds are set to test that they sustain to Indian climatic conditions. 4. COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY MISSION: During start, the mission developed to improve telegram delivery in top 500 cities for a good communication system. It uses digital technology, electronic exchange for better performance. To reduce delay in transport, time deadlines are set in deliver of posts.

5. TECHNOLOGY MISSION ON IMMUNIZATION: National Immunization Mission was started in 1985. Its aim is to provide vaccination to infants, pregnants and to reduce infant mortality and diseases. This mission takes all the areas under its function. Our country has achieved the strength to produce all the vaccines on its own. Polio vaccine is distributed for free at all places. Due to this mission, IMR reduced from 97/1000 in 1985 to 30/1000 in 1990. 6. NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION: In 1988, late P.M. Sri Rajiv Gandhi started this mission. To convert majority of illiterates to literates with in short period is its aim. This mission is being implemented through NGOs. To make large contribution and have adequate force this work was given to private organizations. This is called Campaign Approach for complete literacy. By 1995, 300 lakh illiterates between 15-35 age groups were made into literates. By 1999, the number was grown ten times. This mission mainly benefited women and tribal. In 1991, average literacy of 52.2% increased to 65.38% in 2001. The Ernakulam experiment became role model of India. At present, the mission is now concentrated mostly on four Hindi speaking states BIMARU (Bihar, M.P., Rajasthan, U.P.) 7. TECHNOLOGY RECLAMATION: MISSION ON WASTE LAND

Estimating the locations of waste lands, identifying their present situation and preventing them from being deserts, is the main aim of the mission. In 1989, Wasteland Reclamation was made a Technology Mission.

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Maintaining ecological balance, reducing land degradation, reforestation, encouraging from forestry, increasing public green lands etc. are main activities in the mission. OTHER IMPORTANT TECHNOLOGY MISSIONS: 8. COTTON TECHNOLOGY MISSION: To encourage cotton and its associated fields, cotton technology mission was started in 2000. In 200405, 89.2 lakh hectares of world is growing cotton. India is in third place in world after China and USA, with production of 243 lakh bales. But its yield is too less. By 2002-03, it has produced 300 kilos per hectare. It increased to 463 kilos in 2004-05. Textile exports contribute to 30% of total exports. Cotton alone contributes to 20% of those exports. 9. NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY MISSION: To provide food security, National Food Security Mission was started. Target was set to produce 10 million tonnes of rice, 8 million tonnes of wheat and 2 million tonnes of oil seeds by 2011-12. Due to this mission, 25 million farmers of 305 districts in 16 states got benefited. Farmers Field Schools were being organized. Field demonstrations and practice are taken in large scale. x---- END OF UNIT 1 ---x

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U N I T - II
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Space Programme in India and its applications with special reference to industrial, agricultural and other rural development activities POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Discuss about Space Programme in India. b. Explain the applications of Space Technology in Agriculture. c. Explain the applications Space Technology in Industry. of

d. How can space technology contribute in development of rural areas? 2. INSAT Systems a. What is INSAT System? Discuss briefly about various satellites present in INSAT System. b. What are the applications of INSAT System? 3. IRS Systems a. What is IRS System? Discuss briefly about various satellites present in IRST System. b. What are the applications of IRS System? TOTAL TOPICS

QUESTIONS 8

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Discuss about Space Programme in India. The boundary between atmosphere and earth is diffuse rather than sharp. Region beyond the altitude of 200 km is considered as Outer Space. The long history of myth and dreams, culminated in the dramatic launching of the first artificial orbiting earth satellite, SPUTNIK-I (meaning traveling companion of world), by USSR on Oct 4, 1957. Later US successfully launched its first earth satellite, EXPLORER, from Cape Canaveral on Jan 31, 1958. Indian Space Programme is characterized by a vision to use space technology for national development. It began way back in 1962, when Dr. VIKRAM SARABHAI and others set up INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee on Space Research). On 21 Nov, 1963 the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching

Station (TERLS) at Trivendrum became operational. Indias first rocket, a two staged one, called Nike-Apache-M100 was launched from TERLS. The TERLS was in 1968 dedicated to UN. In 1969, INCOSPAR was reconstituted and INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION (ISRO) was established under Sarabhais championship. In 1972, Space Commission and Dept. of Space (DoS) was set up and ISRO was brought under DoS for administrative purpose. In 1972, the whole complex in Thumba comprising the TERLS, the Space Science and Technology Centre (SSTC), the Rocket Propellant Plant, Rocket Fabrication Facility (RFF) and Propellant Fuel Complex (PFC) was designated as VIKRAM SARABHAI SPACE CENTRE (VSSC). India was among the first few countries to realize the importance of space technology to solve the basic problems of man kind and took initiative to develop the space technology for national benefit. India realized that space holds immense potential to accelerate the development process in the country and offers enormous opportunities to understand the universe. Indian Space Programme is characterized by a vision to use Space Technology for national development. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of the Indian Space Programme is to make India self reliant in Space Technology. The major thrusts of the programme are: (i) (ii) Satellite Communication for domestic uses Remote Sensing for resources survey and management, environmental monitoring and meteorological services (iii) Development and operationalization of indigenous satellites and launch vehicles for providing these services Development of satellites, launch vehicles, sounding rockets and associated ground systems is the main theme. To realize these objectives, ISRO activities are predominantly oriented towards: (i) (ii) designing and development of application satellites for communication, remote sensing, television broad casting and meteorology and designing and development of satellite launch vehicles to place these application satellites

The Space Commission, the apex body, mainly formulates the policies and Dos implements these programmes through ISRO. The two major operational systems INDIAN NATIONAL SATELLITE (INSAT) for telecommunication, television broad casting and meteorological services and INDIAN REMOTE SENSING (IRS) for resources monitoring and management together with two operational launch vehicles, POLAR SYNCHRONOUS LAUNCH VEHICLE (PSLV) to launch remote sensing satellites in polar sun synchronous orbit and GEO SYNCHRONOUS LAUNCH VEHICLE (GSLV) to launch communication and meteorological satellites in Geo synchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). Space Science activities include participation in international science campaigns and developing ground systems like MST RADAR etc. ISROs cooperative agreements are made with several countries and their space agencies. ISRO also provides training in space field to personnel from other countries. ISROs hardware

and services are available commercially through ANTRIX Corporation. India is one among the six countries in the world to develop GTO launch capability. The satellites in GTO collect data that serve as main stay of the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) besides providing data world wide. Vital applications such as identifying zones which could yield ground water, suitable locations for recharging water monitoring command areas, estimating crop areas and yields, assessing deforestation. Mapping urban areas for planning purposes, delineating ocean areas with higher fish catching potential and monitoring of environment are being pursued actively by users with space based data. In field of Space Communication, the INSAT System, currently consisting of 10 satellites is one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in Asia Pacific Region, with a capacity of 200 transponders in C, Ext-C, Ku and S bands. INSAT contributes significantly to a variety of services in telecommunication and television broadcasting including meteorological observation, disaster communications, tele-education, tele-health services and village resource centres. The Indian Space Programme has ensured a significant role in domestic industries through space systems. A strong bond with academic institutions exists through extensive research partnership. Unique organizational systems have been evolved in national space programme for fulfilling diverse functions like development, operations and applications of complex space systems. The diverse roles of Space Technology/ Services in various fronts like social, commercial, economic and strategic thus made the space systems an important component of our national infrastructure. 1. b. Explain the applications of Space Technology in Agriculture. Agriculture depends on usage of natural resources like land and water. To attain maximum agricultural growth effective use of these resources in inevitable. REMOTE SENSING comes to a great use in this scenario. Remote Sensing is proved beneficial than all other types of land surveys. APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING IN AGRICULTURE:

(i)

AGRO-CLIMATE MAPPING: Through remote sensing mapping, it can be identified to know the exact time to crop. Different crops need different temperatures for a high yield. So, the crops can be chosen carefully. This agro climatic mapping reduces the risk taken by farmers and also increases the agricultural production and income. (ii) PESTICIDE PREVENTION: Some insects preferentially go to the healthiest portion of the crop. Using remote sensing to map the field, scouting efforts can be targeted where rapid growth is occurring and insecticides applied only when they are needed. This can reduce pesticide application by as much as 70%. (iii) NATURAL RESOURCES CENSUS: NR Census will provide a snap shot of the status of natural resources.

(iv) POTENTIAL FISHERY ZONE (PFZ) FORCASTING: Potential Fishing Zones were forecasted using sea surface temperature and sea surface wind (SSW) which indicates the effect of currents on feeding grounds. (v) IRRIGATION: Soils and drainage frequently are not uniform across a field. When a plant is experiencing stress from drought, flood or pests, it reflects more light in some portions of spectrum rather than using light in photosynthesis. These reflectance patterns can be readily detected and mapped with remote sensing instruments, providing the farmer with information to help when and where to irrigate. (vi) LAND UTILIZATION MAPPING: Through this, unutilized land can be identified and brought under irrigation. (vii) WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT: The land that is cultivatable and that is uncultivatable can be developed, natural water shed networks can be developed based on information provided by remote sensing on Water shed mapping. This prevents frequent shedding of soil and helps in soil conservation. (viii) WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: An estimate of water resources available can be made. Remote Sensing can identify the level of ground water and also can estimate the rain water that can be obtained through meteorology devices. (ix) NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: Natural Resources can be under three divisions. They are: (i) Mineral Resources, (ii) Flora and Fauna and (iii) Environmental Forecasting. Indian government has started a project named National Natural Resource Management using Remote Sensing. Department of Space (DoS) is the nodal agency of this project. (x) COASTAL, MAN GROVES AND CORAL REEF STUDIES: This enables constant monitoring and sustainable maintenance of coastal ecology. (xi) WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY MAPPING: This enables sustainable water management in command areas. (xii) CROP ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION ESTIMATE (CAPE): It is a country wide project under Ministry of Agriculture. Acreage and Production estimates for principal crops such as wheat, rice, sorghum, mustard, cotton and groundnut are generated under this project. (xiii) WEATHER FORECASTING AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT: Remote Sensing can be used to predict a flood or a drought, details of climate, salinity of the water, etc. (xiv) NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS): National GIS is a major initiative organizing the image and spatial data assets and make them accessible to users, for both viewing and physical access. Major themes covered are land use/land cover, soils, drainage, water bodies, waste land,

vegetation type besides administrative boundaries at different levels, settlements, transport network etc. Also, the INSAT Systems communication technologies are used widely for development of agriculture. E-Governance, Satellite services on educating people on various crops etc. are the foundations of agricultural growth. Thus, space technology is proved to be of immense importance in various applications of Agriculture, contributing to growth of Agriculture in India. 1. c. Explain the applications of Space Technology in Industry. The advance of Science & Technology and its various branches from past three decades has changed the worlds fate. The R&D in space technology has main role in it. Communication, Television, Education, Agriculture, Industries, Natural Resources Management, Environment Pollution, Disaster Prevention & Management, Health, Trade & Commerce etc. are all different sorts of fields that use Space Technology in their path. Uses of Space Technology are already being used to include innovative crash test systems to improve car safety, microbiological sensors for water treatment, light weight hydrogen tanks; Space Technology is also being used in state-of-art ultra light robots for performing surgeries. Vehicle safety test, water safety test, experiments that use micro organisms in it, to identify sulphur content in the fuel, separating rust from iron etc. and many other industrial and chemical researches use space technology. There has been a good market created by Space Technology. Remote Sensing, Manufacture of artificial parts, GPS, GIS etc. all made life easier for man. Through GPS, direction of satellites, Telecom Mapping has grown to a great extent. GPS is also used in navigation of flights and management, arrangement of space crafts, surveying etc. Satellites sent into space with imaging and non-imaging functions are vital for managing natural resources, disaster management, GIS etc. Most of the Indian Satellites are related to category of Remote Sensing INSAT Satellites are the back bone of Indian Communication Technology. Health Industry, Television, Tele Communications, Education etc. uses Space Technology extensively. Space Technology has been in forefront of Indian Research Departments. The vehicle launched by Antrix Corporation is responsible for growth in Education, especially telemedicine. Research also takes part in Earth Observation, Climatic Research, Agro-Climatic Mapping, Ocean Technology etc. The extent of forestation and deforestation identified can be used to limit the exploitation of natural resources. Space Technology is the single most dominant field to help in controlling Global Warming. The networking between various nations is made possible only with the help of communications provided by the Space Technology only. INSAT-3D, OCEANSAT etc. is some of the communication satellites. Usage of Internet has changed the isolation of various nations. Now, the word Globalization is made a true reality with help of Space Technology.

Hence, it can be identified that the myriad developments in various industries with help of Space Technology is simply indispensable. India has already started commerce using Space Technology. It has launched AGILE a satellite of Italy and TECSAR a satellite of Israel. Antrix Corporation is the commercial arm of Department of Space. It takes the main role in further growth of Indian Industries using Space Technology. 1. d. How can space technology contribute in development of rural areas? One of the worlds fast growing technologies is Indian Space Technology. The Remote Sensing and Communication Technology are its main thrust areas. But due to lack of resources and slow implementation by government, the application of Space Technology in rural development is rather slow. There are many ways through which Space Technology contribute to rural development. Space Technology of India started under supervision of Nuclear Power Department in 1962. Today, India is at a stage that it is sending satellite missions to Moon and Mars. India has the biggest indigenous communication and remote sensing capabilities. India stands on its own satellite designing, satellite launch vehicle technology, propulsion technology etc. Indian Space Technology is now being used extensively in Television, Radio, Telecommunication, Meteorology, Agriculture, Resources Management, Disaster Management, Defence etc. Now, it is time to implement these technologies in rural growth and development to establish an equitable society in India. Types of Indian Satellites: They can be categorized into two:

(i)

Communication Satellites: This reduces distance between people. Information & Communication Technology (ICT), TV, Radio Digital Relay, Weather Forecast etc. are provided by these satellites. INSAT satellites are sent into space by India for this purpose. INSAT - 2E, INSAT 3A, 3B, 3C, 3E, KALPANA I, GSAT 2, EDUSAT, INSAT 4A etc. are currently operational. Remote Sensing Satellites: These observe earth from the space. Data on various grounds can be created very cheaply. India uses IRS for this function. IRS 1C, 1D, 3P, OCEANSAT I, Technology Experiment Satellite (TES), RESOURCESAT I, CARTOSAT I, HAMSAT, the most recent satellite operation is RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite).

(ii)

In Rural Development: Information is Wealth. But, the rural environment is logging behind in procuring and processing the information. The recent growth of Information & Communication Technology has opened various opportunities for rural people. The growth can be categorized under following heads: (i) Connection of Villages through Telephone (ii) Development through TV & Radio (iii) Development through Internet

IN DETAIL:

(i)

Through Telephone: The tele density in urban areas is on an average at 17/100 persons but in rural areas it is just at 1/100. At national level, the average is 9.3/100 persons. Telephone not only increases communication in fast way but also paves the path of social bonding. Government has taken necessary actions to make Telephone System Strong in India. Community Information Centres (CIC), Universal Service Obligation Fund, PURA Complexes, Local PCOs, Agricultural Technology Centres (ATC), Kisan Call Centres (KCC), INSAT Communication Services etc. were created. Much effort has been put into rural telephones, foci mile transmission, emergency communication, computer networking and news service. Even though, there is still a lot of scope to improve the telephonic system. For this, the cooperation of all government, corporate offices, NGOs and private parties is necessary.

(ii)

Through TV, Radio: To educate and enlighten people on various issues like education, population control, health, cleanliness, water usage, scams etc. TV and Radio can be used extensively. They can also be used to propagate knowledge on Agriculture. The recent developments made possible several local channels, FM telecasts, and private radio operators programmes that provide information in local languages. The satellites like HAMSAT and VISATs brought drastic changes in TV and Radio.

(iii) Through Internet:

With advent of Internet, a click on mouse can retrieve information within seconds from any where of the world. Most of the rural population lives in isolation from the outer world. To establish proper channels of information to them, internet is the most powerful device. Many internet oriented schemes were started to develop the rural environment. Some of those are:

(a)

e - Agriculture: Agriculture purely depended on man and material once upon a time. But now, the farmers compete for greater yield, greater quality of output and good price in the market. The increase in competition brings various questions of technology on the scene. The farmers can log into the rural portals launched by government and can clarify their doubts. Knowledge about various crops, pest control mechanisms, beneficial crop patterns, region wise crops, climatic patterns etc. is included in these portals. Government is taking all necessary steps to convert all local PCOs in rural areas to Cyber Kiosks. e-chaupal present in Community Information Centre (CIC) is also providing internet facilities.

(b)

e - Education: Most of the rural people fall under category of illiterates. They can be provided education through internet.

(c)

e - Health Service: Telemedicine is the most beneficial for rural people suffering from various diseases. Patients can directly know about diseases and prevention activities from the health specialists through internet.

(d)

e Marketing: Rural people can market their produce at reasonable prices, by contacting with market through e mail and internet. This reduces exploitation of innocent rural farmers by intermediaries.

(e)

e Banking: Internet Banking is must to provide banking facilities to rural people. Farmers can be given facilities of e-finance, e-insurance and ATM. Farmers can know about their debts and balance through e-banking with out any struggle.

(f)

e Finance: e - Finance helps farmers to request for loans. They contact directly the money providing banks instead of money lenders quoting high interest rates. This will help reducing the farmers suicides to great extent.

(g)

e Insurance: In rural areas, if the main head of a family die in an accident, the whole family becomes abandoned. Insurance facility is now available in e-insurance. This will give security to rural families.

(h)

e Governance: People can directly contact with government officials through e-governance projects. MEGH DOOT in M.P., BHOOMI in Karnataka is such project only.

(i)

e Panchayat: The first Panchayat that is fully computerized in India is Ramchandrapuram of Medak District in A.P. National Informatics Centre (NIC) of Department of Information Technology (DIT) has organized this programme. Registrations of birth and death certificates, old age pension certificates, commerce licenses etc. can be obtained through e-panchayats. Three- Fourths of Indian population is rural. Hence, development of India depends on development of rural areas. Space Technology which is fast emerging and rapidly growing can be applied effectively in rural areas to develop them. Hence, it can be concluded that Space Technology applications in rural development is thus vital. 2. a. What is INSAT System? Discuss briefly about various satellites present in INSAT System. The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a multi purpose operational satellite system for domestic long distance telecommunications, meteorological earth observation and data relay nation wide for television broadcasting, radio and television programme distribution and for re broadcasting through terrestrial transmitters. It is a joint venture of Department of Space (Dos), Department of Telecommunications (DoT), Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), All India Radio (AIR) and Doordarshan (DD). The over all coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the secretary level INSAT Coordination Committee. Established in

1983, INSAT is one of the largest domestic communication satellite system in the Asia Pacific Region with ten satellites in operation. They are INSAT 2E, 3A, 3B, 3E, KALPANA I, GSAT 2, EDUSAT, INSAT 4A and 4B. The INSAT system has a unique design, combining a single platform. The involvement of various users like Department of Telecommunications, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, and IMD has enabled proper tuning of INSAT System towards identified national developmental needs. INSAT links a large number of earth stations set up in the country, including those located in inaccessible regions and off shore islands. Satellites Operational & Planned:

I.

INSAT 2E: It is the last of 5 satellites in INSAT 2 series. It is in service from past 8 years. It has been providing valuable services in the field of Telecommunication. Under an agreement with International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), eleven 36 MHZ equivalent units of C-band capacity on INSAT -2E have been leased to INTELSAT. INSAT 3 SERIES: Of the five satellites, INSAT 3A, 3B, 3C, 3E have already been launched and are providing satisfactory service. INSAT 3A: The multi purpose satellite, INSAT 3A was launched in 2003. It is to relay meteorological, hydrological and oceanographic data from unattended land and ocean based automatic data collection cum transmission platforms. (93.5 deg. East Longitude) INSAT 3B: It is launched in 2000. It is co located with INSAT 2E at 83 deg. East Longitude. It provides Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) pay load with forward link between hub and mobile station operating in CXS band and return link between mobile station and hub operating in SXC band. INSAT 3C: It was launched on Jan 24, 2002. It is also a Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) system similar to INSAT 3B (74 deg. East Longitude) INSAT 3E: It is launched in 2003. It is positioned at 55 oE Longitude. 24 normal and 12 extended C-band transponders providing an edge of coverage of EIRP of 37dBW, 38dBW over India.

II.

III.

KALPANA I: It is an exclusive meteorological satellite which was launched by PSLV in 2002. The satellite has one VHPR and one DRT pay loads to provide meteorological services. (74 deg. East Longitude) GSAT 2: Launched in 2003 by GSLV from SDSC, SHAR (48 deg. East Longitude). MSS pay load similar to those on INSAT 3B and 3C.

IV.

V.

EDUSAT: The satellite is specially configured for audio visual medium, employing digital interactive class room lessons and multimedia content. The satellite transponders and their ground coverage are specially configured to cater to educational requirements of the country. It is (74 deg. East Longitude) co located with Kalpana I, INSAT 3C. It is now being extensively used for educational needs of the country. INSAT 4 SERIES: INSAT 4CR was successfully launched by GSLV-F04 on Sep 2, 2007 from SDSC, SHAR. Subsequently MCF acquired the signals from satellite and conducted initial phase operations on INSAT-4CR. All systems on the board are functioning normally. INSAT-4CR is the third satellite in INSAT-4 series. The first two, INSAT-4A and INSAT-4B which were identical were launched in Dec, 2005 and March, 2006 respectively, on board the European Ariane launch vehicle. The 2130 kg INSAT 4CR is designed to provide DTH Television services, Digital Satellite News Gathering Service (DSNG) and to serve other users of VSAT and other high bit rate data transmission. It has been built within a period of one year to replace an identical satellite, INSAT 4C that was lost due to failure of GSLV F02 in June, 2006. In GSO (36,000 km high), INSAT 4CR will be collocated with INSAT-3C, KALPANA-1 and EDUSAT at 74 deg. East Longitude. 2. b. What are the applications of INSAT System? INSAT System supports various communication services in the country. In telecommunications the key areas of satellite technology are Remote Area Communication, Village Public Telephones (VPTs), and backup facility, portable terminals for disaster management, prospecting and expeditions, search and rescue services (SAR) and satellite navigation. All these services yield social benefits such as connectivity to urban markets/government offices, social and community services and removing the sense of isolation. The INSAT applications can be discussed in more detail below: (i) INSAT Reporting System: This is one way messaging from a remote location to user head quarters, operates with Delhi Earth Station (DES) as the hub. Short messages from user terminals are relayed through the satellite to the hub and are automatically forwarded to the respective user headquarters via fax or data links. (ii)Television: INSAT has been a major catalyst for the rapid expansion of television coverage in India. At present various TV Channels are operating through C- Band transponders of INSAT System as follows: National Networking Service (DD-1), Metro Service (DD-2) and Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG) service. (iii) EDUSAT: EDUSAT Programme is aimed to provide distance education service using advanced space technology and ground technology of convergence. The programme is primarily for school, college and higher levels of education and to support nonformal education. An exclusive 24 hours educational TV GYANDARSHAN is being operated by Doordarshan. Today, there are over 9000 EDUSAT classrooms

VI.

operational in the country benefiting more than 3 lakh students from various parts of the country. (iv) GRAMSAT Programme: It is an initiative to provide communication networks at state level connecting the state capital to districts and blocks. The networks provide computer connectivity, data broadcasting, TV broadcast facilities having applications like e-governance, National Resource Information System (NRIS), development information, tele conferencing, disaster management, tele medicine and distance education. (v)Tele Medicine: Tele Medicine is one of the unique applications of space technology for societal benefit. DoS telemedicine programme, which started in 2001, is aimed at linking via INSAT remote/rural district hospitals. While DoS provides the telemedicine systems software, hardware and communication equipments as well as satellite band width. The state governments and specialty hospitals have to allocate funds for their part of infrastructure, man power and maintenance. At present, telemedicine expanded to cover 186 hospitals in 152 remote/rural districts. (vi) Satellite News Gathering & Dissemination: Satellite News Gathering using INSAT System enables on the spot real time news coverage. Prasar Bharati is using Outdoor-Broadcast (OB) SNG Terminals to cover important events in different locations. These are transmitted via satellite to a central station at Delhi for rebroadcast over Doordarshan channels. (vii) Radio Networking: Radio Networking (RN) through INSAT provides a reliable high fidelity programme channels for national as well as regional networks. All India Radio (AIR) stations have been equipped with S-Band receive terminals and 37 with C-Band terminals. (viii) Training & Developmental Communication: Training & Developmental Communication Channel (TDCC) using INSAT is operational since 1955. A.P. is setting up an integrated satellite network for the purpose of distant education, health care and rural development. (ix) Mobile Satellite Services: An S-Band Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) was added to INSAT System with the launch of INSAT 3C in 2002 and GSAT 2 in 2003. (x) Meteorology: The meteorological data of INSAT system is processed and disseminated by the INSAT Meteorological Data Processing System (IMDPS) of Indian Meteorological Department. (IMD). Upper Winds, Sea Surface Temperature and Precipitation index data are regularly obtained. The products derived from image include: cloud motion vectors, sea surface temperature, out going long wave radiation and quantitative precipitation index. The products are used for weather forecasting, both synoptic and numeric weather prediction. (xi) Satellite Navigation: The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement on indigenous Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as par of satellite based

communications, navigation and surveillance (CNS)/ Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil aviation. (xii) Tele Communications: Many telecommunication terminals of various sizes and capabilities are now operating in the INSAT telecommunications network, providing two way speeches over 166 routes. These include fixed and captive, as well as transportable terminals. In National Informatics Centre Network (NICNET) over 800 micro terminals are operating. High speed VSAT Network (HVNET) terminals are being offered in lease for data only terminal and for data and voice services. In this way, INSAT Satellite System forms the back bone of many applications of day to day life and puts Indian Space Technology on top of the world communications satellite systems. 3. a. What is IRS System? Discuss briefly about various satellites present in IRST System. The term REMOTE SENSING literally means observation and gathering data from a distance. The observation of Earth from space is usually termed as Remote Sensing of Earth and satellites used for the purpose are known as Remote Sensing Satellites. Simple photograph is also a form of Remote Sensing. But in more specific terms it refers to recording and analysis of Electro Magnetic Radiation in the visible, IR, UV and Microwave wavelengths reflected, scattered or radiated from various objects on earth. Remote Sensing satellites are deployed in sun synchronous polar orbits at a height of 800-1000 km. It uses techniques of Multi-spectral Imaging and uses solid-state electronic detectors known as Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) to receive the images. The Indian Earth Observatory (EO) system was commissioned with launch of Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS 1A, in 1988. The EO definition, development, operation and its applications are overseen by National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) for which DoS is the nodal agency. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) system has the worlds largest constellation of Remote Sensing satellites in operation today. Different satellites like CARTOSAT-1, IRS-1D, IRS-P3, OCEANSAT-1, RESOURCESAT-1, and TECHNOLOGY EXPERIMENT SATELLITE (TES) are in operation now. They provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions, meeting the needs of many applications. REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES IN DETAIL:

(a) IRS 1A:


Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) system was commissioned with launch of IRS-1A in March, 1988. It was launched by Vostok, Russia.

(b) IRS 1B: (c) IRS 1C:

It was launched by Vostok, Russia on August 1991.

It was launched by Molniya, Russia on December 1995. The satellite has completed ten years of service in 2005. When it was launched, it was the most advanced civilian Remote Sensing Satellite in India. Even though its designed life was 3 years, the meticulous in orbit operation of satellite by ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) coupled with high efficient use of on board propellant for its orbit orientation and control made it out live its designed life.

(d) IRS 1D: (e) IRS P3:

It was launched by PSLV C1, India.

It was launched in 1996 by Indias PSLV D3. It carried a Wide Field Sensor (WiFS), Modular Opto-Electronics Scanner (MOS) developed by German Space Agency, DLR and an X-ray instrument. (f) IRS P4 or OCEANSAT: This RSS satellite built by ISRO is exclusively for ocean resource mapping to help fishermen. It has been placed at 720 km above the earth surface and covers the earth once in 2 days. The Ocean Color Monitoring (OCM) cameras have 360 m. resolution power.

(g) TECHNOLOGY EXPERIMENT SATELLITE (TES):

It is an experimental satellite to demonstrate and validate, in orbit, technologies that could be used in the future satellites of ISRO. TES also carried a panchromatic camera with a spatial resolution of 1m.

(h) IRS P6 or RESOURCESAT - 1:

It is the most advanced RSS built by ISRO, till then. The tenth satellite of ISRO in IRS series not only continued the remote sensing data services of IRS 1C and 1D, but also vastly enhanced the data quality. (i) IRS P5 or CARTOSAT - 1: Cartosat-1 is a state-of-art Remote Sensing Satellite built by ISRO, which mainly intended for cartographic applications. It carries two state-of-art panchromatic cameras that take black and white spectroscopic pictures of earth in the visible region of EM radiation. The data provided by it is expected to enhance inputs for large scale mapping applications and simulate newer applications in urban and rural development, land and water resources management, disaster management, relief planning and management, environment impact assessment and various other GIS applications. (j) HAMSAT: It is Indias contribution to International Community of Amateur Radio Operators. It is a micro satellite launched as an auxiliary pay load along with CARTOSAT 1. (k)CARTOSAT 2: It is an advanced RSS carrying on board a single panchromatic camera capable of providing scene specific spot imageries for cartographic and a host of other applications. (l) CARTOSAT 2A:

Thirteenth in IRS Satellite series was launched by PSLV-C9 on April 28, 2008. It is an advanced remote sensing satellite capable of providing scene specific spot imagery. Data from the satellite can be used for cartographic applications at cadastral level, urban and rural infrastructure development and management, as well as applications in Land Information System (LIS) and Geographic Information System (GIS). (m) RISAT: Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT) is a micro wave RSS, sent by ISRO very recently through PSLV. SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) attached with RISAT will use its own illuminating source and does not depend on sun light for taking the imagery. SAR being an all weather imaging season is capable of taking images in cloudy and snow covered regions both during day and night. FORTHCOMING IRS SATELLITES:

(n) OCEANSAT 2:
It is envisaged to continue services of OCEANSAT 1. Its applications include identification of potential fishing zones, sea state forecasting, coastal zone studies and inputs for weather forecasting and climatic studies.

(o) RESOURCESAT 2:
It is aimed to provide continuation of services of RESOURCESAT - 1.

(p) TWSAT:
TWSAT is a remote sensing micro satellite to be launched for third world activities. 3. b. What are the applications of IRS System? The term REMOTE SENSING literally means observation and gathering data from a distance. The observation of Earth from space is usually termed as Remote Sensing of Earth and satellites used for the purpose are known as Remote Sensing Satellites. Simple photograph is also a form of Remote Sensing. But in more specific terms it refers to recording and analysis of Electro Magnetic Radiation in the visible, IR, UV and Microwave wavelengths reflected, scattered or radiated from various objects on earth. Remote Sensing satellites are deployed in sun synchronous polar orbits at a height of 800-1000 km. It uses techniques of Multi-spectral Imaging and uses solid-state electronic detectors known as Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) to receive the images. The Indian Earth Observatory (EO) system was commissioned with launch of Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS 1A, in 1988. The EO definition, development, operation and its applications are overseen by National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) for which DoS is the nodal agency. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) system has the worlds largest constellation of Remote Sensing satellites in operation today. Different satellites like CARTOSAT-1, IRS-1D, IRS-P3, OCEANSAT-1, RESOURCESAT-1, and TECHNOLOGY EXPERIMENT SATELLITE (TES) are in operation now. They provide data in a variety

of spatial, spectral applications.

and

temporal resolutions,

meeting

the

needs

of many

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING:

(i)

AGRO-CLIMATE MAPPING: Through remote sensing mapping, it can be identified to know the exact time to crop. Different crops need different temperatures for a high yield. So, the crops can be chosen carefully. This agro climatic mapping reduces the risk taken by farmers and also increases the agricultural production and income. (ii) PESTICIDE PREVENTION: Some insects preferentially go to the healthiest portion of the crop. Using remote sensing to map the field, scouting efforts can be targeted where rapid growth is occurring and insecticides applied only when they are needed. This can reduce pesticide application by as much as 70%. (iii) (iv) NATURAL RESOURCES CENSUS: NR Census will provide a snap shot of the status of natural resources.

POTENTIAL FISHERY ZONE (PFZ) FORCASTING: Potential Fishing Zones were forecasted using sea surface temperature and sea surface wind (SSW) which indicates the effect of currents on feeding grounds. (v) IRRIGATION: Soils and drainage frequently are not uniform across a field. When a plant is experiencing stress from drought, flood or pests, it reflects more light in some portions of spectrum rather than using light in photosynthesis. These reflectance patterns can be readily detected and mapped with remote sensing instruments, providing the farmer with information to help when and where to irrigate. (vi) (vii) LAND UTILIZATION MAPPING: Through this, unutilized land can be identified and brought under irrigation.

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT: The land that is cultivatable and that is uncultivatable can be developed, natural water shed networks can be developed based on information provided by remote sensing on Water shed mapping. This prevents frequent shedding of soil and helps in soil conservation. (viii) WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: An estimate of water resources available can be made. Remote Sensing can identify the level of ground water and also can estimate the rain water that can be obtained through meteorology devices. (ix) NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: Natural Resources can be under three divisions. They are: (i) Mineral Resources, (ii) Flora and Fauna, and (iii) Environmental Forecasting. Indian government has started a project named National Natural Resource Management

using Remote Sensing. Department of Space (DoS) is the nodal agency of this project. (x) COASTAL, MAN GROVES AND CORAL REEF STUDIES: This enables constant monitoring and sustainable maintenance of coastal ecology. (xi) (xii) WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY MAPPING: This enables sustainable water management in command areas.

CROP ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION ESTIMATE (CAPE): It is a country wide project under Ministry of Agriculture. Acreage and Production estimates for principal crops such as wheat, rice, sorghum, mustard, and cotton and ground nut are generated under this project. (xiii) WEATHER FORECASTING AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT: Remote Sensing can be used to predict a flood or a drought, details of climate, salinity of the water, etc. (xiv) NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS): National GIS is a major initiative organizing the image and spatial data assets and make them accessible to users, for both viewing and physical access. Major themes covered are land use/land cover, soils, drainage, water bodies, waste land, vegetation type besides administrative boundaries at different levels, settlements, transport network etc. Thus Remote Sensing is an accurate, faster and cheaper method which makes earth observation system better. It can survey sub continent of India in just 5 days. More than one survey can be organized. Also it could bring lot of foreign exchange as the data could be sold, especially to foreign nations. It also stands at forefront of military operations. Hence it can be known that role of Remote Sensing in development of Indian Space Technology is indispensable.

x---- END OF UNIT 2 ---x

U N I T III
S.No. 1. 2. SYLLABUS TOPICS Role of IT in Rural India Basics of Computers POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Discuss about Role of IT in rural India a. Explain the changes occurred during evolution of computers? b. Discuss the features, uses and limitations of computers. c. How do the computers function? Explain with a diagram d. Discuss about different types of computers. e. What are various threats that spoil the functioning of a computer? 3. Computers in Communication and Broadcasting Software Development Economic Growth Broad IT Applications in a. In what ways computers contribute to communication broadcasting service? can and

4. 5. TOTAL

a. Discuss the role of software in economic growth of India. a. How can IT be applied in various sections of nation? QUESTIONS 9

TOPICS 5

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Discuss about role of IT in rural India. Information Technology (IT) Revolution brought great changes in the world. The distances between nations vanished and the world turned into a Global Village. Three-fourths of Indian population falls under category of rural areas. Hence, the contribution of IT in the development of rural areas is critical and efforts are underway to enhance the awareness and penetration of IT in rural areas. Attempts are being taken by government to increase the depth of IT services in rural areas range from small initiatives like single computer information kiosks to the wired village project where dozens of villages are provided high speed internet connectivity. The government as well as private sector has been actively involved in the dispersion of IT and IT based services to rural India.

Different applications of IT that can be applied for development in rural areas with a focus on agricultural benefit are now readily available. They are satellite communication, geographical information system, computer networking, video networking, radio networking and reprography. Televisions, Radio, Telephone transmission, Telex transmission, Remote sensing etc. are contributed through satellite communication system. GIS contributes information related to environment, agriculture, agro-climatic mapping, rainfall related information, humidity, extent of pests etc. Computer networks helped to avoid redundancy of stored information. Data can be easily accessed through World Wide Web (www) and can be stored in the unlimited storages available. DTP (Desktop Printing) facilities made life easier to print the documents as and when the information is needed. Video conferencing, chatting etc. can be used to clarify doubts villagers, by making it direct talk to agricultural specialists. Radio networking is the most essential in educating rural amateurs about various agricultural techniques, diseases and their preventive measures, about first aid, about market prices etc. These radios are now available in pocket sizes with very cheap rates. Photo copying, Micro copying, printing etc. are possible by Reprography. Also the email, fax, teleconferencing, mobile phones etc. which are the pillars of Information Technology contributes to rural growth. Television is the most widely and commonly used information service. Services of TV in rural growth are highly appreciable. In Rural Development: Information is Wealth. But, the rural environment is logging behind in procuring and processing the information. The recent growth of Information Technology has opened various opportunities for rural people. The growth can be categorized under following heads: (i) Connection of Villages through Telephone (ii) Development through TV & Radio (iii) Development through Internet IN DETAIL:

(i)

Through Telephone: The tele density in urban areas is on an average at 17/100 persons but in rural areas it is just at 1/100. At national level, the average is 9.3/100 persons. Telephone not only increases communication in fast way but also paves the path of social bonding. Government has taken necessary actions to make Telephone System Strong in India. Community Information Centres (CIC), Universal Service Obligation Fund, PURA Complexes, Local PCOs, Agricultural Technology Centres (ATC), Kisan Call Centres (KCC), INSAT Communication Services etc. were created. Much effort has been put into rural telephones, foci mile transmission, emergency communication, computer networking and news service. Even though, there is still a lot of scope to improve the telephonic system. For this, the cooperation of all government, corporate offices, NGOs and private parties is necessary.

(ii)

Through TV, Radio: To educate and enlighten people on various issues like education, population control, health, cleanliness, water usage, scams etc. TV and Radio can be used

extensively. They can also be used to propagate knowledge on Agriculture. The recent developments made possible several local channels, FM telecasts, and private radio operators programmes that provide information in local languages.

(iii) Through Internet:


With advent of Internet, a click on mouse can retrieve information within seconds from any where of the world. Most of the rural population lives in isolation from the outer world. To establish proper channels of information to them, internet is the most powerful device. Many internet oriented schemes were started to develop the rural environment. Some of those are:

(a) e - Agriculture:
Agriculture purely depended on man and material once upon a time. But now, the farmers compete for greater yield, greater quality of output and good price in the market. The increase in competition brings various questions of technology on the scene. The farmers can log into the rural portals launched by government and can clarify their doubts. Knowledge about various crops, pest control mechanisms, beneficial crop patterns, region wise crops, climatic patterns etc. is included in these portals. Government is taking all necessary steps to convert all local PCOs in rural areas to Cyber Kiosks. e-chaupal present in Community Information Centre (CIC) is also providing internet facilities.

(b) e - Education:
Most of the rural people fall under category of illiterates. They can be provided education through internet.

(c) e - Health Service:

Telemedicine is the most beneficial for rural people suffering from various diseases. Patients can directly know about diseases and prevention activities from the health specialists through internet.

(d) e Marketing:

Rural people can market their produce at reasonable prices, by contacting with market through e mail and internet. This reduces exploitation of innocent rural farmers by intermediaries.

(e) e Banking:

Internet Banking is must to provide banking facilities to rural people. Farmers can be given facilities of e-finance, e-insurance and ATM. Farmers can know about their debts and balance through e-banking with out any struggle.

(f)

e Finance: e - Finance helps farmers to request for loans. They contact directly the money providing banks instead of money lenders quoting high interest rates. This will help reducing the farmers suicides to great extent.

(g) e Insurance:

In rural areas, if the main head of a family die in an accident, the whole family becomes abandoned. Insurance facility is now available in e-insurance. This will give security to rural families.

e Governance: People can directly contact with government officials through e-governance projects. MEGH DOOT in M.P., BHOOMI in Karnataka is such project only.

(h)

(i) e Panchayat:
The first Panchayat that is fully computerized in India is Ramchandrapuram of Medak District in A.P. National Informatics Centre (NIC) of Department of Information Technology (DIT) has organized this programme. Registrations of birth and death certificates, old age pension certificates, commerce licenses etc. can be obtained through e-panchayats. In this way, Information Technology has contributed much to rural India. But still there is lot of space for further development and to make India truly equitable growing country. The efforts of private organizations and NGOs also should be combined with governments duties to make this growth more applicable to rural India. 2. a. Explain the changes occurred during evolution of computers? As the civilization and mental revolution of man progress, his thirst for sophistication and growth made him discover many new models. Computers are first and foremost of them. The world has gone into a new stage due to invention of computers. Its not inappropriate to call the present world as Computer Days. Computer usage is prevalent in all fields of world like Electronics, Mathematics, Statistics, Economics, Physics and Chemistry and even to store historical data. Computer Education reached zenith of its craze in the past 20-30 years. Computing literally means calculating or problem solving. The device which performs this function is called as COMPUTER. During the early days, Computers are just like mechanical instruments. Later the advent of electrical and electronic knowledge changed its shape and skill. From the punched card inputs through offline entry machines to the present online entry machines, computers have undergone great evolutionary changes. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS: Early Forms: ABACUS Calculations are present even during stone ages. In 3500 B.C., Abacus was first used in China according to historical sources. Abacus contains few strings along with few colored beads. Calculations are made by moving beads from left to right. It was extensively used in Japan. Still for early kinder garden and primary education purpose, Abacus is being used in Russia, Western Countries and India. In 1617, mathematician of Scotland NAPIER invented a bone to calculate logarithms based on Slide Rule. These can be considered as early forms of computers. Zeroth Generation [1642-1945]: MECHANICAL COMPUTERS The credit of inventing first machine that can perform mathematical calculations goes to BLAIZE PASCAL (1623-1662). A programming language is named PASCAL to his credit. At age of 19, Pascal invented this device to help his

father, who is a tax collector in French Government. This device made with gears, wheels and spokes can perform additions and subtractions. Later in 1671, LEBINITZ, a German mathematician invented a device that can perform all four major functions, addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. CHARLES BABBAGE (1792-1871), an English mathematician invented a DIFFERENCE ENGINE. This device is based on an algorithm. It takes inputs from punch cards and prints the output on a plate, which looks like a steel die. Babbage later developed an ANALYTICAL ENGINE which has the basic format of present day computers. It has a (i) Input Section, (ii) Memory, (iii) Computing Unit and (iv) Output Section. Analytical Engine can be programmable with simple assembly language and hence necessity of software rose. So he appointed ADA AUGUSTA LOVELACE to build the software. Ada is the first computer programmer of the world and a programming language is named as ADA to her credit. But, unfortunately the inventions of Babbage do not have a debugging function. Still he is called as Father of Computers as he is the major exponent of device. Later in 1936 CONRAD ZUSE, a German engineering student invented calculating machines based on electromagnetic relay. Father, HOWARD GIKENS of IBM Company invented device working the electricity. This is of 15M length and used to be called as IBM MARK 1 Computers. Later the device is further sophisticated and came out as IBM-Mark 2 computers. First Generation [1945 1952]: VACCUM TUBES ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) is called as first Electronic Computer. It was invented by PRESPER ECKERT and WILLIAM MAUCHLY of Pennsylvania University (USA) in 1969. This device used Vacuum Tubes as switching units. This can calculate 5000 additions or 350 multiplications per second. Its weight is 30 tonnes and used 140KW power. ENIAC for first time used decimal system instead of Binary system. During the came time, famous mathematician ION NEUMANN advocated knowledge of STORED PROGRAM. Using this knowledge, first digital computers EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was invented in 1949. In 1950, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was discovered in Pennsylvania University. In 1951, Vellicus of Cambridge University and Remington Rard of USA, invented first commercial computer called UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer). There is only machine language programming in this period. There is no operating system; hence a programme should take the role of electronic expert also. Features: - Huge body, Vacuum Tube usage, high cost, calculation speed measured in milliseconds, internal memory is less, high electricity consumption, depends on punched card. Examples: - IBM-604, IBM-701, IBM-650. Second Generation [1952-1964]:- TRANSISTORS. In 1948, BARTEEN, BRATEN, SWAICLEY of U.S. invented Transistor. This made the mark of beginning of 2nd generation computers in 1950s. They were given Nobel Prize for their achievement. Transistor is short cut for TRANSFER RESISTOR. This technology replaced using high cost, low productive vacuum Tube switches. This also increased memory storage. Random Access Memory (RAM) is another discovery in this period which uses Magnetic Cores to store the data.

Magnetic Disc Storage also was developed. Assembly language was replacing machine language computer languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALOGOL, SNOWBOL and operating system was also developed. Features: - Reduced size of computer, less power consumption less maintenance cost, improved maintenance and reliability , increased input/output speed, measured speed in microseconds using magnetic tapes instead of punched cards, using computers for commercial purpose along with science and technological fields etc. Examples: - IBM-1620, IBM-1401, CDC-1604, RCA-501. Third Generation: [1964-1972] INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Computers evolution took a fast lane in 1964 with IBM introducing 360 types of series of computers. Many transistors are inserted into a small thin silicon wafer forming an integrated circuit. High level languages were developed. FORTRAN IV, Optimizing Fortran controllers as well as COBOL 68 were further sophisticated and made easy. This period saw extensive usage of computers in defence, space and trade. Features: - Integrated circuits replaced Transistor, mini computers made possible; computer ships, speed measured in nano seconds, disks reduced storage costs, computers available in market with hardware and software usage magnetic disks in place of magnetic tapes, development of high level languages. Examples: - IBM-370, Honeywell-2200, ICL-2900. Fourth Generation [1972-Today]: - PCS-VLSI In 1971, Micro processor or Chip appeared starting an evolution of fourth generation of computers. A small chip with thousands of Transistors, Resistors and capacitors is created. This is called VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). Prices of computers reduced and size of computers also reduced. Personal computers existed in large scale. This is also called as micro computers. Features:- Starting of PCs, Software growth, scale of peripherals, reduced prices of PCs, start of word processing, networking, Management Information Systems (MIS), Mailing systems etc., Growth of Microprocessors. Examples:-ZX-Spectrum, PC-AT, Pentium, Intel 4004. Fifth Generation: - ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGNECE A conference was organized in Japan in 1979, to discuss features of computers in next generation. They stressed the need for Artificial Intelligence marking computers to be more reliable and usable in all situations. To develop low cost high performing machines. Features:- Taking voice and signal instructions as inputs, reducing dependence on silicon and to use graphene; giving output though voice; increased memory and storage capacity, highly clever artificial intelligence, making high level languages further simple for common man. 2. b. Discuss the features, uses and limitations of computers. FEATURES & USES OF COMPUTERS: (a) Processing Speed (b) Accuracy (c) Storage Capacity (d) Versatility (e) Reliability (f) Compactness

(g) Diligence (h) Programmable (i) Easy Maintenance (j) Do not break the laws (k) Superiority of Manufacture (l) Automation (m) Life Made Easy LIMITATIONS: (a) No creativity (b) No intuition (c) Technicality (d) Aesthetics (e) Maintenance Costs (f) Threats from Virus (g) System Crash (h) Power Failures (i) No Self Correction (j) No knowledge of Programmes (k) Phising, Cyber Crimes (l) Man became lazy (m) Cost Constraints, poverty is still prevalent (n) No easy access to services and hardware parts at all places. 2. c. How do the computers function? Explain with a diagram.
CP U CONT ROL UNIT MEM ORY A. L. U

INP UT DEV ICE

OUTP UT DEVI CE

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER FUNCTIONING

INPUT DEVICES: The following given terms provide major input devices to computer. They are:

I. II. III. IV. V.

Key Board Letters, Symbols (Form of Type Writer), Function Keys, Alternates, Text Editing, Cursor Keys, Numerical and others like NumLock, CapsLock etc. Mouse Pointer, Cursor, Clicking the icons Scanners Handheld scanner, Sheet fed scanner, Flat bed scanner Floppy Disk From synthetic plastic material. Started in 1970s; maximum up to 1.44 MB only Hard Disk Integral part of CPU. Formed from rigid metals. Hence called as Hard Disk. Magnetic coat will be there on both sides of the disk platter. Read/Write operations can be done.

VI.
VII.

VIII. IX. X.

Compact Disk CDROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) is another name. Joy Stick Optical Mark Reader (OMR) Optical Character Reader (OCR) Used in payments of credit card bills, current bills Magnetic Ink Character Reader Used in banking services

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU): It contains (i) Primary Memory, (ii) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and (iii) Control Unit (CU). Primary Memory Random Access Memory (RAM) - Numerical data Alphabetic data - Special symbols - Program Instruction Read Only Memory (ROM) - Mostly Protected Program Instructions

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Register 1

Register 2

Register 3.

Register N

Supervisory Control Unit (CU)

Instruction Register

Table of Operation Codes

(a)

Primary Memory: Also called as Main Memory. It is also called High Speed Memory, as the data on which computer working is stored at main memory can be retrieved fast. It can be divided into RAM and ROM. RAM is temporary, while ROM is permanent memory. Main purpose of Primary Memory is storage. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Also called as Digital Logic Unit. It takes data from memory and manipulates as per given instructions. Performs all operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

(b)

(c)

Control Unit (CU): It is like Nervous System. It performs and synchronizes functions between various units of computer. Instructions are taken in binary codes. It commands Logic Unit.

OUTPUT DEVICES:

(a)

Monitor Also called as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Its made with Cathode Ray Tube. Different sizes and Graphical Interfaces are available in Monitors. Printer Dot Matrix Printers (Normal Use, Low Quality), Line Matrix Printers, Jet Printers (Bubble Jet, Ink Jet Printers), Laser Printers (For DTP Usage) Plotters For Graphics, Designing Purpose etc. Speakers Floppy Disks Hard Disks

(b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

2. d. Discuss about different types of computers. Computers can be classified (i) based on the data they process and (ii) based on the processing capacity and (iii) based on the application. BASED ON THE PROCESSING DATA: Under this category, there are three forms of computers. They are: (i) Analog Computers, (ii) Digital Computers and (iii) Hybrid Computers.

(a)

1. ANALOG COMPUTERS:
These computers change data along with or based on data changes in temperature, pressure and other measurable quantities. These are used mainly in scientific and engineering fields.

2. DIGITAL COMPUTERS:
Digital simply means dealing with the digits. All the data, pictures, icons etc. are converted into digits while processing. These digital computers can be as small as machine in wrist watch or a pocket calculator. It has two parts. They are: Memory and Processor. Memory stores the data; Processor switches from one digit to another digit and performs digital operations.

3. HYBRID COMPUTERS:
Computers that have features of both Analog and Digital Computers are called Hybrid Computers. These can do some operations in Analog style and some in digital style. For example, the machine that measures heart beat of patients in hospital. BASED ON THE PROCESSING CAPACITY: Under this category computers can be classified into (i) Mainframe Computers, (ii) Mini Computers, (iii) Micro Computers and (iv) Super Computers.

(b)

1. MAIN FRAME COMPUTER:


These are large and occupy a room. They have very large storing capacity and the operations are fast. Production of these computers stopped presently. They are kept in air conditioned rooms. They are mostly used in large companies, mainframe applications, banks, defence and other government organizations. Example: IBM 4381, Honeywell DPS8, CRAYX-MP/48.

2. MINI COMPUTER:
Versions of scaled down mainframe computers are called Mini Computers. It is for multi purpose. Its larger than micro computers and is five times faster than those. They have less memory compared to mainframe computers. They are used extensively in satellite construction. They are also applied to fields like business organizations, oil refineries, industries, science & technology fields, universities etc Example: Digital Equipment Corp VAX 11/730, Data General MV/800011

It is very small. It uses micro processor in the place of CPU. Micro Computers CPU unit is in a chip. Micro processor is the combination of this chip containing CPU, ROM, RAM, Ports for peripherals. They are used for general purposes like in homes and offices. Example: PC, PC/XT

3. MICRO COMPUTER:

Memory speed is in terms of Tetra Hertz. Used in scientific applications, satellite systems and in applications that needed very high precision. Example: EKA, ROAD RUNNER etc. (c) BASED ON THE APPLICATION: Based on application computers are categorized into two. They are (i) Special Purpose Computers and (ii) General Purpose Computers.

4. SUPER COMPUTER:

Computers designed for special and definite purpose are called Special Purpose Computer. For example Computers built for Mining and Air Craft Simulator.

1. SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS:

2. GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS:


They are used for general purpose based applications. Large number of needs is fulfilled by this type. For example, Financial Accounts, Mathematical Equation Solving, Word processing etc. 2. e. What are various threats that spoil the functioning of a computer? THREATS TO COMPUTERS: VIRUSES VIRUS is short form for Vital Information Resources under Siege. They cause harm to both hardware and software of a computer. Various types of Virus are discussed below:

I.

BOOT SECTOR VIRUS During the days of DOS as OS this virus is more prevalent. First, sector of hard disk and floppy disk are called as Boot Sector. These contain vital information. Boot Sector Virus spoils these and the system becomes very slow.

II.

FILE VIRUS To any file of a particular format. For example all doc files or mp3 files etc. III. MACRO VIRUS Negative use of MACROS IV. TROJAN HORSE Extremely Dangerous V. STEALTH VIRUS Difficult to obtain information of tampered files by AntiVirus Application, if stealth virus is active. VI. POLYMORPHIC VIRUS Encrypted; Function keeps changing VII. ARMOURED VIRUS Cannot be broken easily VIII. E-MAIL VIRUS IX. WORMS Through Internet; copies unnecessary file again and again. 3. a. In what ways computers can contribute to communication and broadcasting service? Information is Wealth. The present world moves in Information era. Due to Information and Communication (IC) Revolution services of Television, Radio, FM, Computers, Internet, Tele communication etc. grew rapidly. This growth is called as Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The devices of communication are vital in providing information on various social issues like education, health, safety and even environment. Computer is one of the major devices that has most important role in field of Communication and Broadcasting. Computers are the key communication devices in India from 1990. Computers are used in satellites in large scale which paved the way for e-fields. With advent of satellite communications, great changes are into Radio and Television. Satellite Communication influenced all media devices, including news papers and magazines. People living in remote locations now can get any information with in seconds. Distances between nations and oceans vanished and the whole world turned into a global village. Private TV Channels, FM (Frequency Modulator) Stations are grown innumerable and providing valuable services to people. International Networking (Internet) is another field associated with computers that takes major role in Communication and Broadcasting. Internet connects about 65 million computers of about 100 countries. Boundaries between nations vanished. It also has major service in field of Education, Medicine, Research and Business. Information is shared to any place with in seconds using internet. In India, services of Internet were first introduced by VSNL in 1995. From 1999, private companies also entered into internet providing market. Internet became widely spread due to World Wide Web. In India, there is growing convergence between telecommunication and information technology. Hence, the government drafted a bill called Convergence Bill. It proposes the creation of a regulatory body called Communications Commission in India (CCI). The CCI would perform following functions: (a) (b) To regulate various communication service including telecommunication service, broadcasting and other electronic communications and To facilitate the development of telecommunication in an environment of convergence in order to unleash power of new technologies.

Along with steps taken by government by government, many private organizations are contributing to growth of media and broadcasting devices in India. Computers are now grown in rural India too. They provide communication services in the forms of e-governance, e-agriculture, e-panchayats, telemedicine, emarketing, Kisan Call Centres etc. The wide and quality services get broadcasted by satellite communication which again uses computers in format of mini computers and micro computers. Hence, it can be concluded that role of computers in promotion of Communication and Broadcasting is vital. 4. a. Discuss the role of software in economic growth of India. India generates millions of dollar revenues through IT Services, Software Products and Services. One-third of IT experts in Silicon Valley are Indians. More than 100 of Fortune 500 companies established their R&D branches in India. Threefourths of worlds CMM level 5 companies are in India only. Software field is providing employment to more than 18 crores people in India. India is favorite outsourcing station for all major software companies in the world. Many MNCs of India generate revenues in thousands of dollar terms. The growth in software field does not stop in software field itself. Since it has association with many other sectors, development is shifted there too. Raw materials, transport companies, electronic devices, e-business, customer services etc. all relates to IT & Software. This interlinking brings a good change in economic growth. Indian Software and Services export is estimated at Rs.__________ in 200809, as compared to Rs.__________ in 2007-08, an increase of ________ percent in dollar terms. This segment will continue to show robust growth in future also. The production of Indian Electronics and IT Industry is estimated at Rs.__________in 2008-09, as compared to Rs.__________ in 2007-08, a growth of _________ percent. The industrys contribution to the national GDP has rose from 1.2% during the year 1999-2000 to _________ percent in 2008-09. The India n IT-Enabled Services-Business Process Out Sourcing (ITES-BPO) sector has contributed substantially in this growth with _________ percent growth during 2008-09. For further growth of Hardware and Software, the government of India has taken many initiatives. To promote software experts, government has introduced 100% export oriented scheme under Software Technology Parks (STP) in 1991. Under this scheme, centralized infrastructure facility is available for computer software exporting units like utility power, data communication facility, centralized computing facility, ready to use built space etc. Hardware Technology Parks were established to introduce global scale manufacturing facilities incorporating the latest technology. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) are another major income generation avenues. Contribution of SEZs to Indian Economy through software developments and electronic markets is huge. Indian government gave lot of tax relaxations along with provision of huge area for construction of SEZs. Many SEZs were sanctioned in past 3-4 years. IT Parks are specialized with IT institutions, R&D and IT exports

and services. Bangalore, Hyderabad and Chennai are major IT centres in India. ECommerce and E Business is now widely spread and contributing to economy in great amounts. Hence, the software development is proved vital for economic growth in India. Yet, much more cooperation from both government organizations and private companies is needed to include rural areas in this growth too. This makes the inclusive growth word real and makes the India shine. 5. a. How can IT be applied in various sections of nation? Information Technology links Computers with Telecommunications. IT Applications are worldwide in various branches and departments. From e-mail to egovernance IT has revolutionized the worlds scene. Information is shared to any place in the world with in seconds. Distances between nations and oceans vanished and the whole world turned into a global village. Internet (International Networking) and World Wide Web (WWW) are major contributors to spread IT. IT has following applications in various sectors of nation: In Administration: All the states of India are now establishing State Wide Area Networks (SWAN) linking all the offices of government. e-governance made the government processes more transparent and citizens can query directly through government website. e-Panchayat is created, so that online registrations can be made for birth and death certificates, old age pension, commerce licenses etc. In Research & Development (R&D): R&D is active in all fields like medicine, space technology etc. due to extensive use of IT. The data is shared and stored in the computers memory. It can be retrieved when ever it is required. The research departments analyze data on various topics and this can help other places under same physical and climatic conditions. In Business and Reservation of Tickets: e-commerce is now widely used. e-marketing and on line buying and selling of products made life easy for busy people. Citizens can reserve travel tickets for all modes of transport like bus, train, flight etc. Advanced Reservation is possible even to book governments services. In Banking and Insurance: e-banking has made online transfer of money possible. This provides safety and avoids delay of transaction period. Funds Transfer and balance check etc. are possible only due to advent of IT. e-Insurance is possible even in rural areas and paves the way for security. ATMs present in various places updates the information as and when transactions are made. E-Education: Education services and Distance Education are provided through e-Education. Knowledge on various topics all over world is shared and freely accessed using Internet. It can be browsed using websites like wikipedia.org. (f) Health & Medicine: (e) (d) (b) (a)

(c)

People can be educated in various health issues. Preventive measures and safety precautions can be provided easily to all places using IT. Tele-Medicine made treatment on various diseases possible even at places with out proper hospitals and medical facilities. Defence: Information about missiles and possible attacks can be send using IT through warning systems. Also IT is used in Radar and Space Technology for gathering information and transmission of it. (h) Messaging and Online Chatting: Face-to-face online chatting and e-mailing has made communication easy. Teleconferencing is a major method of administrative meetings these days using IT. Hence in this way, IT has innumerable applications in present day society and is contributing heavily for the growth of nation. (g)

x---- END OF UNIT 3---x

U N I T - IV
S.No. 1. 2. 3. SYLLABUS TOPICS Energy Resources Energy Demands Renewable Energy Resources POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Discuss about different types of Energy Resources. a. What are the energy demands of India? Discuss. a. Explain What is renewable energy? What are different types of renewable energy available? b. What is Solar Energy? Discuss in detail. c. What is Wind Energy? Discuss in detail. d. What is Bio Mass Energy? Discuss in detail. e. What is Geo Thermal Energy? Discuss in detail. f. What are the different types of renewable energies that can be obtained from water? a. What is Nuclear Energy? Why is it needed? What are its applications? What are advantages and disadvantages of it? b. Explain the process of production of Nuclear Energy. c. Discuss about actions taken by India in its nuclear policy? d. What are various nuclear facilities available in India? QUESTIONS 12

4.

Nuclear Energy its development and utilization in the country

TOTAL

TOPICS 4

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Discuss about different types of Energy Resources. Energy Sources are broadly classified into two categories. They are: (i) Conventional or Non-Renewable Energy Resources (ii) Non-Conventional or Renewable Energy Resources NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCE: The non-renewable sources are those materials among our natural resources which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced once they are used up. In this group

come the conventional sources of energy fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which together supply 98% of the total world energy demand. The problem with these sources is: (i) (ii) The possibility of their being exhausted. The pollution caused by waste products in the process of converting these resources into energy.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCE: The importance of increasing use of renewable energy sources in the transition to a sustainable energy base was recognized in early 1970s. Renewable Energy is that type of energy which provides power from any source that can be replenished. Most renewable systems rely on solar energy directly or indirectly. The main types of renewable sources of energy are: (a) solar energy, (b) tidal energy, (c) geo-thermal energy, (d) wind energy, (e) hydro power and (f) Bio-energy. Atomic minerals also form a source of energy and with the use of fast breeder reactor technology could be called an inexhaustible source. How ever, it has the problems of waste disposal and pollution control. Renewable energy resources have the advantage of being non -polluting. However, some of renewable energies such as wind energy can be unreliable and therefore lose their effectiveness in providing a constant supply of energy. Despite inherent problems with the technology behind renewable energy sources, increasing environmental pressure is forcing to develop renewable energy at a fast pace. India has vast potential for production of power from non conventional and renewable energy resources. India is in a position today to offer state of art technology to other developing countries and is poised to play a leading role in the global movement towards sustainable energy development. The fossil fuel, hydro electric power, nuclear fuels, forest resources such as fuel wood and charcoal, vegetable wastes and cow dung cakes are grouped as Commercial Energy Resources. At present, these commercial energy sources contribute to about 90% of energy needs of India. The recent developments under civilian nuclear cooperation bilateral agreements with India by countries like France, USA and Argentina etc. promises strong energy reserves to nation in future. Energy is key input in economic growth and the future growth of nation. India is now making its hold strong in energy sector ensuring better life for its citizens. 2. a. What are the energy demands of India? Discuss. Energy is a key input in economic growth. There is a close link between the availability of energy and the future growth of a nation. However, in a developing country like ours, greater the availability of energy the more is its shortage. The energy demand of a country is taken as the index of development of that country. For example, India with a population of about 16% of the total world population is consuming only 1.5% of total energy produced in the world. But at the same time America with a population of about 6.25% of world population is utilizing 33% of total energy produced in the world. Indian Government has set a target to achieve 10% growth rate in GDP by end of 11th Five Year Plan and for next fifteen years to maintain growth rate at 8%.

These objectives were set by Planning Commission in 2002. To, achieve this rate of growth, India depend on its energy resources to a great extent. For sake of better future, all energy resources and their capacities has to be estimated precisely. At present, Indian power generation is estimated as 124 Giga Watts (GW). In this Thermal Power contributes about 55%, Hydel Power contributes about 26%, Wind Power about 10%, Renewable Source Energy is of 5% and Nuclear Power is about 3%. In 2006, as per estimates of energy experts, Indias immediate demand of power is about 144000 MW and this may rise up to 9,60,000 MW by 2031-32. Enough electrical energy is must for country like India to grow as Economic Super Power. At present, Thermal Power is more, but it cannot be permanent. The natural resources like coal and oil reserves will not last long. Also, the smoke emitted by production of thermal power causes Green House Effect. Hence it is important to betterment the nuclear power generation facilities, which is safe and less harmful to environment. In 2006, nuclear power generated is 15.6 billion KWH. That accounts to 2.6% of total power. Targets are set to increase the contribution of nuclear power to 25% by 2050. 123 Agreement was finalized with US and also civilian nuclear cooperation was signed with countries like France and Argentina. These steps will provide some more energy security to nation and its development. Also the per capita usage of electricity in 2002 is 505 KWH. By 2005, its usage rose to 599 KWH. It is estimated of three fold increase by 2020, where growth rate of economy stays only at 6.3%. With thermal energy providing coal reserves ending up and other sorts of energies are developing at a slow rate, great challenge on energy is in front of nation. Government has taken steps to find alternatives to satisfy energy demands. Identification of new coal mines, development of solar power units, making rules to mandate certain bulk transports only through railways, nuclear power generation agreements, more relationships and agreements with oil rich nations to provide commercial fuel, private partnership agreements, developing hydro carbons, developing natural gas mines and acquisition oil rich fields by OVL [(ONGC Videsh Ltd.), a department of ONGC] etc. are various moves of government in its search for energy. But the implementation should move at a higher pace to satisfy energy demands. Also, citizens of the country should be educated to reach a mental revolution, such that no kind of energy is ever wasted. 3. a. Explain What is renewable energy? What are different types of renewable energy available? RENEWABLE ENERGY (or NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY) is that type of energy which provides power from any source that can be replenished. Most renewable systems rely on solar energy directly or through the weather cycle. Renewable energy sources also have the advantage of being non-polluting. Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Tidal Energy, Geo Thermal Energy, Bio gas, Wave Energy, Energy from hydro resources etc. Also some nations use H2 cells as renewable source. They are called as Fuel Cells. Atomic or Nuclear Energy is also kind of renewable energy since it is inexhaustible. But it has problems of waste disposal and pollution control. Some energy resources like wind energy can be unreliable and therefore lose effectiveness.

Despite inherent problems with technology behind renewable energy sources, increasing environmental pressure is forcing to develop renewable energy at a fast pace. India has vast potential for production of power from non conventional and renewable energy resources. The importance of increasing use of renewable energy sources in the transition to a sustainable energy base was recognized in early 1970s. During the past quarter century, a significant effort has gone into development, trial and induction of a variety of renewable energy technologies for use in different sectors. India has today among the worlds largest programmes for renewable energy. Our activities cover all major renewable energy sources of interest, such as, bio gas, bio mass, solar energy, wind energy, energy from hydro sources etc. Energy also being generated annually from industrial and urban wastes of potential 700 MW and 1000 MW respectively. NCE also has certain disadvantages. Its gestation period is high and they subject to vagaries of nature. It also needs more investment inputs. But, NCE are the only solution to satisfy energy demands of world. It is renewable, inexhaustible with minimum or no pollution. Different types of renewable energy are discussed in detail in next topics. 3. b. What is Solar Energy? Discuss in detail. Energy in the form of heat is one of the main energy requirements in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors. SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY refers to the utilization of Solar Energy by capturing the available solar radiation and transferring it as heat to perform various useful activities. 0.1% solar energy coming to earth can satisfy all its energy requirements. Three ways of solar energy utilization can be there. They are Photosynthesis, Photo voltaic cells and conversion into thermal energy. Photo synthesis is a process in plants generally. For human utilization, solar energy can be harnessed through two routes, Solar Photovoltaic (PV) by direct conversion of heat energy to electrical energy and Solar Thermal, by direct use of heat energy. Solar Thermal Energy devices and systems employ surfaces, which are made blackened using special black coatings to absorb maximum incident solar radiation and to reduce radioactive heat losses. Though it has disadvantage of requiring high initial costs for installation, its development is must to satisfy energy demands of world. A number of solar thermal applications have been developed, which include water/air heating, cooking, drying of agricultural and food products, detoxification of wastes, cooling and refrigeration, heat for industrial process and electric power generation. Amongst various solar thermal technologies, solar water heating systems and solar cookers have reached a stage of near commercialization. Solar Energy applications has advantages of easy installation and maintenance, absence of noise & pollution, long life and can be used in remote, forested, desert, hilly areas etc. India receives solar energy equivalent to over 5000 trillion KWH per year. Academic institutions like IIT, IISC, Universities and Research institutions like BARC, CSIR and ICAR laboratories are performing many research oriented programmes for

formulation of new solar concepts. Projects on Solar Energy in India are planned and implemented by Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Resources. So far, a total of 33 grid interactive solar photovoltaic plants with aggregate capacity of 2.125 MW peak that can generate 2.5 million units of electricity is installed in the country. In view of high initial cost, solar energy systems are mainly being used for stand alone applications in lighting, telecommunication, battery charging, water heating and cooking etc. Recently, 140 MW Integrated Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC) powerplant with 35 MW solar thermal power content at Maithania-Jodhpur, Rajasthana is on development. It will be first of its kind and among the largest such projects in world. When compared to progress in other countries, India can be declared slow in development of solar energy, inspite of being a good hot spot of solar energy generation. In world, Australia and Niger are top in harvesting potential where as Japan, Germany, USA are large producers of energy through solar photovoltaic systems. In 2007, at an annual rate of 25% during past decade, solar photovoltaic systems, a source of clean power touched nearly 45% of growth. 3. c. What is Wind Energy? Discuss in detail. Wind Energy is harvested from wind currents. In developing countries like India, Wind Energy is one of the clean, renewable energy source that hold out promise of meeting significant portion of energy demand. Wind Energy can be used directly with grid connected modes for electricity generation or as stand-alone, remote applications like instance water pumping, desalination and telecommunication. In many countries, Wind Power is already competitive with fossil power and international organization estimates that wind power will become competitive sooner than expected in back drop of rising oil prices. Wind Power Technology is driven by uneven heating of Sun. It is actually, conversion of Heat Energy into Kinetic Energy. To convert into electric energy, wind with desired speed should be there through out the year. The major benefit of wind energy is that it is renewable unlike fossil fuels such as coal and oil. And also it is environment friendly and clean energy source without emissions of CO2, SO2 and other pollutants. Wind Energy applications has certain disadvantages too. Though running cost is nil, high initial cost is required. The major problem with wind power is low load factors of 20-30% and not so great reliability because of unpredictable wind patterns. Another problem is large amounts of land is required. Despite of disadvantages, wind energy production is must to nation for reaching their energy demands. The coastal and hilly areas are most suitable for wind energy harnessing. India also has installed many wind mills in recent times. Wind Power Projects with an aggregate installed capacity of 7660MW, comprising of Wind Turbines of 225KW to 1650KW unit capacities, have been set up in country, till 30th September, 2007. 216 potential sites, having annual mean wind power density of 200 watt/sq.m or more at 50m elevation have been identified, which are considered suitable for installation of wind power projects. In Aug, 2005 India has overtaken Denmark to occupy fourth place in terms of installed wind power capacity. India ranks after Germany, Spain and US up from fifth spot. The US is large user of wind energy with almost 7000MW of installed capacity. China is also

considering wind energy as a potential power source. Of global installed wind power capacity of 50000MW, almost 70% is in Europe Germany, Spain, US and Denmark. In India, Gujarat leads in wind power production with 9675 MW and AP comes next with 8275 MW. Government opened the sector for private participation to further optimize the development of wind energy projects. 3. d. What is Bio Mass Energy? Discuss in detail. Bio-mass includes straw, stalks, stems and fines, agro-industrial processing residues such as shells, husks, de oiled cakes, forestry residues etc. The power produced by using this biomass is regarded as Biomass power. BIO-GAS is obtained from gasification of bio mass only. Conversion technologies like Combustion/incineration, gasification, pyrolysis etc. are used to convert bio mass into useful power. These technologies can be used to produce power either in alone mode or cogeneration mode. Cogeneration means multiple and sequential use of a fuel for production of steam and power in a process industry which aims at surplus power generation in industries such as sugar mills, paper mills, rice mills etc., where biomass resources are either generated or consumed in their main processing production process. In India, Bio mass power from (Agro-residues) has annual potential of 16,881 MW and biomass cogeneration has potential of 5000 MW. There were some challenges in using Bio mass constitutes for energy generation. Rural people largely depend upon fuel wood, crop residues and cattle dung for meeting the basic energy needs for cooking and heating purposes. With increasing population pressure, the consumption of fuel wood has far exceeded its supply, there by causing deforestation and desertification. Similarly, the age old practice of burning of cattle dung cakes and crop residues for cooking purpose is depriving the agricultural lands of much needed manure and consequently causing loss of soil fertility. Besides, the inefficient burning of biomass fuel materials in traditional chulhas creates high level of in-door air pollution, which in turn causes eye and respiratory related diseases among women and children in the rural areas. To answer these challenges, government has been started to promote bio gas units for recycling of cattle dung to harness its fuel value with out destroying the manure value. Bio gas is used not only as a cooking gas but also in generation of electricity. The residues obtained in biogas plants are very useful nitrogen manures. Toilet linked biogas plants are also popularized for sanitary treatment of human waste. Also, a variety of smokeless efficient chulhas has been popularized to conserve fuel wood and reduce domestic air pollution. Government is also started implementation of programmes like Bio-Gas Development Programme, National Programme on Improved Chulhas, Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP), Village Energy Security Programme (VESP), Remote Village Electrification Programme (RVEP), Urjagram etc. R&D in bio energy is one of the major focuses in 11th five year plan. Bio mass power to some extent solves the problems of energy. Efforts are being made to install tens of thousands biogas plants in rural areas further develop energy in greater quantities to meet the demands of nation.

3. e. What is Geo Thermal Energy? Discuss in detail. Water heated to steam beneath the crust of earth can be harnessed to drive turbines for generation of electricity. This type of energy is called as GeoThermal Energy. Geo Thermal resources, where ever existing can be utilized for power generation and as a source of heat for space heating, green house cultivation, cooking etc. India has launched a Geo Thermal Energy Programme which aims at harnessing of geothermal potential for direct heat applications and for power generation at promising geo thermal sites. Geo-Thermal energy can effectively meet energy needs of people of our country. 3. f. What are the different types of renewable energies that can be obtained from water? Water bodies like oceans are main receptors of suns energy. They take energy continuously from Sun and this makes them capable of producing unlimited amounts of non-conventional energy. Energy can be obtained from water resources in many ways. Some of them are: Ocean Thermal Energy, Wave Energy, Tidal Energy, Salinity Gradient Energy, Ocean Currents Energy, Ocean Winds Energy, Hydro Power etc. Main sorts of energy producers among these are discussed below: OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY: Ocean Thermal Energy can be harnessed in tropical seas where the temperature gradient is highest around 28 deg. C on top and 5-7 deg. C at the bottom at a depth of 1000m. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) makes use of the temperature difference between surface water of the oceans and depth of oceans. The warm surface water of ocean acts as the heat source. When volatile substances like Ammonia or Propane are pumped to the surface water, it evaporates and the gas is pressurized to form a jet, which in turn runs a turbine. When it is taken to depth, it acts as a heat sink, the gas liquefies and cycle continues. If deep sea water conditions are available near 2-3 km from the coast OTEC platform can be constructed on land, otherwise, floating platforms are required. Above 25 MW capacity the cost is comparable to other electricity generating systems. Some of the best sites for OTEC are situated in India, along coast of T.N., Lakshadweeo, Andaman & Nicobar. WAVE ENERGY: Due to their periodic nature and huge energy they carry waves can be used to run a turbine and thus generate electricity. These are two types of techniques in Wave Energy Generation. They are Conventional Impulse Turbine and Wells Turbine. But, the main problem is inability to produce electricity if air flow velocity increases beyond the designed value. Indias vast coast line of 7500 km has a wave potential of 40,000 MW. Department of Ocean Development (DOD) is the nodal agency to harness wave energy in India. TIDAL ENERGY: The tides, due to their alternative and periodic nature, can be used for generating electricity. The technology used is Hydraulic Turbine & Generator System. It requires a great tidal range and a suitable bay, where a dam can be built which will store after and release it during low tides to run a turbine. Largest Tidal plant is

in Russia in White Sea. India has a potential of 9000 MW. 7000 MW is produced in Gulf of Cambay and 1000 MW is in Kutch. Central Electricity Authority (CEA) is nodal agency for setting up Tidal Energy Projects. HYDRO POWER: Hydro Power or Hydraulic Power is the force or energy of moving water. It may be captured for useful purposes. When developed in accordance with good environmental and social practices, hydropower plants have advantage of producing power that is both renewable and clean. In contrast to coal-fired plant which are significant in CO2 emissions, hydro power is clean and can displace thermal plants with flexibility. Once established, hydro power plants have long and productive lives. Hydro power plants are generally cheaper in the long run than natural gas based plants, which are constantly at risk from fuel price increases. Multipurpose hydropower plants with water storage facilities can be important flood controllers, support irrigation and provided much needed drinking water. India is endowed with enormous exploitable and viable hydro potential of about 84,000 MW. In addition, 6781.81 MW in terms of small, mini and micro Hydel schemes have been assessed. Hydro-resources, that is largely available in India, even in poorest parts of country offers also huge potential for regional development and poverty alleviation. 4. a. What is Nuclear Energy? Why is it needed? What are its applications? What are advantages and disadvantages of it? Energy obtained through nuclear reactions is known as ATOMIC or NUCLEAR ENERGY. Energy is released by changes in nucleus of atoms due to reactions of Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion. In the Nuclear Fission reaction, Uranium-235 is fissioned with slow neutrons. This causes splitting of uranium along with release of large amount of energy. In Nuclear Fusion, hydrogen atoms are combined to give helium and huge energy. A very good example of Nuclear Fusion is process observed in Sun. The never ending heat and light is obtained from Sun due to reactions of hydrogen fusion in it. The nuclear reactions should be carried out in special devices. Such devices are termed as Nuclear Reactors or Atomic Reactors. These should be operated with great care, so that there are no accidents and leakages. The waste materials obtained in these reactors must also be handled and disposed carefully, because these are all radioactive substances. At present, production of nuclear energy is in great demand in all major nations of world. The most important peaceful use of nuclear energy is the production of electric power. It was discovered first in 1930s that if a heavy nucleus is split into two lighter ones or more tightly bound with nucleus energy will be released. The energy per fission is very large. In practical units, fission of 1 kg of U235 releases 18.7 million KWH as heat. In Dec 1942, at University of Chicago (USA), the Italian physicist ENRICO FERMI succeeded in producing the first nuclear chain reaction. This became the basis of US Nuclear Weapon Programme during 2nd World War as well as nuclear energy reactors later on. In India, Jahangir Bhabha laid the foundation for nuclear programme.

Nuclear Energy currently produce 1/6th of worlds electricity, although Indias contribution is too less. In wake of extinction of fuels from fossils, production of nuclear energy and its technology gained importance all over world. Besides, production of nuclear power, nuclear energy also has many applications. APPLICATIONS: Nuclear Energy also powers some sub marines, surface ships and space craft. Nuclear reaction also produces particles and rays called Nuclear Radiation that have uses in medicine, industry and science. In automobile industry, to test steel quality in manufacture of cars and obtain the proper thickness of tin and aluminum nuclear technology and radiation are used. In Aircraft industry, to check for faults in jet engines radiations are used. In Constructions, it is used to gauge the density of road surfaces and sub surfaces. Pipeline companies use it to test strength of welds. Oil, gas and mining companies to map the contour of test wells and mine bores. Cable manufacturers, use this to check ski lift cables for cracks. Through Food-Irradiation techniques, food materials are protected from pests and bacteria and can be preserved in raw stage to long time. This is used by Government agencies to stock onions and potatoes for public distribution system. Artificial Radio Isotopes produced from nuclear reactors are used as tracers in medicine, in testing pesticides and fertilizers, in archeological C-14 dating. Through Position Emission Tomography tumors in brain and heart can be cured. Disposable syringes, surgical scissors, dressing etc. are being sterilized using nuclear radiations. Its being used in Gamma-Scanning of petro-chemical factories. Ionizing Radiation method is used in developing plant seeds with more disease resistance and high yield. Hence, it can be observed that nuclear technology has many applications. Despite of being useful in many applications, Nuclear Technology has its own disadvantages and advantages. DISADVANTAGES & ADVANTAGES: The disadvantages are high initial costs in building nuclear reactors; need to assure protection from hazardous amounts of radio active materials, dangerous radiations can be emitted by used nuclear fuels after removal from reactors. Also the safe disposal of nuclear wastes is great challenge. But in the perception of advantages obtained from Nuclear Technology, its development can never be neglected. It is the only dependable kind of renewable energy that can solve the energy demands of the world and that has potential to replace usage of fossil fuels in energy production. Once built, a nuclear plant can be less expensive to operate than a fossil fuel plant. Uranium unlike fossil fuels, releases no chemical or solid pollutants into air during use. They do not emit CO 2 and hence do not contribute to global warming and climate change. Nuclear programme in India is designed to aim at producing nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, using vast thorium reserves and uranium reserves of nation. At present, nuclear energy is producing only about 3% of countrys energy. In 2006, Indian nuclear energy production is 15.6 Billion KWH. Targets ate set to rise the production to 20000 MW electricity by 2020 and by 2050, 24% of needs of electricity should be produced by nuclear energy. Active steps are being taken by Indian Government to reach its targets. It signed 123 agreement with USA and also civilian nuclear power agreements were signed with France and Argentina. Hence it can be observed that nuclear energy possess immense importance for nation like India to become a Super Economic Power.

4. b. Explain the process of production of Nuclear Energy. Knowledge on Nuclear Technology is being developed at a fast pace. Nuclear Energy is not new to world. In fact it is the oldest form of energy known to man in form of Sun. But the technology behind, the method to produce Nuclear Energy is new to mankind. Nuclear Energy is produced from nuclear reactors using reactions of change of nucleus NUCLEAR FISSION & NUCLEAR FUSION. At present, production of nuclear energy is in great demand all over the world. It was in 1942, ENRICO FERMI, an Italian scientist succeeded to produce first nuclear chain reaction. In India, producing nuclear energy is in developing stage and nuclear energys contribution is only up to 3% of Indias needs. Homi Jahangir Bhabha laid foundation for Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. Since then India began its pursuit of nuclear energy for civilian purpose. The first indigenous research reactor, APSARA, was developed in 1950. Indias nuclear programme has been derived by an acknowledged lack of uranium reserves. Energy Independence cannot be achieved from domestic uranium reserves, estimated at 0.8% of worlds reserves (50-60,000 tonnes). But nuclear energy can be developed from production of plutonium, recycling of spent fuel and utilization of Thorium. Indian Nuclear Power Programme is a three-stage process on commercial scale covering building of a Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR), Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) and Thorium Breeder Reactors (TBR). Nuclear Programme in India is designed with aim of using uranium and vast thorium reserves present in country to be used as fuel. STAGES: STAGE I: PRESSURIZED HEAVY WATER REACTOR (PHWR)

In this stage, purified Uranium-235 is used as fuel to produce electricity and Plutonium 239. In 1969, Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS) was started with help of American technology using normal water as coolant and Uranium as fuel. But, later America stopped supplying purified Uranium as fuel. So all new reactors built later with Canadian help, used Heavy Water as moderator and Coolant. These reactors which use Heavy Water (D2O) as moderator are known as Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor. For more development & production of power Nuclear Energy Board was changed to Nuclear Power Corporation of India in 1987. To process waste materials of the reactor plants, plants were established to process in Tarapur, Mumbai and Kalpakkam. To provide heavy water, heavy water production plants were established through out the nation. STAGE II: FAST BREEDER REACTOR (FBR)

In second stage, fast breeder reactors are used to produce electricity. In these reactors, Natural Uranium and Plutonium 239 mix is used as fuel. In this stage, plutonium is again generated in amounts much more than the input quantity. In 1971, for R&D of FBRs, INDIRA GANDHI CENTRE FOR ATOMIC RESEARCH (IGCAR) was established at Kalpakkam. In 1997, a 40 MW FBR KAMINI was developed successfully. Also, Purnima I and Purnima II are other small FBRs developed.

NUCLEAR PROGRAMME OF INDIA Electricity STAGES

PHWR

I
PLUTONIUM
T H O R I U M T H O R I U M

Electricity

II

FBR

III

T H O R I U M

Breeder Reactor

T H O R I U M

Electricity
MORE URANIUM

STAGE III:

THORIUM BREEDER REACTOR (TBR)

In third stage, Thorium is used as fuel. There are enough thorium reserves in India in form of monazite sand. But Uranium reserves are very minute in India. Thorium is used in breeder reactor to produce U-233 which can be used as fuel in first stage. The plutonium obtained in first stage is sent to second stage FBR as fuel. When heavy nucleus atoms like Uranium, Thorium and Plutonium etc. were involved in reactions like fission and fusion, large amounts of energy is produced. The Indian nuclear power generation is characterized by a closed cycle approach that involves reprocessing of spent fuel and recycle of Plutonium and Uranium 233 for power generation. At present, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), has an ambitious nuclear power programme that aims at achieving an installed nuclear power capacity of 20000 MW by year 2020, through internal resources and external collaborations. 4. c. Discuss about actions taken by India in its nuclear policy? Architect of Indian Nuclear Programme is Dr. Homi Jahangir Bhabha. In 1945, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was established. This Institute started R&D in nuclear technology for first time in the country. In 1948, Atomic Energy Bill was passed in parliament. Subsequently, Atomic Energy

Commission was established under leadership of Homi Jahangir Bhabha. In 1956, Department of Atomic Energy was started and this made research and department on atomic energy and its applications move fast. In 1968, India rejected to sign on Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). As a nation beside nuclear powered China and ever raging Pakistan, India took a daring decision not to sign on NPT and sent a message to its rivals. On 1974, May 18 India conducted its first round of Nuclear Tests in Pokhran, Rajasthan. That was on day of Buddha Jayanti. The message after the test, given by Late P.M. Mrs. Indira Gandhi is BUDDHA LAUGHED. This means the mission was successful and has a message that India is going to use its nuclear wealth for defence and not to attack any one and its stand on non violence is still prevalent. This was the reason for choosing Buddha Jayanti as day of nuclear testing. In 1978, due to Indias nuclear tests and denial of signing NPT, Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) countries banned any sort of trade in nuclear terms with India. This terribly isolated India from world nuclear trade from past 30 years. But India never lost hope and maintained its growth in nuclear independence. In 1998, with indigenous development of nuclear technologies India conducted 5 tests in its second round of nuclear tests, under prime ministership of Late Mr. Vajpayee. After the tests, India announced that it is using nuclear technology in defence along with peaceful civilian applications. India also announced its Nuclear Policy in 1998. Nuclear Policy of India has following terms as basic points: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) India uses nuclear technology equipped in defence for protection and do not have interest in race of making nuclear weapons. India will not attack any nation with nuclear weapons first on its own. It shall think considering of joining treaties like CTBT. India will itself make ban on nuclear tests with its own sovereignty and with out any external interference. Special Forces will be strengthened to safe guard confidential nuclear arms and their plans in national interest. All nuclear weapons will be kept in de-alerted state to avoid accidents. It has capacity of using nuclear arms for land, water and air.

The next important move in nuclear history of India is to get formulate the 123 Agreement for civilian nuclear cooperation on July, 2005. On 2008, Aug 1 India got the sign of IAEA governors board for clean and open nuclear reactors under 123 agreement. In Sep 2008, NSG amended its policy and gave India right to obtain nuclear trade and supplies. Due to this India finally came out of Isolation from nuclear trade. On Oct 10, 2008 123 agreement was finally signed between US & India. India also had pacts with countries like France and Argentina in civilian nuclear cooperation. At present, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), has an ambitious nuclear power programme that aims at achieving an installed nuclear power capacity of 20000 MW by year 2020, through internal resources and external collaborations.

4. d. What are various nuclear facilities available in India? Nuclear Facilities in India can be categorized based on their functioning. Different groups categorized are: RESEARCH REACTORS, URANIUM ENRICHMENT FACILITIES, HEAVY WATER PRODUCTION PLANTS, URANIUM RECOVERY PLANTS, NUCLEAR FUEL FABRIFICATION PLANTS, R&D GROUPS, WASTE IMMOBILIZATION PLANTS, NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES and POWER REACTORS. RESEARCH REACTORS: APSARA is the first indigenously developed research reactor in 1950. At present there are seven research reactors. They are Apsara, Cyrus, Dhruva, Zerlina, Purnima I, II and III. Most of them are located at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Trombay. R&D ORGANIZATIONS: Five research centres exist under DAE. They are BARC, IGCAR, Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) in Indore, Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Kolkata and Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD), Hyd. Also various industrial, public, private and service organizations are conducting R&D to enrich nuclear stamina of India. HEAVY WATER PRODUCTION PLANTS: Heavy Water Board (HWB) of DAE is responsible for building and operating heavy water plants in country. The board has 7 heavy water plants right now. All these were developed indigenously. They are located in Baroda (Gujarat), Tuticorin (T.N.), Rawattbhata (near Kota in Rajasthan). URANIUM RECOVERY & CONVERSION: India has three uranium mines, two copper mines tailing extraction unit, one mill, many conversion facilities and three fuel fabrification plants. URANIUM ENRICHMENT: India began a uranium enrichment programme in 1980s. A gas centrifuge uranium enrichment facility at Rattenhalli reportedly enriches uranium for naval fuel. Also pilot scale gas centrifuge plant is at Trombay for R&D and a laser enrichment facility is at CAT, Indore for R&D. NUCLEAR FUEL FABRIFICATION: It is done at Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) at Hyderabad and BARC. Also BARC has set up the Advanced Fuel Fabrification Facility (AFFF) at Tarapur. WASTE IMMOBILIZATION PLANTS: These are in operation at Tarapur, Trombay and Kalpakkam. NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT: An Advanced Nitrification System is at Tarapur, being operated by BARC for high level nuclear waste mobilization based on Joule Meter Technology. INSTRUMENTATION, CONTROL SYSTEMS & ROBOTICS: These are major thrust areas of BARC and IGCAR. In order to meet the hitech instrumentation needs of nuclear technology, a strong R&D base was created first at TIFR and later at BARC. ECIL was setup in Hyd in 1967.

POWER REACTORS: The total details of nuclear reactors that produce nuclear power are: NUCLEAR REACTORS IN USE (17) TARAPUR I & II KAIGA I & II KAIGA III KALPAKKAM I & II KAKRAPAR I & II NARORA I & II RAWATTBHATA I RAWATTBHATA II RAWATTBHATA III & IV TARAPUR III & IV Since 1967 Since 1999 2007 (1984-86) (1993-95) (1991-92) 1973 1981 (1999-2000) 2006

NUCLEAR REACTORS UNDER CONSTRUCTION (4) KAIGA IV RAWATHBHATTA V & VI KOODANKULAM I & II KALPAKKAM FBR By By By By 2009 2009 2010 2010

NUCLEAR PROJECTS PROPOSED KAKRAPAR III & IV RAWATHBHATTA VII & VIII KOODANKULAM III & IV JAITAPUR I & II Starts in 2010 By 2012 By 2014 ----------

A new public sector undertaking Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd. (BHAVANI) of DAE is also implementing projects that provide more electricity and R&D. At present, Nuclear Power is satisfying only 3% of Indias needs. In 2006, nuclear power production is near to 15.6 Billion KWH. That accounts for 2.6% of total energy produced in country. Targets are set by DAE, to produce 20,000 MWe by 2020 and to satisfy 25% of Indian needs through nuclear power by 2050.

x---- END OF UNIT 4 ---x

UNI T -V
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Climate Change POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. What is Climate Change? How is it caused? Discuss steps of prevention. (Also useful as 50 marks essay) (Floods, a. Define Disaster Management and discuss mitigation of natural hazards like Flood, Cyclone and Tsunami. (Also useful as 50 marks essay) a. Discuss briefly about the development of Crop Science in India. a. Differentiate between fertilizers and their uses. types of 2. Disaster Management Cyclone and Tsunami)

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. TOTAL

Crop Science in India Fertilizers Control of Pests and Diseases Scenario in India Drinking water and Supply Urbanization Industrial Development Current S&T India TOPICS 9 Developments in

a. What is the scenario of controlling pests and diseases of crops in India? a. Discuss about drinking water & supply details in India. a. What is Urbanization? features? Discuss. and its

a. Discuss the course of Industrial Development in India. a. About Current S&T Developments. QUESTIONS 9

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. What is Climate Change? How is it caused? Discuss steps of prevention. [MADE AS 50 MARKS ANSWER] CLIMATE is the word used to describe the average weather condition, which have been measured over many years. The state of atmosphere and weather conditions keeps changing from time to time. This is due to increase in pollution of air, water and sound. The extensive usage of hazardous materials such as nuclear materials, uncontrolled release of dangerous gases like CO2, CO and other green house gases, smoke released in unlimited amounts from factories, vehicles etc. caused the damage to Ozone Layer (O3) of atmosphere. This made a hole in the ozone layer, exposing ourselves to UV rays and other dangerous radiations from sun. Due to excessive radiations received the average temperature of earth has been increased. This is termed technically as, Global Warming. Due to Global

warming, the threat has been posed to existence of glaciers and melting of ice caps, thus merging land areas near by oceans and seas. The increased temperature has also been fatal to existence to some marine animals. The effluent chemical wastage that is being released into seas also cause for death of marine animals. Hundreds of Olive Ridley Turtles that were found dead near shores of Vizag Sea is an example. The Inter governmental Panel on climate change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992 published best available evidence about climate change, green house effect and changes in global temperature. It is observed that earths temperature has changed considerably, during geological times. It has experienced several glacial and interglacial periods. However, during the past 10,000 years at current interglacial period the mean average temperature has been fluctuated by 0.5 1 o centigrade over 100 to 200 years period. We have relatively stable atmosphere due to which we have practiced agriculture and increased in population. Even small changed in climate conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals including humans. Anthropogenic (man-made) activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has established between various components of environment and ecosystem. Green house gases are increasing in the atmosphere resulting in the average global temperature. This may upset the hydrological cycle; result in floods and drought in different regions of world, cause sea level rise, changes in agricultural productivity, famines and death of human as well as live stock. The global change in temperature will not be uniform every where and fluctuate in different regions. The places at higher altitudes will be warmed up more during late autumn and winter than the places in tropics. Poles may experience 2 to 3 times more warming than global average. The increased warming at posed will reduce thermal energy available to heat engine that drives the global weather machine. The temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.50 C in global hydrological cycle is expected to intensify by 5 to 10% Disturbed rainfall will result in some areas becoming wetter and other drier. Although rainfall may increase, higher temperatures will result in more evapo-transpiration leading to annual deficit in crop fields. The four most leading green house gas emitters are US, China, Russia and India. Various nations of the world started implementing their individual and joint projects to curb global warming the thus arresting huge changes in climate. Japan introduced its COOL EARTH 50 project which aims at reduction of green house gas emissions by 50% by end of year 2050. Rich nations such as US and Russia are major contributors of pollution and also are last to sign the Kyoto Protocol Agreement, which aims at reduction of pollution levels. UN Framework Conventions on Climate Change has conducted a 200 nation meet in Dec 2007, at Bali, Indonesia. The Bali meet was called to agree on a set of principles for launching negotiations for a post 2012 deal on carbon emission cuts. The existing deal Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012. The conference agreed to implement the Climate Change Adaptation Fund, a key aspect of Kyoto Protocol. The fund will assist developing nations to adapt to adverse effects of climate change.

To encourage nations in successful control of carbon emissions the system of Carbon Credits was established recently. The nation that successfully curbs the emissions by certain amounts of percentage in pollution levels will earn carbon credits which can be cashed upon in global market. Indian government also took necessary steps to crush the causes of climate change. All the new technologies are using Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) now. The motor vehicles and automobiles are using Compressed Natural Gas (GNG) to ensure a pollution free environment. The environmental security and maintenance of ecological balance is always one of the foremost concern observed by Indian Government in farming five year plans. However, much has to be done in future to protect and sustain the climate without which life may not possible! WORLD ENVIROMENTAL PROTECTION POLICIES:-

1.

KYOTO PROTOCOL: - A Kyoto protocol to the climate convention was adopted in Dec. 1997. The aim is to stabilize the atmospheric conc. of green house gases at safe level. States has to give periodic reports of their level of emissions and measures adopted to check it. By 2012, developed countries would reduce their collective emissions by 5.2% from 1990 level, with each country being committed to a particular figure. The emissions covered by the protocol are not only CO2, but also Methane, Nitrous Oxide, HFCs, Per Fluoro Carbons and Sulphur Hexa Fluoride. These commitments would be reckoned on a net basis, considering sinks as well as sources and each country must credible measure it contribution and meet its commitment. Countries may fulfill their commitments jointly (such as with regional agreements) and they may improve the efficiency of compliance through flexibility mechanisms.

2. MONTREAL PRETOCOL: The international community has taken unprecedented steps to control and ultimately ban the production of CFCs and other Ozone Depleting substances (ODS) such as halons and Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4) by the year 2000. The Vienna convention of the Ozone layer and subsequent Montreal protocol on substances that depleted the ozone layer was adopted in 1987 and desired strength in 1990. 2. a. Define Disaster Management and discuss mitigation of natural hazards like Flood, Cyclone and Tsunami. [MADE AS 50 MARKS ANSWER] HAZARD is the word used to describe the latent danger, which may be posed by material, event or phenomena. Natural Hazards literally mean there natural happenings which are potentially dangerous to humans causing injury, loss of life and property, and disrupting social and economic life. Earth-quakes, Cyclone, Floods and Droughts, Landslides, Volcanic eruptions etc are major natural hazards. All of them are obviously not equally harmful. Depending upon the location of such occurrences and the intensity, the natural hazards become Natural Disasters. Most Natural Disasters are infrequent and unpredictable. So basic knowledge about disasters and their effects: preparations for rescue operations are inevitable. The term used to describe the protection of property and a life after occurrence of the disaster is DISASTER MANAGEMENT.

The term disaster management includes all aspects of preventive and protective measures, preparedness and organization of relief operations of mitigating the impact of disaster on human beings and socio economic aspects of the disaster prone areas. Some of the natural disasters and steps to handle them are given below:FLOODS: - Flood is a weather associated hazard. Floods are a major cause of human misery in India every year. Out of a number of natural disasters that the country has experienced, floods are the most important one. Floods are commonly associated with a stream or a river. A stream floods when its discharge capacity is greater than its river channel capacity. Excess water flows over the river banks and submerges the adjacent hand that is usually dry. Floods are natural phenomena that occur in all river systems. Some floods are seasonal, for example, those associated with monsoon rains. Sometimes flash floods occur. There are many causes of floods but the most important are: Climate extremes-particularly heavy and prolonged rainfall, melting of snow and ice more than normal, silting of river beds, collapse of dams, land slide etc. Flood disasters are also caused by humans. When humans develop a drainage basin, they tend to build permanent structures assuming that rivers are also permanent features of landscape. Since they do not property consider the natural periodic occurrence of floods, the roll of human life and property loss can be immense. Many human activities inadvertently promote flooding. Over grazing, deforestation and paving large expanses of land area increase surface run off. Floods submerge large areas damaging crops, houses, property and killing people and livestock. There is shortage of floods and drinking water as everything gets destroyed. Then when water recedes, there is a damage of spreading various water-borne diseases. India is the most flood affected country in world next only to Bangladesh. 20% of global deaths caused by floods in the world are in India. Bangladesh accounts for 50% of total. Inspite of the fact that floods are natural disasters, the flood affected areas and damage also increased recently. The reason for this is increasing encroachment of flood plain by people. The most flood prone basins in the country are Ganga in U.P, Bihar and W.B; Bramhaputra in Assam; and Baitarani, Brahmani, Subarnarekha basins in Orissa. Some times floods occur also in A.P., Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat. CYCLONE: These are intense storms that develop over warm tropical oceans between 5 and 20 N & S of equator. They originate in western parts of great oceans and generally move west wards. A cyclone has a low pressure area in its centre with high pressure all around. Winds tend to blow towards the low pressure centre and converge, creating whirls. These may be compared with whirl pools in water. The velocity of winds within the cyclones after exceeds 100 Kms. Per hour. These fast moving whirl winds are very violent and cause large scale destruction in its path. The following are the stages in the formation of a cyclone: Temperature of the oceanic surface over 26 0C. Appearance of a closed isobar.

and

Low pressure dropping below 1000mb. Areas of circular movement, first spreading to a radius of 30-80 Km, then increasing gradually to 100-200 Km and even to 1000 Km Vertically the wind spread first rising to height of 6 Km, then much higher.

These cyclones are known by different names in different parts of world. In N. America, they are known as Hurricanes while in S-E Asia, they are called Typhoons. Approximately 100-120 tropical cyclones develop world wide every year. Many of them travel for inland causing great damage crops, settlements and human lives. The strong winds may uproot trees, destroy electricity and telephone lines, and blow away weak structures like thatch roofs and walls of hutments. Torrential rain can cause floods. Huge tidal waves are formed which inundate coasts. In India, tropical cyclones originate both in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, mostly between 10 and 15o N. In fact, the frequency of these cyclones is the most in this region compared to other parts of the world. The no. of cyclones originating in Bay of Bengal is more than those in the Arabian Sea. These cyclones mostly occur in October and November. In terms of deaths, cyclones are the worst natural hazards. Cyclones of diameter 600 Km or more causes most destructive and dangerous atmospheric storms on the earth. With about 6% of the world wide cyclones, the India sub-continent is the worst cyclone affected areas. TSUNAMI: - Earth-quakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the sea-floor to move abruptly resulting in sudden displacement of ocean water in the form of higher vertical waves called as Tsunamis or Harbour Waves or Seismic Sea Waves. Normally, the seismic waves cause only one instantaneous vertical wave; but, after the initial disturbance, a series of after waves are created in the water that oscillates between high crest and low tough in order to restore the water level. The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon depth of the water. It is more in the shallow water than in the ocean deep. As a result of this, impact of tsunami is less in ocean and more near coast, where they cause large scale devastations. Therefore a ship at sea is not much affected and it is difficult to detect a Tsunami in deeper parts of the sea. After reaching the coast, the tsunami waves release enormous energy stored in them and water flows turbulently into the land destroying port-cities and towns, structures, buildings and other settlements. Since the coastal areas are densely populated in the world over, the loss of life and property is likely to be much higher by Tsunami as compared to other natural hazards in coastal areas. Tsunamis are frequently observed along the pacific ring of fire, particularly along the coast of Alaska, Japan, Philippines and other islands of S.E.Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar , Srilanka and India etc. The tsunami that occurred on early morning of December 26, 2004 claimed about 3,00,000 lives. The most affected area is island of Indonesia where 50,000 humans lost their lives. Srilanka took a heavy toll of 22,000 dead. Tamil Nadu is worst hit in India with 6500 dead and missing A&N lost 3,000 lives.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION OF HAZARDS:The whole process of disaster management can be divided into three phases. They are: Impact phase, Rehabilitation phase and Reconstruction and integrated long term development and preparedness phase. Impact phase contains three components: Forecasting of disaster, close monitoring of agents causing disasters and management activities after the disaster has occurred. Flood forecasting can be done by studying the rainfall in the catchment area and make early warming and evacuation efforts maybe made. In order to draw the attention of the people of the world, the UNESCO observed International Decade for National Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) during 1990-2000. Along with other nations India observed World Disaster Reduction Day in October. Dos and Donts issued by Government in mitigating various Hazards: FLOOD: Listen to the radio for advance information and advice. Disconnect all electrical appliances and move all valuable personal and household goods out of reach of flood water, if you are warned or if you suspect that flood water may reach the house. Move vehicles, farm animals and moveable goods to the highest ground nearby. Prevent dangerous pollution-move all insecticides out of reach of the water. Turn off electricity, gas if you have to leave the house. Lock all outside doors and windows if you have to leave the house. Do not enter flood waters on foot or in a car if you can avoid it. Never wander around a flood area on your own. CYCLONE: Listen to the radio for advance information and advice. Allow considerable margin for safety. Store or Secure loose boards, corrugated iron, rubbish tine or anything else that could become dangerous. Tape up large windows to prevent them from shattering. Move to the nearest shelter or evacuate the area if this is ordered by appropriate government agency. Find shelter if you are caught out in the open. Do not go outside or to a beach during a full in the storm. Steps and Measures: Flood Warning Systems, Building up and modification of Dykes could do much to mitigate water disasters in India. What facilities do exist is often unreliable, and the procedures for issuing warnings suffer from a lack of modern communication technology. Water disaster mitigation is further complicated by a lack of expertise to assess damage, of ability to assess requirements for emergency relief, and by the need for improve awareness of the threat of water disasters at all levels.

GOVT. OF INDIA constituted various committees to meet out the problems of natural disasters line Standing National Crisis Management Committee, Task Force on Drought Management and National Crisis Management Committee etc. Even institutions like World Bank took the initiative by forming Disaster Management Facility which aims to reduce human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disasters. A National Tsunami Warning Centre which has capability to detect earthquakes of magnitude more than six has been inaugurated recently in Hyderabad by Mr. Y.S.Rajasekhara Reddy, Chief Minister of A.P. Civil Societies are also taking active part in Disaster Management. SRISTI (Society for Research and Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions) established Disaster Management Information System (DMIS) which aims at developing a database driven information system in Disaster Management. 3. a. Discuss briefly about the development of Crop Science in India. Agriculture is the main stay of Indian Economy. Agriculture satisfies the food needs of nation. 64% of Indians find their employment in Agriculture. It is primary sector of Indian Economy and contributes to 27.4% National G.D.P. Also 35% of total exports comprise agricultural products. Growth in agriculture has multiplier effect and makes progress in other sectors too. Many Industrial and processing units like Sugar, Jute, Oil Mills and Textile mills etc. are based on Agricultural Output. India is a leading exporter of agricultural products like Jute, Tea, Coffee, Tobacco, Cotton, Cashew Nut, etc. Through these exports India is earning lot of foreign exchange. Since India got independence it showed remarkable progress in production food grains. At present, India is self sufficient with food grains but running short of pulses production. In 1950-51, 54.92 million tonnes of food grains are produced where as by 2006-07 it raised to 209.2 million tonnes. Per Capita Food production has grown from 395 gm to 528.72 gm. Irrigation facilities, Using Fertilizers, Electricity, Providing Credit Finance, Knowledge on various cash crops etc. are reasons for this achievement. To achieve this Food Security, knowledge on Crop Science played very important role. Basic knowledge of Crop Science can be classified under following heads: (i) Crop Seasons, (ii) Crop Types and (iii) Some basic Crops in detail. (i) CROP SEASONS: India experiences two monsoon seasons as suitable for cropping. They are KHARIF and RABI. KHARIF: 65% of total Indian land is sown in Kharif Season. This season starts with beginning of South-West Monsoon in month of June. Crops are sown in months of June or July and subsequent yield is obtained in months of September or October. The major types of crops sown in Kharif season are Paddy, Jute, Sugar Cane, Cotton, Tobacco, Maize, Corn, Ragi and Ground Nut etc. RABI: This crop season starts in October with start of North-East Monsoon. Yield is obtained in months of March or April. Less water is needed for crops in this season. Major crops sown in this season are Wheat, Barley and Pulses etc.

ZAID: Besides the two main seasons Kharif and Rabi, some crops are sown through out the year with help of irrigated water. Major crops of this season are Paddy, Maize, Dates, Ground Nut, Water Melons, Pumpkins and Leafy Vegetables etc. CROP SEASONS

KHARIF

RABI

ZAID

CLASSIFICATION OF CROP SEASONS (ii) CROP TYPES: Crops can be classified based on the production. These are of two types: Food Crops and Cash Crops. (a) FOOD CROPS: 75% of total land sown is with food producing crops. Food crops are classified as Cereals and Pulses. Cereals are again classified as Major Cereals and Minor cereals (or Millets). CEREALS: MAJOR CEREALS: Among cereals, Rice (Oryza Sativa), Wheat (Triticum) and Maize (Zea) are mainly used as staple food. They are rich in Carbohydrates. MILLETS or MINOR CEREALS: Millets like Pennisetum, Pancium, Setaria and Elusine are used as substitute for cereals as well as animal feed. PULSES: Pulses like Chick Pea, Black gram, Green gram, Cow Pea, Pigeon Pea and Pea Nut etc. are used as food materials. They are rich in proteins and main source of food for vegetarians.

TYPES OF CROPS

FOOD CROPS

CASH CROPS

Fiber Plants CEREALS PULSES

Oil Seeds Plantations

Major Cereals

Millets (Minor Cereals) CLASSIFICATION OF CROP TYPES

Spices

(b) CASH CROPS: These occupy only 25% of total sown land. They contribute to 40% of total agricultural products. They can be classified as Fiber Plants, Oil Seeds, Garden Plants or Plantations and Spices. Cotton, Jute etc. belongs to Fiber Plants; Ground Nut, Rape Seed, Sun Flower, Soya Bean, Flowers etc. belongs to Oil Seeds; Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Coconut etc. are plantations and Ginger, Turmeric, Elachi, Chillies, etc. are Spices. Sugar Cane and Tobacco are others category cash crops. (iii) SOME BASIC CROPS IN DETAIL:

1. PADDY: GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS: Tropical and Sub Tropical areas are best suited. High Temperature, High Humidity, Sufficient Water is needed. In general, temperature between 22-32o C and rainfall between 150-250 cm. is desirable. At low lying areas, irrigation facilities are must. This is a Labor Oriented Crop. CULTIVATING AREAS: Rice is cultivated mostly in deltas of West Bengal, Bihar, A.P, T.N, Orissa, Assam, Punjab, U.P, M.P, in flood plains, river valleys and coastal plains. FEATURES: Paddy comprise of 23% of total food crops and 45% of total cropping area. This is staple food provider for nation. It is a primary crop grown in Kharif Season mostly. Cultivation of paddy has undergone great progress during Green Revolution. Many varieties of rice were developed. Different types of rice are SWARNA (MTU 7029), CHAITANYAM (MTU 2067), KRISHNA VENI (MTU 2077), PRABHAT (MTU 3626), VIJETHA (MTU 1001) etc. GOLDEN RICE is a variety of rice which was developed through gene modification. A gene modified in this variety contains beta-carotene, which can change into Vitamin A. Also a golden appearance is added to rice. Hence it is called Golden Rice. This sort of rice is good o provide nutrition of children for a good eye sight. Basmati Rice is costly rice used in festival cooking and in biriyanis.
2. WHEAT: GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS: In early stages, low humidity and moderate rainfall between 50-100 cm. and temperature between 15-20o C is desirable. By the time of yield temperature with in 25-28o C is needed. Good Irrigation facilities and land of silt and loamy type of soils is needed. CULTIVATING AREAS: Wheat is cultivated mostly in deltas of U.P, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, M.P, Rajasthan and in other Northern states of India. FEATURES: Wheat stands in second place after paddy in terms of extent and production. It is a Rabi crop. It provides staple food to northern states of India. It is developed well during Green Revolution. 88% of Wheat Cultivation is performed using Cross-Breeding techniques. 3. MAIZE: GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS: High temperature (35o C) and sufficient rainfall (75 cm.) is desirable. Good Irrigation facilities and red loamy type of soils is needed. Mist and Fog are dangerous to crop. CULTIVATING AREAS: Maize is cultivated mostly in deltas of U.P, Rajasthan, M.P., Gujarat, A.P and J&K. FEATURES: Maize is grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons. It is a rain fed crop. Glucose can be obtained from fiber of Maize.

4. PULSES: GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS: Low temperature and rainfall between low to moderate levels is desirable. Loamy type of soils is best. CULTIVATING AREAS: Maize is cultivated mostly in the deltas of M.P, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, U.P, Orissa, Karnataka, A.P, Bihar, Gujarat and T.N. FEATURES: Minerals and muscular content is provided. It is main source of food for vegetarians. It is rain fed crop. Generally pulses are sown between two main crops. Pulses like Chick Pea, Black gram, Green gram, Cow Pea, Pigeon Pea and Pea Nut etc. are used as food materials. 4. a. Differentiate between types of fertilizers and their uses. Fertilizers improve the fertility of the soil and increase crop productivity. Application of waste material from living organisms to improve the soil fertility is an age old practice. The use of chemical fertilizers started in 20th century. Chemical fertilizers played a pivotal role in Green Revolution in multiplying crop productivity to several folds. Chemical fertilizer industry needs large scale use fossil fuels. The fertilizers can be classified into three types. They are: a. Organic Fertilizers. b. Inorganic Fertilizers and c. Bio Fertilizers. Organic Fertilizers: Farm yard manure, compost and green manure are important forms of organic fertilizers. The use of farm yard manure is an age old practice. The role of farm yard manure is improving the fertility of soil and enhancing the crop yield. The employment of green parts of the plants directly to the fields is in practice since several years. There are two methods in application of green manure to agricultural fields. In one method Nitrogen Fixing plants such as Crotalaria Juncea, Phaseolus Trilobus etc. are raised in field like rice fields. In another method branches from trees like Gliricidium Maculata, Sesbania etc. are cut and directly put into the fields. The role of earthworms in protecting the soil fertility and in improving the physical features of the soil is well known. With the help of earth worms, organic wastes can be converted into highly beneficial manure. The practice of earthworm rearing is referred to Vermi compost. Inorganic Fertilizers: The source for 13 essential elements is minerals present in the soil. Among the mineral elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are important. The use of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium fertilizers is in great demand to enhance the yield of agricultural crops. Urea, Ammonium Sulphate and Calcium Ammonium nitrate are important Nitrogen Fertilizers. Super Phosphate, Rock Phosphate, Diammonium Phosphate (DAP), Bone Meal are important Phosphate fertilizers. Potassium Chloride, Sulphate of Potash etc. are important Potassium fertilizers. The use of Zinc is also being encouraged recently.

Bio-Fertilizers: As the name suggests, Bio-Fertilizers denote the nutrient input for plant growth which is biological origin. Bio fertilizers comprise of a variety of living microorganisms: a. Rhizobium Inoculants: Rhizobium Inoculants are being increasingly used to enhance the productivity of legume crops. They have now become industrial products in several countries. Several Rhizobium strains are now available in the market. They are applied to seeds with gum or carboxy methyl cellulose and the seeds are the sown in the field. The plants which develop from such seeds possess larger number of root nodules with better growth and yield. b. Cyanobacteria: Blue green algae such as Anabaena and Nostoc either independently or in symbolic association fix atmospheric nitrogen. In Japan, blue green algae are used in rice fields for increasing the yield. In our country use of blue green algae is being encouraged. These are cut to be cut into small fragments or blocks and can be introduced in to rice fields. c. Azospirillum: In maize, sorghum, wheat, barley and finger millet, Azospirillum lives as an endo symbiont in cortial cells and proto xylem vessels. Researches revealed that the yield in case of sorghum and pearl millet can be increased by employing Azospirillum. d. Azolla: Azolla is a water fern. In the leaves, the blue green algae Anabaena Azolla live as endo symbiont and fixes nitrogen. The importance of Azolla as bio fertilizer was first demonstrated in Vietnam in 1957. Azolla adds 30-40 Kg. of nitrogen per hectare. e. VAM: Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae are endogenous mycorrhizae, VAM fungi increase the phosphate absorption by the roots. Researches revealed the yield of potato, wheat, maize, Soya bean and red gram can be increased by the use of VAM. Importance of Bio-Fertilizers: The use of Bio-fertilizers offers several advantages. They include: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) By the use of Bio-fertilizers, the use of harmful chemical fertilizers can be curtailed substantially. There is no environmental pollution problem in the use of bio-fertilizers. They are eco friendly in nature. Bio-fertilizers are not costly and available cheaply. By following some simple procedures, even the farmers can also develop Bio-fertilizers on their own. Bio-fertilizer production requires no energy input in the form of fossil fuels. Crop produce will not contain any toxins. The production cost is cheaper than chemical fertilizers.

5. a. What is the scenario of controlling pests and diseases of crops in India? A suffering plant is termed as diseased. The diseases in plants are identified through symptoms exhibited by them. Sometimes disease of the plant is named after certain peculiar symptoms, e.g., mosaic, disease where the leaves are yellowed and mottled. Sometimes symptoms and disease cannot be synonymous. In some cases disease is confused with pathogen and very erroneously one says that

loose smut of wheat is Ustilago Tritici or black rust of wheat is Puccinia Graminis Tritici. All in the words, disease is a complex phenomenon and, is an interaction among the host, the parasite and the environment. It can also be defined as a disturbance in the rhythmical equilibrium of a host in respect of structure or physiology or both, and may lead to the death of a part of or the entire host or reduce the economic value of its produce. The plant disease may be classified in several ways. In one way they may be classified according to their causal agents such as diseases incited by Fumegnitis Myxomycetes, Oomycetesa etc. The diseases can also be classified according to parts of plants affected such as diseases of roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits etc. The diseases are also classified according to their period of occurrence into three groups as Endemic, Epidemic or Ephiphytotic and Sporadic. Classification of diseases about period of occurrence: Endemic Disease: The endemic disease is more or less constantly present from year to year in a moderate or severe form in a particular area. In such cases the pathogen or virus is well established and survives from one crop season to the next in soil, on crop refuge or in wild hosts. The common examples of endemic diseases are Flag Smut of Wheat in the Punjab plains, Onion Smut Cabbage Yellows, Club root of cabbage etc. Sporadic Disease: When the disease occurs at very irregular intervals and in relatively few instances, it is termed as Sporadic. A particular disease may be endemic one region and epidemic in another. Classification of diseases according to major causal agents: In this diseases are classified under 3 heads. They are viz. : Non-Parasitic Disease: In Non-Parasitic diseases, no living organism is involved and they ar non infectious. Parasitic Disease: In Parasitic disease, the causal agent is living entity and the disease is infectious. Following are symptoms produced by various pathogens: MILDEW, RUST, SMUT, WHITE BLISTER,SCAB, SLEROTIA, EXUDATION etc. Virus Disease. Hypertrophy or Overgrowth:- The abnormal growths are due to Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy. Hyperplasia is an abnormal increase in the cells and hypertrophy is the abnormal enlargement of size of the cells. E.g. : Crown gall of apples, Club root of cabbage, Root knot of tomato etc. Control of Plant Diseases: The ultimate objective of the plant pathology is to prevent or control the plant diseases and thus reduce the crop losses. The knowledge acquired from different areas of plant diseases, such as nature of pathogen, host, host-pathogen interaction, predisposing factors and mode of spread is put to use in devising suitable method of control. The maxim Prevention is better than cure gets its fullest expression with plant diseases. There are various methods to control plant diseases which can be broadly categorized into three types.

1. Preventive or Prophylactic measures. 2. Therapeutic measures. 3. Immunization measures. Preventive or Prophylactic Measures: These measures are aimed to prevent the healthy plants from coming in contact with the pathogens. These measures include the following:

a. Quarantines: Quarantines are the legislative measures to keep away the exotic

pathogens from entering into a new country or new state. Plant Quarantine stations work at every major sea ports and air ports and prevent the import of diseased materials. Imported food grains and plant materials are thoroughly examined by the experts at the quarantine stations. Destructive Insects and Pests Act (DIPA) was passed in 1914 by the Govt. of India which forbids introduction of exotic pests and diseases in the country from abroad. Eradication: Destroying the pathogen, so that it does not come in contact with the healthy plants is known as eradication. This is achieved by several ways.

b.

Crop Rotation: Crop Rotation by planting unrelated or resistant crops eliminates the pathogen owing to the non-availability of suitable host plant or plant remains. Crop rotation is most effective against soil-borne diseases like wilts, food rot, root rot and damping off. Elimination of alternate and collateral hosts: The removal of the alternate host, by breaking the life cycle of the pathogen, may give complete control and also helps in preventing the origin of new pathogenic races. Rogueing of diseased plants: Removal and destruction of diseased plants is known as Rogueing. Field Sanitation: This method is applicable when pathogens perennate either in the soil or in the diseased plant debris. Seed Treatment: Many diseases are internally or externally seed-borne. Chemical treatment with formaldehyde or compounds of mercury, copper or sulphur eradicates the pathogens present externally on the seed surface. Biological Control: Biological control is defined as the eradication or disease by eliminating the pathogens through their predators and parasites or by altering the environment that is suitable for the infectious organisms. Chemical Protection: Chemicals can be used as protectants and therapeutants. When disease is expected with wind borne inoculums, chemicals can be used on the surface of plants as protectants. Compounds of sulphur, copper, zinc, nickel, manganese etc. can be used in form of spray or dusts.

Therapeutic Measures: Therapy is a measure to cure plant which is already discussed. Due to therapy, the cause of the disease is removed so that the normal functions of the plant are restored. There are two types of therapeutic measures:

a.

Physical Therapy: This method involves physical means such as surgery and temperature treatments to fight the diseases. In surgery the

infected tissues or parts of the plant are removed to prevent progressive and additional damage. E.g. Apple crown gall. b. Chemo Therapy: Treating the diseased plants with chemicals to eliminate the pathogen is known s Chemo Therapy. A pathogen may infect or injure only surface cells in a localized area or a tissue. A number of chemicals like fungicides and antibiotics are used as chemo therapeutants in plant disease control. Immunization Measures: In these measures, the host plants are made immune or resistant to infection by parasitic causal agents. Immunization measures are the best means for effectively controlling plant diseases. Resistant varieties can be obtained or developed by the following methods: Section of disease resistant varieties. Introduction of resistant varieties. Breeding disease resistant varieties. Disease resistant transgenic plants.

6. a. Discuss about drinking water & supply details in India. Sanitation and Water has important role in national development. In ancient times, civilizations developed on the banks of great rivers like Indus in Indian sub continent, Tigris & Euphrates in Mesopotamian and China Sea in China. Man got multiplied and sustained due to availability of water. Man uses water for a wide range of purposes like drinking, cooking, washing, in constructions, in agriculture, in industries etc. Water is also used in production of electricity and as transport mode. Since India got independence water resources were developed greatly and satisfying needs of people in sufficient levels. Due to this food security and industrial growth are achieved. For providing safe drinking water, necessary projects are being implemented by government. At present, safe drinking water is available to 85% of people on nation living in various rural and urban areas. Providing water for other 15% of people living in remote areas is present challenge in front of nation. For proper supply of drinking water, an assessment of water resources available in India is inevitable. India is full of rivers and lakes. Water resources can be classified as (a) Surface Water and (b) Ground Water. (a) SURFACE WATER:

RAIN WATER: Rain water is the main provider for both the categories. Average Rainfall of India is 118 cm. 80% of rainfall is obtained in S-W Monsoon. It is observed that highest rainfall is recorded in N-E state Meghalaya, where as lowest rainfall is recorded in Rajasthan. Through Rainfall, India gets 3.7 Million MCM water annually. 33% of it gets evaporated and 22% goes into ground water. Remaining 45% water is accounted as Surface Water. RIVERS: Through water flowing on surface due to rain water and melted ice, river systems are formed. River Systems can be classified as Main Rivers, Intermediary Rivers and Small Rivers. There are 14 main rivers like Ganga, Godavari, Krishna, Bramhaputra etc. They have a catchment area more than 20,000 sq.km. They

contribute to 85% of total water flow. There are about 44 intermediary rivers. Their catchment area is between 2000 sq.km. to 20,000 sq.km. These provide 7% of surface run off. There are innumerous small rivers. They have catchment area less than 2000 sq.km. Total surface water is of 168 M.H.M. About 66 M.H.M of this is used in Agriculture. At present, storage capacity of India is 190 BCM. (b) GROUND WATER: Water below the ground level is acquired through wells, tube wells, hand pumps etc. About 43 MHM ground water is available in India. 36 MHM of it is used for irrigation purpose and only 7 % is used in drinking purpose. These resources are not properly getting distributed and utilized. Besides there are also problems like evaporation, salinity due to heavy irrigation, lack of adequate water storage facilities, industrial pollution, flood losses and political interference in construction of reservoirs and dams. The problems sited above have created the demands for drinking water still alive in front of nation. It is necessary to identify demands and challenges for deriving a solution for safe drinking water & supply. DEMANDS: At present, only 69-74% of people in rural areas have the facility of safe drinking water. In urban areas 91-93% people are provided with drinking water. The annually available water is 4000 BCM and in that 1900 BCM overflows and only 690 BCM can be utilized. At present, India has storage capacity of only 177 BCM and new projects under construction can save another 75 BCM. Due to increase in population, utilization in various sectors caused water resources to decline. In 1990, the per capita water consumption is 518 BCM where as by 2050 it raises to 1422 BCM. But at that time the available water can be only of 1086 BCM. Also, distribution and protection of water is not same in all regions of country. Some places are rich with water resources, frequently visited by floods where some areas experience drought. There is also Fluoride problem associated in drinking water. 1.5 PCM Fluoride content is present in ground water and its content is getting increased day by day. Due to this 2.5 crores people in 200 districts of about 17 states are suffering from fluoride problems. ACTIONS OF GOVERNMENT: Water Supply and Purification programme is added in National Agenda during first five year plan (1951-56). In 1954, as part of governmental health programme first water supply project was started. Purification is also started in first five year plan itself. Rural drinking water supply programme was started country wide in 1968 as a central government scheme. In 1987, Central Water Resources Ministry designed National Water Policy. This policy for first time defined water as a national resource. It started to propagate measures of protecting water, drinking safe water, traditional protection methods, increasing quality if water, profitable partnership in water projects to private tenders etc. Its other recommendations are on topics of WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT, WATER FOR HOUSEHOLD PURPOSE, IMPROVING GROUND WATER TABLE, WATER RESOURCES IDENTIFICATION AND MAPPING, SECURING INFORMATION ON WATER RESOURCES etc. Later National Water Policy is modified in 2002. In this importance is given to safe drinking water and supply.

States were given permission to derive their own water protection plans under the new national policy. To contain water pollution due to harmful chemicals released by industrial wastes, Pollution Control Board has set up test centres at 507 places and monitoring pollution levels regularly. Government is providing financial assistance to state governments for providing purified and safe drinking water to all the people. Actions like filling leaks in pipes, lining the canals, using transparent chemical films to reduce evaporation, establishing recycling plants and promoting use of recycled water in industries, using time schedules to control drinking water supply, constructing barrages of high strength to stop floods, suggesting alternative methods to crops that need high amount of water, promoting rain water harvesting, introducing sprinkler and drip irrigation methods, constructing wells, popularizing Water shed Management etc. are being taken by state and central governments in appropriate measures. People also should increase their awareness in demanding pure drinking water and every one should be conscious not to waste any water.

7. a. What is Urbanization? And its features? Discuss.


In ancient times, urban centres were located in places like Pataliputra, Kousambi etc. They grew in unlimited number during medieval period. During British rule, port cities and railway lines influenced urbanization. For example, cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Surat, Chennai, Kharagpur etc. After Independence, urbanization became inevitable due to heavy industrialization. Migration from rural to urban areas by people further solidified the urban centres. Also, the places near by cities gain importance and forms Urban Agglomeration. There is rapid and clear growth in million plus urban centres since 1980. In census of 1981 the million plus cities are 11. By 1991 census they grew to 23, which was more than the double of 11. Later in 2001 census, about 27 million plus cities were identified. Some of the main cities on basis of population are Greater Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Greater Hyderabad, Delhi, Bengaluru, Surat etc. On basis of 2001 census, Indias total urban population is 30 crores. They live in 4000 cities of different sizes. The urban percentage of 10.25% in 1901 increased to 27.78% in 2001. In terms of urban population India is in fourth place in world. It is next to China, America and Russia. After Independence, population has doubled and urban population got tripled. A-class cities are areas with population more than 10 lakh. About 65% of total population resides in 360 cities with population greater than 1 lakh. The second class has 10.96% of people living in 345 cities with population between 50,000 1,00,000. Among top 20 urban cities in world, there are three Indian cities in the chart. They are Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai. States of Maharashtra, T.N. and Gujarat comprise 1/3rd of total urban Indian population. Urbanization has following features: a. Indian urbanization is of subsistence type. b. There are 6 main metropolitan cities. They are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad. Among the total population, 20% of people live in these 6 metropolitan centres only. c. There are some regional disparities in Urbanization. It is observed mostly in southern and western India.

Urbanization became concentrated in few cities, which created administrative problems. Due to lack of basic amenities slums are formed. According to 2001 census, the total population of 27 million plus cities is 70.8 millions and in that 16.6 millions are living in slums. In Mumbai city, almost 45% of people are living in slums. These slums are prone to many deadly diseases and abnormalities. For a better and bright India, the problems associated with urban areas should be solved steadily. 8. a. Discuss the course of Industrial Development in India. India is predominantly agricultural nation. The Industries comprise of secondary sector in India. It Is necessary for developing nation like India to grow industrially for its survival in race of economy with other countries in world. Industrially developed nations in world are in developed state. Inspite of being rich in natural and human resources, India is still trailing for development. It is in developing stage both industrially and economically. As agriculture cannot provide employment to all people and it is bound to climatic and geographic uncertainties, development of industries gains importance. Industries are the only way to place surplus labor into work. Industries are must to process agricultural products into manufactured products for market. Only when both the primary and secondary sectors show good improvement, service sector also achieves growth. As India is lagging behind industrially, it is still importing inorganic fertilizers from outside. Industrial growth is also necessary for self sufficiency and defence of country. If industrially developed, India can develop latest technologies for its defence. When ever an external threat is posed, India is still acquiring war ammunition, war planes and war ships from other nations. By developing industrially, India will be in a stage to make its own war planes and war ships. Income of nation increases with industrialization. In industrially developed countries, per capita GNP is 27,510 dollars where as in developing countries it is about 1970 dollars and under developed countries has per capita GNP of 420 dollars only. This shows the importance of industrialization. INDIAN INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS: At the time of independence only textile and cloth industry are developed well. Capital good industries are very rare. Since plan periods were started importance is given to industrial goods. In First Plan Period, on basis of 1948 Industrial Policy importance was given for public and private industries. HINDUSTAN SHIP YARD, HINDUSTAN MACHINE TOOLS (HMT), SINDHRI FERTILIZERS CENTRE, INTEGRAL COACH FACTORY etc. are government industries set up during firs five year plan. Private sector is limited to supply of Consumer products only. In Second Five Year Plan, heavy industries were set up. Three heavy steel factories were set up at Durgapur, Bhilai and Roorkela. During this period along with steel and iron plants, coal, cement, non ferrous metals and heavy chemicals capital good industries were developed.

In Third Five Year Plan, basic and computer products factories, instruments were given importance. Due to this heavy engineering, machine building, castings and forging, Ferro alloys etc. were developed. Due to industrialization 9% of growth in GDP is achieved during this five year plan. In Fourth and Fifth plans, same agenda of second and third plans were used. Iron Plant at BOKARO in Jharkahnd was established with help of Russia during fourth five year plan. By Sixth five year plan, India strengthened it self industrially. Even though, due to rigid government policies and regional disparities the development became slow during sixth five year plan. This plan concentrated mainly on increasing production, spreading more industries of existing types, increasing production rate and quality etc. Chemical Industries, Petro chemicals and relate fields developed well during this period. During this period steel and iron plants were established in Vizag of A.P., Selum of T.N. and Bhadravati of Karnataka. By Seventh five year plan, concentration is on improving technology, improving quantity and quality of output, developing industries that have more scope of exports. In Eighth five year plan, due to new industrial policy adopted by India, importance was given to private organizations. Government limited itself to basic and critical industries. Many changes were observed economically and industrially during this period. Tax Reforms were also developed during this plan. Healthy competition developed between private and public industries due to relaxations provided to private sector. In Ninth five year plan, back ward areas with lack of basic amenities were encouraged to develop industries. The industries in which government fails were either privatized or closed. Small scale industries improved their production by technology up gradation. Government provided enough credit facilities to small scale industries. In Tenth five year plan, government decided to utilize private industry capacity by giving it more benefits. In eleventh plan, ambitious 10% growth rate was set as target and employment was target to increase by 6% more. Similarly, all the basic facilities needed for agricultural and industrial purposes are being provided by Government. SEZs were being developed which bring lot of foreign exchange through soft ware exports and services. To measure industrial out puts Index for Industrial Products (IIP) is used. Since 1950 it is being published every month with out fail. Recently Base Year was changed from 1980-81 to 1993-94. In new index, 543 new articles were added in the list. For the first time unorganized sector was added in the index. More developments should be put into Industrial sector for national growth and its trail of becoming Super Economic Power. 9. a. About Current S&T Developments.

Latest S&T Achievements since 3 months before the exam should be developed, from Current Affairs Manuals and News Papers. x---- END OF UNIT 5 ---x x---- END OF SECTION 1 ---x

GENERAL AWARENESS WITH THE MODERN TRENDS IN LIFE SCIENCES

UNI T -I
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Progress of Agricultural Science and its impacts Introduction to Bio-Technology History of Development POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Discuss briefly changes brought into field of Agriculture with progress of Agricultural Science. a. What is Bio-Technology? Discuss the role of Bio-Technology in present world a. What is Fermentation? Discuss the historical development of Fermentation. a. Discuss preparation of any antibiotic using Fermentation. b. Discuss preparation of any organic acid using Fermentation. c. Discuss preparation of any alcohol using Fermentation. d. Discuss preparation of any vitamin using Fermentation. e. Discuss preparation of any amino acid using Fermentation. a. Discuss about Insulin and its production using fermentation. b. Discuss the preparation of any growth hormone using fermentation. c. Discuss the preparation of any recombinant vaccine using fermentation. d. What is Interferon? How are they prepared using fermentation? QUESTIONS 12 2. 3.

Fermentation

4.

Industrially important fermentation Products {Antibiotics, Organic Acids, Alcohols, Vitamins & Amino Acids}

5.

Production of low volume, high value fermentation products {Insulin, Growth Hormones, Recombinant Vaccines, Interferons (any one of those)}

TOTAL

TOPICS 5

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Discuss briefly the changes brought in field of agriculture with
the progress of agricultural science Agricultural progress is normally regarded as a pre requisite of economic development. Agriculture contributes about 26% of GDP and constitutes about 18% of total value of Indian exports. Still about 64% of total population is dependent on agriculture. Hence, the progress of agricultural science is vital for nation like India. 2 million years ago, humans existed on earth. From early hunter gatherers to present days of technology, agriculture has undergone many phases. This entire course belongs to span of growth of agricultural science. From role of a gatherer,

man is now in stage of producing genetically modified seeds. With help of C-14 dating, it as been estimated that agriculture may be started on banks of river valleys of Indus, Euphrates, Tigris and Nile some 7000-13000 years ago. From mere knowledge of biology to present days bio technology knowledge, agriculture has undergone drastic transformation. All plants that we use today are the domestic children of many wild species. It is hard to believe that cereals like wheat, paddy etc too were wild species once. The early efforts on research over various species were done by Mendel. Man tamed these species for sake of desired characteristics in them. CROP IMPROVEMENT is a field of agricultural science, to obtain plant species which grow fast, can have fiber content, has food with taste and quality, and sustains climatic changes and various pest attacks. Several techniques of PLANT BREEDING are used in crop improvement. SELECTION is the earliest method of plant breeding. Plants with desired phenomenon and genotypes are selected from a group of species. Selection can be either Mass Selection or Pure Line Selection. Hybridization can be done sexually or asexually. Many varieties of mangoes, apples, guava, rose, and chrysanthemum are made possible only with the technique of hybridization. POLYPLOID BREEDING uses a method to change the number of chromosome pairs in the species. This adds certain desired characteristic pheno and geno types to the plants. INDUCED MUTATION is another form of plant breeding. Sudden changes in number of chromosomes are called mutation. Mutation can be used to transform plants with positive kind of characteristics. Photo and chemical reactions are used for inducing the mutations. TISSUE CULTURE uses the feature of TOTIPOTENCY of plants to multiply rapidly and fastly. GENETIC ENGINEERING is the latest plant breeding technique in which new genes are entered into plat for becoming more productive. Also, the growth of agricultural science made possible various farming techniques. About 60% of agriculture is still dependent on rainfall. Government is taking necessary steps to develop other kinds of farming. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT is a technique to manage shedding water. Rain water flows from the fields along with top most fertile. This water is made to flow into various pits and bunds, conserving water and soil. RAIN WATER HARVESTING is being promoted in large scale. Various irrigation techniques like drip water irrigation, sprinkler irrigation are deriving good results in agricultural produce. Government also took some target oriented programmes. GREEN REVOLUTION was started in 1960s which uses various forms of hybrid seeds and chemical fertilizers for growth of agriculture. WHITE REVOLUTION is for development of milk and milk products. Similarly, BLUE REVOLUTION is targeted for growth of marine products. Government also took steps for various technology missions like NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY MISSION, TECHNOLOGY MISSION ON OIL SEEDS, and TECHNOLOGY MISSION ON PULSES for growth of agricultural products. At present, SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION is targeted through AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY MISSION (ATM), 2006. Hence, it can be concluded that progress of agricultural science played a great role in present days agricultural scene. 2. a. What is Bio-Technology? Discuss the role of Bio-Technology in present world.

Since ages, man discovered things that changed the course of world. Invention of wheel, discovery of fire, domestication of animals, knowledge on agriculture etc are some of them. Bio technology, the latest one, is one of the technological discoveries. The term bio technology is composed of two words bio (Greek for bios means life) and technology (Greek for technologia- means Systematic treatment). It is a branch of Applied Biology. The word bio technology was first used by a Hungarian scientist called Karl Ereky in 1917. Bio-technology is based on principles of Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Bio chemistry. Bio technology has been defined by many in different ways and there is considerable diversity regarding its exact definition. Bio technology can be broadly defined as using living organisms or their products for commercial purposes. European federation of bio technology(1981) defined bio technology as the integrated use of bio-chemistry, microbiology and engineering sciences in order to achieve industry application of the capabilities of micro organisms, cultured tissues, cells and parts there of. Bio-technology is not totally a new concept. It existed even from ancient times in disguise. Preparation of beer, wine, curd formation, vaccine preparation etc by using fermentation process can be called as simple application of bio-technology. Bio technology can be broadly divided into plant bio-technology and Animal bio technology. Plant biotechnology uses techniques of genetic engineering (r-DNA technology) and tissue culture. Genetic engineering is the modification of genes of particular plant, by addition, removal of necessary gene. Through tissue culture, cells and cellular bodies are produced under artificial nutrient medium with environment containing microorganisms. The BT cotton and BT brinjal are some of the transgenic seeds produced by knowledge of plant bio technology. Similarly, animal bio technology deals with animals for creation of transgenic animals and in cloning. Bio technology has various sub fields. Red Bio technology is bio technology applied to medical process. Some examples are designing of organisms to produce antibiotics and the engineering of genetic cures to cure diseases through manipulation. White or Grey biotechnology is applied to industrial process. An example is the designing of an organism to produce useful chemical. Green Biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. bio-Informatics is an inter-disciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The field is also referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas like functional genomics and proteomics amongst others and forms a key component in pharmaceutics. Blue Biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic application of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. The principles of bioreactors, cell fusion, tissue culture, genetic engineering, DNA-finger printing, chromosome or genetic mapping and cloning have their sources rooted in bio-technology. In modern day, bio-technology has many applications. It is used to prepare hydrogen, alcohol and methane for bio fuels/ bio energy. In field of bio-informatics, it is used for development of devices to study bio systems by employing the NanoFabrication techniques as tools. In Enzyme Chromatography, food processing and bio-sensors is applied efficiently with bio technology only. Bio technology is used in Recombinant DNA Technology to prepare enzymes, growth hormones, vaccines and interferons. In Bio-Mass Treatment, bio technology produces single cell proteins, micro proteins, alcohol and biofuels. In plant and cell culture, alkaloids, dyes,

steroids, somatic embryos, encapsulated seeds, monoclonal antibodies are formed using bio-technology. In fermentation process, acids, enzymes, alcohol, vaccines, vitamins, toxins are produced commercially. world. Thus, bio-technology has a very wide role in present day applications of

3. a. What is fermentation? Discuss fermentation.

the historical developments in

The word Fermentation is derived from a Latin verb Fervere which means to boil. However, events of boiling came into existence from the fact that during alcoholic fermentation, the bubbles of gas (CO 2) burst at the surface of a boiling liquid and gave the wart appearance. The conventional definition of fermentation is the breakdown of larger molecules (for ex: carbohydrates) into simple ones under the influence of micro organisms for their enzymes. This definition of fermentation had little meaning until metabolic processes were known. In a micro biological way, fermentation is defined as any process for the production of useful products through mass culture of micro organisms. Whereas, in bio-chemical sense, fermentation means: the numerous oxidation-reduction reactions in which organic compounds, used as source of carbon and energy, act as acceptors or donors of hydrogen ions. The organic compounds used as substrate give rise to various products of fermentation which accumulate in the growth medium. The knowledge of fermentation is known to man from thousands of years. In 3000 B.C. itself, people living in the Nile valley knew the preparation of 6 types of beer. In 3000 B.C. the fermented Soya bean milk was used as cure for skin diseases. In 220 B.C. the fermented tea is used as medicine for various diseases in china. There are evidences to prove that fermentation is known in 8000 B.C. itself. They used to produce bread, alcohol and other alcoholic products using fermentation. In past 150 years, man started to learn various aspects of fermentation. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) developed method to observe yeasts and other microorganisms under the microscope, but this study cannot be further strengthened. By early 19th century Cagnaird-Latour and Schwann reported that fermentation of wine and beer is accomplished by yeast cells. In 1854, Louis Pasteur observed micro organisms associated with fermentation and causing many diseases in human beings. Detailed studies on fermentation product, culture improvement, recovery and scale up of products were made after World War I. In 1896, Edward Buckner discovered that enzymes present in yeast cells are responsible for fermentation than the yeast cells. He was awarded Nobel Prize in 1907 for his discovery. In 1881, Robert Koch advocated the theory to grow micro organisms in nutrient medium. In 1929, Alexander Fleming discovered antibiotic called Penicillin from fungi called Pencillium Notatum. He found that the fermented solution, when separated from these fungi, has the ability to destroy bacteria. In 1940, E. Chine and H. Flore developed Penicillin successfully. In 1929, Arthur Horton and Hansleiuer Shelfin demonstrated the action of enzymes in fermentation. In 1930, Embden and Moyorheff, two german scientists, demonstrated conversion of glucose into ethyl alcohol and CO2. They proved that 12 reactions make glucose to ethyl alcohol and CO2 by using various enzymes. Zymase is one of the key enzymes.

Presently, many products are produced industrially through fermentation. Alcohol is produced using yeast. Vinegar is produced using bacterium called Aceto Bactor Licetile, Lysine and Theronine amino acids are produced using corni bacterium Glutamikam and Brevi Bacterium. Also, various hormones, antibiotics, vaccines etc are being developed using fermentation. 4. a. Discuss preparation of any anti-biotic using Fermentation. Most of the micro organisms produce within themselves certain chemical substances. These chemicals, when excreted, interfere with the growth or metabolism of other micro organisms. Such compounds or chemicals are known as Anti-biotics. These are naturally occurring anti-microbial agents. They can be defined as Complex chemical substance, the secondary metabolics produced by micro organisms and act against other micro organisms, in nature, there are universal distribution of antibiotics among the micro organisms owing to which they are involved in antagonism. Those micro organisms which have capacity to produce more antibiotics can survive for longer times than other producing less amount of same. However, antibiotics produced by micro organisms have been very useful to cure certain human diseases caused by bacteria, fungi and protozoa. In 1922, Alexander Fleming, a British micro biologist, discovered Penicillin. In 1939, the anti microbial agent produced by micro organisms was designated as antibiotic by Waksman. Antibiotics may be obtained from almost every group of micro-organisms living in soil, water or mud. The most frequent antibiotic producing genus among bacteria are bacillus and streptomyces, among fungi are Pencillium and aspergillus. Antibiotics produced from algae and protozoa are less important and of little use. The table below demonstrates various micro organisms and then antibiotics they produce: MICROORGANISM Bacteria BACILLUS BREVIS STREPTOCOCCUS CREMORIS Fungi PENCILLIUM NOTATUM, CHRYSOGENUM CEPHALSOPORIUM ACREMONIUM ANTIBIOTICS PRODUCED Anti-Biotics THYROTHRICIN NISIN Anti-Biotics PENCILLIN CEPHALOSPORINS

PREPARATION OF ANTIBIOTIC - PENICILLIN: Among the antibiotics discovered so far there are 4 major groups which are used extensively throughout the world. They are: Penicillin, Cephalosporins, Tetracyclines and Erythromycins. PENICILLIN was first discovered by Alexander Fleming, a British microbiologist in 1929. He discovered it using bacterio-static principle from a fungus, which was later identified as Pencillium Notatum. It was the time of World War II when significance of penicillin was realized.

Penicillin is produced on large scale in a commercially devised fermentor which provides optimum growth conditions to Pencillium Chrysogenum for maximum yield.

Schematic Diagram of Penicillin Preparation A nutrient medium is prepared using lactose sugar, mineral salts, glucose and phenyl Acetic Acid. The mixture is put in Autoclave at 120oC temperature and 150 pounds pressure for about 30 minutes and it is made free from any microorganisms. In a separate Erlenmeyer flask, spores of Pencillium Chrysogenum strains are collected after incubation for two days. The spores of the fungi are transferred to seed tank. From seed tank, the fungi is purified and sent to fermentor. Nutrient medium is also sterilized and put in fermentor. The fermentor is maintained at 25 degrees celcius and left for incubation for 6 days. After fermentation, fungi are separated from nutrient medium through Filtration. Penicillin will get dissolved in the Amyl Acetate. So, amyl acetate is added to nutrient medium to separate penicillin from it. The extracted penicillin is purified and is used as antibiotic. 4. b. Discuss preparation of any organic acid using Fermentation. Fermentation processes play a prominent role in the production of most organic acids. Organic acids are widely used both as additives in the food industry and also as chemical feed stocks. Organic acids are produced through metabolisms of carbohydrates. Organic acids offer a great potential for future development as they are manufactured on large scale. In 1881, for the first time, Calcium Lactate was manufactured by bacterial fermentation. Later on, species of penicillin and Aspergillus were discovered for the production of acids. Various microorganisms and the organic acids they can prepare are given in the below table.

MICRO ORGANISM Pencillium Citratum Aspergillus Niger Rhizopus, Mucar Rhizopus, Mucar Lactobacillus Aspergillus Niger Aspergillus Niger Aspergillus Itaconicus

ORGANIC ACID PRODUCED CITRIC ACID FORMIC ACID LACTIC ACID OXAYLIC ACID GLYCOLIC ACID ACTONIC ACID

Citric acid (C6H10O7) is produced entirely by fermentation only. For the first time, Scheele reported the isolation and crystallization of sour product from lemon juice. However, citrus fruits could contribute only a small amount (about 1%) in the market. Now-a-days, citric acid available in market is prepared using fermentation process. Chemically, citric acid was synthesized from glycerol. In 1893, Wehmer identified the wide occurrence of citric acid in microbial metabolites. In 1922, Molliord confirmed the accumulation of citric acid in the cultures of Aspergillus Niger under the conditions of nutrient deficiency. Commercial Production of Citric Acid: Citric acid is prepared commercially using three methods. They are: 1. Koji Fermentation Process: This method is used in Japan. One fifth of citric acid produced per annum is with this process. Strains of Aspergillus Niger are used in this method. 2. Liquid Surface Culture Fermentation Process: In this method, Aspergillus Niger is grown using liquid culture. Liquid cultures are moculated within the spores of Aspergillus Niger which germinate within 24 hours. 3. Submerged Culture Fermentation Process: The mycelia of Aspergillus Japanecium is grown in a solution within a tank at depth of 16cm. it is very costly process and yields very little of citric acid.

Schematic Diagram of Citric Acid Preparation For commercial production, strains of Aspergillus Niger are selected from hybrids or mutants developed. The strains should be able to produce at least 80 gm of citric acid per 100 gm of glucose. For large scale production, continuous culture is

not suitable. Therefore, a multi-tank system is required for continuous fermentation in any process in which cell growth and metabolic products occur at different times. Nutrient medium (culture medium) contains Carbohydrates, Magnesium Sulphate, Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate, Ammonium Nitrate and a few trace elements. Solutions of carbohydrate are high test cane syrup glucose or sucrose (concentrated cane juice). Trace elements should be only added to fermentor when it is made of stainless steel, or else oxalic and gluconic acids may form in fermentor tank. Culture medium is sterilized using heat exchanger. Spores and the nutrient medium are sent to fermentor tank and left for fermentation up to 14-15 days at 2733 degrees. After this, fermentation Ca(OH)2 (lime) is added to solution. The culture medium which is free from fungi contains citric acid. This will be precipitated with addition of lime as Calcium Citrate. Crystals are recovered by centrifugation and mother liquor is returned to evaporator. Citric acid is made available in market and is used in food industry, pharmacy, cosmetics and other industries. 4. c. Discuss preparation of any alcohol using Fermentation. Louis Pasteur was the first person to prove that micro organism present in a sugar solution performs fermentation. He also proved that aerobic fermentation yield 20% better results than anaerobic fermentation. He also identified that presence of oxygen will slow down the process of fermentation. This is called Pasteur Effect. Though this principle was advocated 100 years ago, still the present day fermentation is using it. In 1815, Gay Lussac formulated the conversion of glucose to Ethanol. In 1980s, lactic acid was prepared through fermentation. This is used in baking powder as a substitute to Tartaric Acid. In Germany, Glycerol prepared through fermentation is used in explosives. At present, Ethanol is being produced commercially using process of fermentation and distillation. Ethanol is produced for human consumption in a large scale. It is also used as fuel for automobiles when mixed with gasoline. Both yeasts and bacteria have been used for production of Ethanol. Among the bacteria, most widely used organism is ZYMONONAS MOBILIS. SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE is the most commonly used yeast. The simple equation of bio-synthesis of ethanol is given below:

Alcohols like Ethanol, Methanol and butanol are now used as fuel in industries. Hence they are also called as Bio-Fuels. When used, they emit less CO 2 and hence pollution levels will be less. Ethanol is produced by fermentation mostly using yeast or bacteria.

Production of Ethanol using Yeasts: Yeats, especially strain of Sachromysis Cerevisiae is main producers of ethanol. Since, the fermentation using microorganisms are discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1890, yeast have been most used organism in alcohol preparation.

The extract supplied is inorganic phosphate (Pi). This equation is known as HardenYoung Equation. Production of Ethanol using Bacteria: Among the bacteria discovered, only Sarcina Ventriculi forms ethanol through fructose 1.6 biphosphate. A rod shaped polarly flagellated and motile bacterium Zymomonas Mobilis is known to metabolize glucose and result in Pyruvic Acid. Pyruvic Acid is then decarboxylysed to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. Acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol. Thus, products of fermentation are Ethanol, Carbon dioxide and small amount of lactic acid. The total preparation procedure can be classified into three steps. They are: 1. Preparation of nutrient solution. 2. Fermentation and 3. Distillation of Ethanol Nutrient solution is prepared using starch (containing roots, tubers and grains), molasses or juice from sugarcane or sugar beet, wood or waste products from processed wood. The most important root from which starch is derived is Manihot esculenta, a tropical plant. The nutrient solution is molasses with Diammonium Phosphate additive. PH value is adjusted to 5 with H2SO4 and pasteurization is then carried out. The fermentation temperature is 35 degrees centigrade and yeast production is log/l after fermentation cells are separated using centrifugation. The maximum yield of ethanol theoretically is 95%. Before distillation, cell mass is separated by centrifugation or sedimentation. Thus, ethanol is produced after distillation. Ethanol with a purity of 92.4% is used as solvent in cosmetic, pharmaceutical and chemical industry and 99.2% purity as motor fuel. It is also used in preparation of dyes, detergents, explosives, medicines etc.

4. d. Discuss preparation of any vitamin using Fermentation. Micro-organisms can be used for the commercial production of certain vitamins, such as thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, pantothenic acid, pyridoxal, vitamin

B12 and biotin. In addition to direct fermentation, certain vitamins can also be produced by combined chemical/ microbiological means. This is called as BioTransformation. Bio-transformation plays an important role in production of ascorbic acid and tocopherol. On worldwide basis, only the production of vitamin B12, Riboflavin and Ascorbic acid have any major economic significance. Also, the phototrophic micro organisms are capable of synthesizing vitamins and growth stimulating compounds for their vegetative growth. When synthesis of these compounds exceed beyond requirements, it accumulates in cultures. Vitamins also can be recovered from these cultures directly. Micro-biologically produced few vitamins are: (i) Carotene, precursor of Vitamin A by Blakeslea Trispora, (ii) Riboflavin by Ashbyagossyyppi, (iii) L-Sabrose of Vitamin C by Gluconobacter Oxidans, (iv) Vitamin B12 by Bacillus Coagulans, Bacillus Megaterium, Prudomonas denitrifians and Streptomyces Olivaceous. Preparation of Vitamin B12 (CYNACOBALAMINE): In nature, vitamin B12 is synthesized by micro-organisms. In industrial process, number of bacteria and streptomycetes are used. From one liter of streptococcus and bacteria, about 20 milligrams of vitamins can be obtained. The vitamin is used in medicine and food supplements. Daily requirement of vitamin B12 by human body is 0.001 milligrams. Vitamin (B12) [Cynacobalamine] contains a molecule of Cobinamide linked to a nucleotide which has 5, 6 dimethyl benzimidazole as its base, instead of a purine or pyrimidine base. The cobinamide molecule has a central atom of cobalt linked to cyanide group and surrouned by four reduced pyrol rings joined to form a macro ring. A number of carbon atoms carry methyl or other substitute groups. Commercially vitamin B12 is produced in a continuous culture where two fermentors are used in a series. In each fermentor culture are microorganisms are kept for many hours. One tank is made aerobic fermentor tank and other should be made anaerobic. In the aerobic fermentor tank, 5-6 Dimethyl Benziminazol is added continuously. Sterilized culture medium, containing glucose, corn steep, betain (5%), cobalt (5ppm), 7.5 PH is inoculated with Propioni bactorium Freudenreichii and allowed to anaerobic fermentation for about 70 hours. During this period, Cobinamide is produced and gets accumulated. Thereafter, 5-6 dimethyl benziminazolc (0.1%) is added to it. The fermentor then is kept further for 50 hours of aerobic fermentation. During this period, nucleotide is synthesized and linked with cobinamide molecule to yield anout 20 ppm cobalamin. Culture is acidified to PH 2.0 to 3.0, gently heated to 100 degrees centigrade and filtered to remove cell debris. Finally, potassium cyanide (5 ppm) is added to filtrate to give cynacobalamin. Generally, sodium sulphite is mixed with the solution, so that vitamin b12 synthesized will not be oxidized. Using genetic engineering techniques, it has become possible to obtain mutants of micro organisms producing more vitamins than the natural ones. Propioni Denitrificans are able to produce 50,000 times more vitamin B12 than its parental strain. Thus, vitamin B12 or Cynacobalamin is produced commercially using fermentation procedure. 4. e. Discuss preparation of any amino acid using Fermentation. Amino Acids are building blocks of proteins is the simple definition. Proteins, when hydrolyzed, produce amino acids. Amino acids are used in medicines, food

materials and cosmetic production. They are used to enhance flavor and smell of food materials. For example, L-glutamine amino acid adds good smell to food and Glycine when added increased taste of the food material. In 1908, to improve the smell of materials prepared from kelp, Glutamic Acid was discovered. Addition of Glutamic acid also increased the flavor of food materials. So, for more and better taste, Mono Sodium Glutanate (MSG) was being used. In 1957, S.UDAKA and S.KINOSHITA discovered that biotin is needed to produce Glutamic Amino Acid from mineral salt medium. They named this bacterium as Coryne Bacterium Glutamicum. Later, many scientists identified several microorganisms that can produce amino acids through fermentation. Production of Glutomic Acid: Many types of micro-organisms can be used in preparation of Glutamic Acid. Bacteria and fungi are majorly used. Micrococcus, Arthobactor and Brevi Bacterium are the types of bacteria used industrially in production of amino acids. Carbohydrate, peptones, mineral salts and biotins are used as nutrient medium. The concentration of biotin effects the production of amino acids. The alpha-kito glutamic acid obtained from kerbs cycle acts as precursor for Glutamic acid. An enzyme called Glutamic Dehydrogenaze helps in conversion of kito glutonic acid to glutamic acid. This glutamic acid is sold in market in the form of monosodium glutamate, which is used in spices for good smell to food.

Glutamic acid is very reactive in chemical reactions; hence its use in chemical process is less. This is a dicarboxylic amino acid. In human body, it converts into Glutamine. Highest amount of glutamic acid resides in human brain. It restricts loosing excess of ammonia in urine. An enzyme called glutamic decarboxylase helps in converting glutamic acid to gamma amino butaric acid (GABA) in brain. GABA is a neuro transmitter. In a liter of medium, molasses (6 gm), potassium Sulphate (6ppm), Ammonium Acetite (5 gm), Glucose (121 gm) are added. The solution is made micro organism free. Now, bacteria like Arthrobactor or Micrococcus or Brevi bacterium are added. Ammonia is additive to the nutrient medium. PH is maintained at 8.5 and the incubator is set to 35 degrees centigrade for 35 hours. After fermentation, olive oil antifoam is added to avoid formation of foam. After fermentation, PH levels falls to 7.8. After bacteria grow, temperature is increased to 38 degrees centigrade and glucose is added. Finally, for 1 liter of nutrient medium, 100 gm of glutamic amino acid is produced. If molasses is added instead of glucose, for 1 liter of nutrient medium, 94 gm of glutamic acid is obtained. The glutamic acid obtained is filtered

and sold in the market. Thus, amino acid can be obtained using fermentation for industrial purpose. 5. a. Discuss about Insulin and its production using fermentation. INSULIN is a protein hormone secreted by Beta-cells of Islets of Langerhans of Pancreas. It plays an important role in metabolism. It causes increase in carbohydrate metabolism, glycogenesis, glycogen storage and amino acid uptake/protein synthesis. This Insulin is important anabolic hormone which acts on variety of tissues, targeting muscles, liver, adipose tissue and heart mainly. For the first time, SIR EDWARD SHARPESHAFFER discovered the presence of Insulin in the juice secreted by Pancreas. Lack of proper Insulin causes Type-1 DIABETES. Insulin catabolizes glucose in blood. It is a boon for diabetic patients whose normal function of sugar metabolism generally fails.

A-CHAIN N-Terminal 1 End Glycine 6 Cys S-S Phenyl Analine N-Terminal End 1 B-CHAIN Cys 7

S-S 7 Cys Cys S-S Cys 19 Theronine 30 C-Terminal End 20 Cys 21 C-Terminal End

11

Asparagine

SCHEMATIC STRUCTURE OF INSULIN

Insulin contains two poly-peptide chains A (21 Amino Acids long) and B (30 Amino Acids long). These two chains are bonded by two disulphide bonds. There is also an independent disulphide bond to Cys 6 and Cys 11 of chain A. The gene that is used for production of human insulin is present on 11th chromosome. The DNA Sequence is broken to obtain that chromosome and the required insulin is prepared using Recombinant DNA Technology. The final product is stored and commercially sold in form of Insulin Injection for diabetic patients. PRODUCTION OF INSULIN: The 11th chromosome in the DNA Sequence is cut using DNA CUTTER enzyme like RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE. Using this enzyme, DNA is made into pieces. The pieces are further separated using process like ELECTROFOROSIS and SOUTHERN BLOTTING. Round shaped DNA called PLASMID is taken and attached with Insulin gene using enzyme called LYGASE. The DNA hence formed will be called as RE-COMBINANT DNA or r-DNA. This r-DNA is entered into a host cell. Micro organisms like Fungi (Sachromysis) or Bacteria (Estheria Coli or e-Coli) are

generally used as hosts. Host Cells will with r-DNA can produce huge quantities of Human Insulin through Fermentation Process. A fermentation tank is set up with nutrient medium made from AMMONIUM SULPHATE, SODIUM MONOPHOSPHATE, SODIUM CITRATE, MAGNESIUM SULPHATE, BORIC ACID, AMPICILLIN, FERRIC CHLORIDE and GLUCOSE. The e-coli bacterium (host cell) is entered into fermentation tank. The fermentor should be maintained at temperature of 37oC and medium of PH 7.3, for about 24 hours for incubation. After fermentation, bacteria are separated. The insulin which got separated will be in mixed state with nutrient medium. It is separated from nutrient medium and purified. The insulin thus produced will be 99% pure and will be similar to human insulin. The insulin can be obtained using yeast cells instead of e-coli bacteria. The INSULIN, thus developed can be used in form of injections to cure Type 1 Diabetes. 5. b. Discuss the preparation of any growth hormone using fermentation. Growth Hormone like SOMATOTROPHIN is essential for human growth. Somatotrophin is secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary glands which consists of 191 amino acid units. Lack of this growth hormone causes DWARFISM. The dwarfism of Lorain type effects physical growth of human where as of Frolic type even cause mental disability. Deficiency of Somatotrophin in about 3% of cases is hereditary. It is observed in 1 of every 5000 children. TURNERS SYNDROME is one of the most common chromosome disorders in girls and it is characterized by short stature and non-functioning of ovaries effecting approximately 1 in every 2500 female births. Secretion of this hormone is regulated by two other hormones produced by Hypothalamus. The extraction of Somatotrophin pharmaceutically from pituitary glands could not meet annual demand of this hormone. Bio-Synthesis of Somatotrophin was achieved using gene cloning procedures. 6 to 10 milligrams of this hormone, when given to people affected with dwarfism can grow up to 6 cm in the first year of treatment. The growth hormone related gene presents in long stranded 17th chromosome of human. Somatotrophin gene contains 191 amino acids. First, 24 amino acids of the peptide contain the code of nucleotide building. A synthetic gene of Somatotrophin is prepared from pituitary gland through m-RNA using REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE METHOD. Recombinant Method is used to produce human growth hormone plasmid. The plasmid is prepared using Genetic Engineering Method. PRODUCTION OF SOMATOTROPHIN: The DNA Sequence is cut using DNA CUTTER enzyme like RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE. Using this enzyme, DNA is made into pieces. The Human Growth Hormones are further separated using process like ELECTROFOROSIS and SOUTHERN BLOTTING. Round shaped DNA called PLASMID is taken and attached with required 17th gene using enzyme called LYGASE. The DNA hence formed will be called as RE-COMBINANT DNA or r-DNA. This r-DNA is entered into a host cell. Micro organisms like Fungi (Sachromysis) or Bacteria (Estheria Coli or e-Coli)

are generally used as hosts. Host Cells are now used to perform Fermentation Process. A fermentation tank is set up with nutrient medium made from AMMONIUM, GLUCOSE, AMPICILLIN, SODIUM HYDROXIDE, SODIUM CHLORIDE, MAGNESIUM SULPHATE, ZINC SULPHATE, CALCIUM SULPHATE, UREA, SODIUM CITRATE, and HYDROCHLORIC ACID in fewer amounts. The e-coli bacterium (host cell) is entered into fermentation tank. The fermentor should be maintained at temperature of 37oC and medium of PH 7.3 7.5, for about 40 hours for incubation. Hormone is produced as bacteria rapidly multiply in fermentor. After fermentation, bacteria are separated. The growth hormone which got separated will be in mixed state with nutrient medium. It is separated from nutrient medium and purified. The growth hormone thus produced is sold commercially in form of injections. This also helps in research on human growth hormones to a great extent. The injections of Somatotrophin are now being produced by institutes like GENE TECH and PASTEUR INSITUTE. 5. c. Discuss fermentation. the preparation of any recombinant vaccine using

Vaccines are chemical substances prepared from the proteins (antigen) of other animals which confer immunity to particular virus. Some of the vaccines are synthesized biologically through Genetic Engineering. Preparation of recombinant vaccine like HEPATITIS B can be taken as example. Hepatitis B virus is spread all over the world. Every year about 1-2 lakh new cases gets registered in America alone. 5-10% of these infected persons carry this disease else where in world. There are about 170 million vectors of this disease. It effects mostly through blood or blood related products. Hepatitis B virus produces several chronic liver disorders such as FULMINAT CHRONIC HEPATITIS, CIRRHOSIS and PRIMARY LIVER CANCER. Hepatitis B virus antibodies are produced in human and chimpanzee liver. Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBSAg) can be produced through Recombinant procedure. HBSAg is a glycocylated polypeptide with atomic weight of 27000. These are not vectors of virus. The 22 nanometer cells of the serum are immunological human hepatitis carriers. Nucleic acid is absent in these cells and also these cells are better performers than whole HBSAg Monomer immunologically. PRODUCTION OF HEPATITIS B VACCINE: The Gene Sequence is cut using DNA CUTTER enzyme like RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE. Using this enzyme, DNA is made into pieces. The required genes are further separated using process like ELECTROFOROSIS and SOUTHERN BLOTTING. They are attached to yeast cell plasmid. This r-DNA thus formed is entered into a host cell. Micro organisms like Fungi (Sachromysis Cerevisiae) or Bacteria (Estheria Coli or e-Coli) are generally used as hosts. With in 3 days, the host cells are broken and required gene proteins are separated. GENE MARKERS

like TRYPTOPHAN are used to identify the required gene proteins. The Hepatitis B virus surface proteins are thus separated and purified and used as vaccine. Hepatitis B virus surface proteins are formed when yeast Alcohol DeHydronaze I (ADH-I) gene is used during preparation. 3-PhosphoGlycerate Cynase is another gene used when yeast is the vector. The vaccine produced is using IMMUNE AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPGY method. Production of vaccine using yeast is in great progress these days. Three types of Hepatitis B virus proteins act as antigens. They are (i) Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBSAg), (ii) Hepatitis B Core Antigen (HBcAg) and (iii) Hepatitis E Virus Antigen (HBEAg). In India, Hepatitis B vaccine is first produced by SHANTHA BIOTEC PVT. LTD. based in Hyderabad. After that government organizations like TORRENT PHARMA COMPANY of AHMEDABAD and SERUM INSTITUTE OF INDIA in PUNE started producing HEPATITIS B Vaccines. 5. d. What is Interferon? How are they prepared using fermentation? INTERFERON is defined as a protein which exerts virus non-specific anti viral activity, at least in homologous cells through cellular metabolic procedure involving the synthesis of both RNA and protein. For the first time, ISAAC and LINDENMANN isolated the interferon in 1957. Interferon is secreted by human cells just to resist the immediate invasion by virus and multiplication of abnormal cells. Interferons are produced in human body before the anti-viral bacterial antigens are stimulated after any attack. Production of interferons is the first act of defence of human cells. It is used to cure many viral diseases such as cold and hepatitis. It is a proteins group of atomic weight 20,000 30,000. It is species specific. In man, there are three classes of interferons. They are:

1. Alpha interferon (IFNs-) or Leukocyte Interferon (leukocytes of blood). 2. Beta Interferon (IFN ) or Fibroblast interferon (Fibroblast of connective
tissue).

3. Gamma Interferon (IFN ) or immune Interferon (by lymphocytes of blood).


Interferons are also called as BACCHOCITE INTERFERONS. When human blood is attacked with a virus like Sendai, interferons are released by white blood cells. Most of them are of type gamma. It has 166 amino acids long chain. It is a dimeric protein. The gene related to gamma interferon present in 12th chromosome of human DNA. Interferons can be produced artificially using recombinant DNA technology at low costs. The gene gamma-interferon is separated from human DNA and is entered into a host cell with help of a vector. e-coli is the bacterial host cell used mostly for production of interferons commercially. Gamma-interferon gene should be separated from human cells. An enzyme called Restriction Endonuclease is used for this purpose. Gamma-interferon gene is separated using methods like Electroforosis and Southern Clotting. Using the same restriction, endo nucleus enzyme vectors like plasmid is also made into pieces. The required gamma-interferon is entered into a plasmid and the combined DNA is called

as DNA. This DNA is entered into a host cell like e-coli bacterium. The bacteria are left to incubate in a fermentor. A stainless steel tank is filled with nutrient medium and should be free from any types of microorganisms. The nutrient medium consists of glucose, ammonia sodium monophosphate, water, ampicillin, magnesium sulphate, morocapto ethanol, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide. Now the bacteria with DNA is put in nutrient medium. The fermentor tank is kept at 37 degrees celcius for anout 26 hours to incubate. The growth of e-coli bacteria will be very rapid at 37 degrees celcius. Interferon will increase in the form of Inclusion Bodies. After fermentation, the recombinant microorganisms should be killed by heating at high temperature. The gamma interferons produced should be separated from dead bacterial cells and then purified. 90% pure interferons will be obtained at first stage of purification. 95% pure interferons can be obtained if Mercapto Ethanol is used in the recovery process. Thus, interferons are produced commercially using fermentation process.

x---- END OF UNIT 1 ---x

U N I T - II
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Plants POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Discuss in detail the uses of plants. b. Explain the general characteristics of plants? c. Discuss about the origin of agriculture. d. Briefly discuss about various useful and harmful plants. a. What are animals? How can they be classified? b. Briefly discuss about wild and domestic animals and the process of domestication. c. How are animals useful to mankind? d. Do you justify man exploiting animals for his own benefits? Discuss. TOTAL TOPICS 2 QUESTIONS 8

2.

Animals

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Discuss the uses of plants. The study of plants has great significance in human life, because for day-today requirements man is dependent on plants either directly or indirectly. The used of plants are enormous. Man depends on plants for his basic needs like food, clothes and shelter. Also, he is dependant on plants for economic growth, health and medicine. Soaps, oil, perfumes, wooden furniture that we use everyday are the products of plants only. Also, many industries like paper, cloths, dyes, rubber, alcohol, sugar etc depend on plants. Food Plants: Cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, sugar yielding plants, nuts, spices, condiments etc are the main produce of food plants. Among cereals, rice (Oryza), wheat (Triticum) and Maize (Zea) are mainly used as staple food. They are rich in carbohydrates. There are also minor cereals like millets. Pulses like chickpea (or gram), black gram, green gram, cowpea, pigeon pea, and peanut are used as food materials. They are rich in proteins. They are main source of food for vegetarians, which build the muscle for them. Fruits like apple, guava, orange, pine-apple, mango, watermelon, grapes, walnut, peach etc are used extensively. Fruits are rich in water, carbohydrates and organic acids. They provide vitamins and proteins to human body. Vegetables store food material in different parts. They are classifies as earth vegetables, herbage vegetables and fruit vegetables. Edible roots are beet,

turnip, carrot, sweet potato and radish. The underground stem vegetables include potato, onion and garlic. Herbage vegetables include cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, lettuce etc. important fruit vegetables are okra, jackfruit, tomato, brinjal, ladyfingers etc. Sugar cane, beetroot, palm trees etc are sugar-yielding plants. Nuts are rich in carbohydrates or proteins or oil. Casher nut, coconut, almond, pistachio nut, groundnut etc are some of the nuts. Plants in construction material: Some plants provide timer. They are called as wood plants in plant science. Wood is superior to any metal in its availability, cheapness, toughness, strength and elasticity. The properties possessed by any wood are its strength, stiffness, toughness, hardness and cleavability. The lightest wood is that of Ochroma Lagopus and heaviest of Hardwickia Binata. Wood obtained from Oak, Birch, Maple, Pinus etc. are used as fuel. Coal, Peat, petroleum etc are obtained from these trees are used in production of electricity and as fuel in trains. In constructions, Red Pine, Douglas fir, Teakwood, Red Sider, Hamlock, Jack Pine trees are used. They provide construction pilings for railway tracks, ships, bridges, shipyards, train compartments etc. Oak, maple, Walnut, Teak, Ternalia trees are used in furniture preparation. Wood is also used in paper industry, plywood, and preparation of matchboxes and in construction of vehicles. Fiber yielding plants: The textile fibers are of three types: 1. Surface fibers (e.g.: Cotton) 2. Soft fibers (E.g.: Jute, flax etc) and 3. Hard Fibers (E.g.: Agare, cir, manila, hemp etc) Cotton is the seed surface of fiber of Gossypium. It is used in textile industry. Jute is the best fiber of Corchorus stem. This is obtained by retting. Useful soft fiber is obtained from species of Abutilon, Abelmoschus, Crotalaria, Hibiscus, and Urena. Brush fibers are obtained from the leaves of Borassus, Caryota and Raffia or from the roots of Muhlenbergia and inflorescence of Sorghum and Thysanolaena. Medicinal Plants: The ancient Indian treatise Rig Veda details with medicinal plants. Ancient Indians divided he medicinal plants on the basis of botanical, medicinal and dietic characteristics. Quinine, an alkaloid obtained from bark of the tree Sincona is used to cure malaria. Digitalin obtained from the tree Digitalis Purpurea is used to cure heart diseases. Opium is obtained from Papaver Somniferum. It is used as anesthesia. Also, Marijuana, Tobacco, Coco, Turmeric are used in medicinal preparation. After discovery of antibiotics by Alexander Fleming, use of fungi, bacterium, and acetonomycates are used in preparation of vaccines. Raulfia, Belladona, Effidrin, Ergot, Econite, Podafillum etc are few trees used in preparation of drugs. Plants are also used in preparation of perfumes and dyes. Thus, plants are extremely useful to mankind. 1. b. Write the general characteristics of plants.

Life existed on earth two crores years ago. Early stage of life is with unicellular organisms, which resided in water. It is believed that unicellular organisms with cell wall later developed in to plants and those without cell wall developed into animals. At present, quite a large number of plants exist in this world and more than 3,40,000 plants have been described and named by botanists. Still, a large number of plants remain unknown. Plant kingdom is divided in to Cryptogams and Phanerogams. Cryptogams are plants that are flowerless and hence are called as Spore-plants. Plants that bear flowers are Phanerogams and called as Seed-Plants. The characteristics of plants can be described using classification of plant kingdom given by Carlous Linnaeous in 1737. He divided plants in 4 groups. They are Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. Of these 4 groups, Thallophyta, Brophyta, Pteridophyta never bear flowers and falls under Cryptogam category. Spermatophyta bears flowers and belongs to Phanerogams. Characteristics of Thallophyta: Phylum Thallophyta includes Fungi, lichens and algae. Algae are most plant-like among them. Plants of this phylum do not exhibit cell division. They are mostly unicellular and multi cellular bodies. Algae can make their own food. They can be green, red or brown. Algae live in seawater. They do not have roots, stems or leaves. Corallina, Sea lettuce is the examples of algae. Similarly, Fungi is also unicellular and multi cellular organisms. But they cannot produce their own food. They have cell wall made up of cellulose or Khaitin. Yeast is an example of Fungi. Characteristics of Bryophta: (Bryon = Moss, Phyton = plant) They are small plants that grow densely together in moist and shady places. They form green carpets on damp soil, rocks or bark of trees and on abandoned walls during the rainy season. There are two groups of bryophytes namely liverworts and mosses. Sphagnum is a moss, which occurs in bogs. They do not absorb water and minerals in the way that tree roots do. Liverworts have flat, green thallus, attached to the ground by thin roots. They contain spore capsule, and contain tiny spores for reproduction. Characteristics of Pteridophyta: These types show the variation and have roots, tree and stems. (pteris = fern, Phyton= plant). These are primitive vascular plants. They are also called as Vascular cryptogams. They are mainly found in humid tropical regions. They are collectively called Ferns. They can be homosporous or heterosporous. The leaves of pteridophytes often have a lacy appearance. This can be seen in plants like Maidhair fern fern leaves are called Fronds. Characteristics of Spermatophyta: They bear flowers. They are classified as GYMNOSPERMS(Seed plant without flower) and ANGIOSPERMS(Flowering plants). Gymnosperms: In Greek, gymnosperm means A plant with naked seeds. (Gymno = naked, Sperms = seed). These include the conifers(such as pine) and cycads. This is because the seeds of gymnosperm are not inside a fruit. Instead, gymnosperms are not inside fruit. Instead, a gymnosperm has its seeds inside cones.

When cone open, their seeds fallout. They include cucads, Fir trees, Pine, Cypress, Spruce, Gingkgo and Red Woods. Angio Sperms: (Angio = enclosed, Sperm = Seed). They are the most important and advanced group of plats. The angiosperms all are flowering plants. The seeds of these plans are developed in organ called as ovary in the flower. There are between 2,00,000 3,00,000 different species of angiosperms?(flowering plants) known. Angiosperms can look very different from each other because these are many shapes and arrangement of leaves and stems. Even the roots on angiosperms can have different forms and patterns. In comparison with other organisms, only insects number more species than angiosperms. Although, a wide variety of flowering plants occur on earth, all have more or less the same structure and consist of three basic organs: root, stems and leaves.

1. c. Discuss about the origin of agriculture. Man has been attempting to improve his crops since pre historic times. Early evidence of agriculture is dated back to 12,000- 7,000 B.C. The terms Agriculture is derived from the Latin words Ager or Agri meaning Soil and Culture meaning Cultivation. Agriculture is a very broad terms encompassing all aspects of crop production, live stock farming, fisheries, forestry etc. Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and practices of soil, water and crop management. The earliest man, Homoerectus emerged around 1.5 million years ago. About 500,000 years ago man learnt to control and use fire. The early man is distinguished from fellow animals by his inteligence4 and skill making tools. The weapons used for hunting are boulders, spears of wood tipped with blades of flint and stone tipped arrows etc. later he domesticated dog, which greatly helped him in hunting. Apart from meat of animals he gathered variety of seeds, leaves and fruits from the jungle. He first domesticated sheep(8700 B.C.) and later goat(7700 B.C.). Between the periods of 7,500-6,000 B.C, man gradually shifted from hunting and gathering agriculture. Stone axes were used for cutting trees and fire for burning wood. Grains of cereals were dibbled with aid of pointed sticks. Agriculture has no single and simple origin. It was started in different parts of world during different periods. As India was a pastoral country, development of agriculture and rearing animals took place concurrently. In 7,500 B.V, cultivation of crops lie wheat and barley happened. Domestication of cattle and pigs started in 6,000 B.C. Maize was cultivated in 4,400 B.C. By 3,500 B.C, potato was cultivated. The Invention of wheel happened in 3,400 B.C. Man learnt making tools with bronze during 3,000 BC. This led to change in farming habits. In 2,900 B.C, invention of plough and commencement of irrigated farming started. In 2,700 B.C, domestication of silk moth took place. Cultivation of chickpea, pears, sarson and cotton as well as domestication of fowl, buffalo and elephant took place in 2,300 B.C. Cultivation of rice started in 2,200 B.C. Finger millet was cultivated in 1,800 B.C and sorghum in 1725 B.C. taming of horse started in 1700 B.C. Cultivation of sugarcane and well irrigation started in 1500 B.C. iron was first used in 1400 B.C. Indias most important contribution of world agriculture is rice, the staple food crop of most south, south east and east Asia.

In 15th century AD, cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal and pomegranate started. In 16th century, several crops are introduced into India by Portuguese viz., potato, sweet potato, arrow root, cassava, tomato, chilies, pumpkin, papaya, pine apple, guava, custard apple, ground nut, cashew nut, tobacco, American cotton, rubber etc. Sugarcane, number of legumes and tropical fruits like mango are natives of India. Indian agriculture is predominantly of subsistence type. Commercial crops like potato, sweet potato, are grown in large scale. Subsequently, subsistence economy was to an extent replaced with exchange economy. This is also known as Commercialization of Agriculture A number of research institutions like Indian Agricultural Institute (Delhi), Central Potato Research Institute (Shimla), Rice research Institute (Cuttack), Sugarcane Research Institute (Coimbatore) etc contributed to growth of agricultural science and increase in agricultural production. With growth of science and technology, all the fields of agriculture progressed enormously. Now, the knowledge of Hybridization, Genetical Science, Bio Technology etc has changed the agricultural scenario of the world. The genetically modified seeds with desired characteristics like BT cotton, BT brinjal etc. are being developed. The growth of science is even becoming harmful these days. Terminator seeds which are able to produce food for only one turn of breeding are being sold in market. This makes farmers helpless in their cultivation. Government has to provide necessary knowledge and arrangement to agriculture that contributes to 27% GDP and provides employment to 60% of nation. In the same time, it should take necessary steps to curb undesired growth of science in field of agriculture. 1. d. Briefly discuss about various useful and harmful plants. USEFUL PLANTS Man depended in plants for his basic needs like food, clothes and shelter. He also uses plants for economic growth, health and medicine. Various types of plants and their uses are given below: Food Plants: Cereals like Oryza Sativa (Paddy), Triticum Aestivum (wheat), Zea Mays (Maize) are the staple food provides and rich in carbohydrates Solanum Tuberosum (Potato) is food plant obtained from stem tubers and is most grown all over the world. Cicer Arietinum (Chickpea), Vigna Mungo (Black Gram), Vigna Radiatus (Green Gram), Cajanus Cajan (Pegion pea), Arachis Hypogea (Peanut) are pulses rich in minerals. Anacardium (cashew nut), Cocos Nucifera (Coco nut) are nuts with rich oil content. Millets (also called as minor cereals) like Pennisetum, Parcium, Setaria, and Elusine are used as substitute for cereals as well as animal feed. Many varieties of fruits like apple, mango, orange etc. and vegetables like tomato, brinjal etc. are food producers. There are sugar-yielding plants like sugarcane, Beetroot etc. Medicinal Plants: Quinine, an alkaloid obtained from the bark of tree Sincona is used to cure Malaria. Digitalin obtained from the tree Digitalis Purpurea is used to cure heart diseases. Opium is obtained from Papaver Somniferum. It is used as anesthesia product. Also, Marijuana, Tobacco, Coco, Turmeric have many medicinal values. After discovery of antibiotics by Alexander Fleming, use of fungi, bacterium, and acetonomycates are used in preparation of vaccines. Raulfia, Belladona,

Effidrin, Ergot, Econite, Podafillum etc are few trees used in preparation of drugs. In Construction Material: The lightest wood is that of Ochroma Lagopus and heaviest of Hardwickia Binata. Wood obtained from Oak, Birch, Maple, Pinus etc are used as fuel. Red Pine, Douglas fir, Teakwood, Red cider, Hamlock, Jack Pine trees are used in construction purposes. Trees are also used in furniture preparation, paper industry, plywood, match boxes, construction of vehicles, ships, ship yards, bridges, as poles etc. Plants like cotton, jute, flax, agate, coir, manila, hemp etc. provide fiber and are used in textile industry. Plants are also used in perfumes and deodorants. (E.g. Labiati, Mirtesi, utsi etc). Isatis Tinctoria, Rubia Tinctoria, Crocos Sativus are plants used in preparation of dyes. Coffee, tea, Alcohol, Spice, and Condiments etc are also obtained from plants only. HARMFUL PLANTS Not all plants are useful to man. Some of the plants will cause harmful aspects to mankind. Those plants are called as Weeds. Plants like Dioia, Atricularia, Nepenthis, Drocira eats insects like animals. Some plants produce toxins. These toxins are harmful. Calotrophis, Nireus produce toxic juices. Parthineum (Congress Weed) spores will cause Asthma when they enter into breathing system. Opansia Horripuja plant contains fruits with thorns. They give irritation to human body. The thorns are also called as Spanish needles. Hordium Jubatum (Horse Tail Borley) plant is dangerous to cattle. When cattle try to eat this plant, the spikes present on it cause infection to animals. These cause irritation to human body when touched. polygonu Arifolium is a weed grown in water. It contains thorns and when stepped on it caused wounds. Solanum Ptycanthum also called as Black Night Shade. Its fruits are full of toxic materials. Solanum Duclamora is also known as climbing nightshade. It creeps and its fruits are equally harmful as Solanum Ptycanthum. Ground Cherry also called as Chinese Lantern. Though its fruits are not poisonous, they cannot be eaten. Robina Psuedo Acaacia, its seeds are poisonous. When its branches are used to blow air, they infect lips of man. Ambrosia Artimicifolia(Rog Weed) release certain stains and the spores of it created allergy and hay fever. Arisaema triphyllum grows as underground stem in wet places. It causes severe irritation, itching and also causes swelling in mouth. Akalifa, Acountium, Esculus, Aglaonima, Agrostema Figitago, Allamanda, Allokesia, Amerillus Belladonia, Aspenghus, Ipomia, Lantana, Monistera, Deliasia, Cilla are some other harmful plants that cause itching to skin, irritation and are poisonous. Most of the harmful plants are generally grown for their beauty. When human himself do not touch these plants, they cause no harm. But when they are handled, it is must to know about the characteristics of the plant by the man. 2. a. What are animals? How can they be classified? Animals are a major group of mostly multi cellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they

develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are mobile. They can move spontaneously and independently. Most animals are heterotrophs. They must ingest other organisms for sustenance. Animals have certain characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multi cellular, which separates them from plants and algae (some sponges are capable of photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation though). They are distinguished from plants, algae and fungi by lacking cell walls. Most animals, embryos pass through a bastula stage, which are characteristics exclusive to animals. Carlous Linnaeous, father of classification, wrote a book classifying animals as Systema Naturae. There are over million species in kingdom animalia. All animals(except Sponges), have muscle cells, which enable them to move, and nerve cells, which enable them to sense changes in environment and adjust accordingly. There are several Phyla in animal kingdom. They are Porifera ( ex: Sponges), Coelenterat ( Ex: Hydra), Ctenophora (Ex: Moon Jelly), Platyhelminthes (Ex: Planaria, Liver fluke), Nematoda (Ex: Round worms, ascaries), Annelida (Ex: Earth worms and leeches), Anthrapoda (Ex: Insects, crabs, Spiders and scorpions), Mollusca (Snails) Echinodermata (Ex: Star Fishes) and Chordata (All vertebrates i.e. fish to man). In modern system of classification, all animals are divided in to two groups. They are VERTEBRATES and INVERTEBRATES.

VERTEBRATES are animals that have a skeleton inside their bodies. An internal skeleton includes a backbone, which is made up of bones called vertebrae. There are five groups of vertebrates. They are Amphibians, Reptiles, Fishes, Mammals and Birds. Amphibians are cold blooded. They spend part of their lives under water and partly on land. They lay jelly-covered eggs in water. Baby amphibians live under water and breathe with gills. Frogs, toads and Salamanders are example for amphibians. Reptiles have dry, scaly skin. Dinosaurs are reptiles of prehistoric time. They have short legs or no legs at all. They breathe with lungs. Snakes, lizards, turtles, tortoises, alligators and crocodiles are examples of reptiles. Fishes are cold blooded. They lay eggs. Most fishes are covered with scales. They have fins instead of legs. Fish live in water and breathe through gills. Mammals are the most intelligent creatures on earth. They learn to adapt to many different climates and living conditions. Some mammals are tame, some are wild, and some are large and some small. They have fur or hair. The babies drink milk from their mothers bodies. They have four limbs(arms, legs, flippers). They are warm blooded.

Most mammals are born alive and breathe through lungs. Bears, Apes, Wolves, Hippopotamus, Lions, Tigers, whales, dolphins and humans are examples of mammals. Birds vary in size from tiny humming bird to large ostrich. Bird is an animal with feathers. They have two legs and two wings. Birds have beak or a bill. They lay eggs. They are also warm blooded. They can fly. Invertebrates are animals that do not have backbones. 97% of animal kingdom is made up of invertebrates. They are sponges, corals, worms, starfish, mollusks and Arthropods. Sponges look like pants, but they are animals. They stay fixed in one place. Their bodies are full of holes. Water flows through holes and this enable them to catch food. Corals also look like plants. They feed by catching tiny animals in their tentacles. They have soft tube like bodies with a single opening surrounded by are like part called tentacle. Hydras, jellyfish also come under group of corals. Worms are of three types. They are worms (flat body, can live inside body of animals and humans), round worms (Rounded bodies, lives inside body of animals or humans), Segmented worm(prefer burrowing through moist soil like earth worm). Starfish has five arms and no head. Its body covered with spines. Mollusks has a hard shell, rough tongue and muscular foot. Snail squid and octopus are mollusks. Arthropods are invertebrates with joined legs and hard exoskeleton. Insects are largest group of arthropods. Spiders, Centipedes, Millipedes, Bees, Grasshoppers, Beetles, and Moths are other examples. 2. b. Briefly discuss about wild and domestic animals and the process of domestication. Wild Animals: Animals can be categorized as Wild Animals and Domestic Animals. Animals which are not domesticated and are not under protection of human can be called as wild animals. The relation between human and wild animals is very intense. During Vedic period, animals were sacrificed as they believed these are pure. Lord Buddha preached against animal sacrifices. Later, King Asoka passed orders to stop animal sacrifices and violence. People used to worship these animals. Naga Puja (worship of snakes is an example. Animal features are added to incarnations of GOD. Especially, lord Vishnu was given 10 different kinds of incarnations in which one of that included pig called Varahavatara. But, later hunting animals became a sport and symbol of prestige for royalties and rulers. This gave severe blow to wild life. Also, the superstitious beliefs of manmade destiny of wild animals become very low. The skin of tiger, its nails, tusk of elephant became fashionable wall hangings to kings and British rulers in early modern period. But the things were changed with advent of 19th century. Wild animals are given adorable respect by various nations by making those an emblem or a national animal. Tiger represents India, Wild Bear represents Russia, Giant Panda represents China, Kiwi represents New zealand and Kangaroo represents Australia. In India, there are about 350 types of mammals, 2100 types of birds, 20,000 types of insects. But these are getting extinct day-by-day. For protection of wild animals, Indian Government setup Indian Board of Wild Life in 1952. In 1972, Wild Life Protection Act of 1972 was passed. 96 national parks, 14 biospheres and 510 wildlife centers were established till now. Jim Corbett in Uttarkand is first national park and Nilgiris is the first biosphere reserve. Also, government took animal oriented projects concentrating protection of particular species. PROJECT TIGER was started in 1973. Project Elephant, Project Crocodile are other such projects. Still, the destiny of wild

life is getting reduced day-by-day and government should take necessary steps to stop encroachments and hunting of wild animals. Domesticated Animals: Many of the animals in and around our homes (such as dogs, cats, cattle, birds etc) are called domesticated animals. Originally, all these were wild animals. Early man realized the capabilities of these wild animals, tamed and domesticated them to help him in his daily activities. These animals provided him with food (milk, meat, eggs etc), clothing (from hides or skins of these animals). They also helped him in agriculture, travel and transport. Man, in turn, protected, fed and took care of these domestic animals. Selective breeding, rearing, training and maintenance of health of domestic animals have become an industry by itself and provide employment to several people. Selective relationship between man and domestic animals is indispensable. They are mutually dependent. In the course of history, different animals were domesticated at different times. Dog was domesticated around 12,000-15,000 years ago. Sheep at 12,000 years back, Goat at 11,000 years ago got domesticated. Pig got domesticated 8,000 years ago. Similarly, Bull, cat, hen, horse got domesticated 6000, 5000, 4000-5000, 4000 years ago respectively. Some of the domesticated animals like parrots and cats do not help man on daily activities. But man uses them for aesthetic appeal and they give him company, immense pleasure and happiness. Such animals are called as Pet Animals. Domestication has brought several changes in animals. For example, jungle fowl weighs 0.6-0.7 kgs and lays about 12-20 eggs in a year. This is due to trial of man to improve the qualities of domestic animals. Uses of domestic animals are enormous. Cattle (cows, bulls, buffaloes), also known as livestock, produce 20-30 liters of milk per day. Bulls are used in agricultural help. In western countries, meat from cattle called beef is consumed. Poultry industry is to rear mean producing birds. Birds which are grown specifically for eggs are called Layers and those grown specifically for meat are called Broilers. Goat was domesticated primarily for meat and milk. Wool is the secondary hair of sheet and woolen clothes have good heat retaining capacity. Horse was domesticated for help in agriculture, transport and to provide meat. Mule and Henny are hybrids between donkey and horse and are used as weight carriers. Pork is the meat of pig and is in great demand in western countries. To sum up, domestication of wild animals has helped man in his daily activities and provided him with continuous source of food. 2. c. How are animals useful to mankind? Animals are useful to man in myriad ways. Animals provide food (milk, meat and eggs), clothing (hides, skins etc) and help in agriculture, travel and transport. Man is even exploiting these animals for his medical advancement. Man using from a microscopic bacteria to huge wild elephants get benefited in many ways. Man started domesticating animals by realizing their abilities to help him in his daily activities. Dog, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Ox, Cat, Hen and horse got domesticated in the respective chronology. Some animals like parrot and cats are grown for aesthetic appeal and they give company, immense pleasure and happiness. These animals are called Pet Animals. Dogs and cats are also pet animals at present they guard the house of their owners from intruders.

Cattle represent cows, bulls and also buffaloes. They are also called as LIVESTOCK. Cattle were domesticated some 6,000 years ago. Cattle were grown in India since Vedic period. Cattle were domesticated primarily for food, milk and meat. Later, they were used in agricultural operations for transporting loads, and their skins were used for making leather goods. In western countries, the meat of cattle, called Beef, is consumed heavily. India has largest livestock population in world. In 1970, OPERATION FLOOD was started for improvement in dairy products. This led to White Revolution or Milk Revolution. In 1988, technology mission on dairy development was started for improvement in milk production. Goat and sheep were also domesticated for milk, meat and skin. Angora breed of goat is famous for smooth, silky and lustrous wool. Merino breed, Karakul breed, Corridale breed of sheep produce high quality wool. Woolen clothes have good capability to return heat and used in winter seasons. Pig was domesticated by man 8,000 years ago. It was domesticated for meat. Pig was preferred as the rate of growth and reproduction is high. Meat of pig is called Pork. Berkshire, Yorkshire and Land Race breeds of pigs are famous for their meat. The hide (skin) of pigs is used for making leather garments and articles. Pig hair is used for making painting brushes. Horse was domesticated by man 4,000 years ago. In olden days, horses were used all over the world for transport. Mules and Hennys are hybrids between horse and donkey. They are used to carry heavy loads. AQUACULTURE is the industry that rears aquatic animals and provides marine products. Fish, Snail, Lobsters, Oysters, Prawns, and Squids etc are used by man for food. Fish industry is categorized into capture industry, offshore fishery, Inland fishery and Inshore Fishery. Fish is the main source of food in many places. BLUE REVOLUTION is the term used to show growth in marine products. POULTRY is rearing meat producing birds. Rearing of birds like ducks and turkey are also poultry activities. It is one of major activities in country. A.P occupies a prominent position in poultry industry as it produces 1/5 th of total egg production in country about 1.2 crores of eggs are produced per day in this state. Birds which are grown specifically for eggs are called Layers and those grown for meat are called Broilers. Rhode Island and Leghorn breeds are most popular in our country. SERICULTURE is industry of silk production Mulberry trees are grown, eggs of silk worm are taken, cocoons are produced and finally silk threads are extracted from that. Moonga Silk, Eri Silk etc are various types of silks produced using various types of silk moths. BEE INDUSTRY uses honey bees for production of honey. Honey is used as sweetening agent in food. It is also used in medicinal preparations due to its high medicinal values. Resins and Gums are produced by using LAC worm. Man uses animals like rat, monkey, chimpanzee, dog as test specimen to check the performance of medicinal drug prepared. Due to this only, the unlimited numbers of drugs are available now and the average life of man has increased. But, these days, the respect towards animals is getting reduced. Wearing animal skin made clothes have become a fashion. Rabbits and peacocks are mercilessly killed for the sake of meat. The number of dears and tigers are getting reduced day-by-day. Though international organizations like BLUE CROSS and national projects like BIRD SANCTUARIES are shedding their efforts for growth of animals, the results are not is impressive. Attitude of every common citizen should change. It is duty of every individual to strive for the growth of animals that are useful to mankind in many ways.

2. d. Do you justify man exploiting animals for his own benefits? Discuss. All living creatures in this world should be treated with equal respect. India is a nation which treated animals and humans with equal value in ancient times. Lord Siva is addressed as Pasupati (meaning Lord of Animals).Many natural elements and animals are worshipped as Totems. Naga Puja (worship of snakes), Go Puja (Worship of Cows) are examples. Most of the incarnations of lord Vishnu are designed based on animals like Varahavatar, Matsyavatar etc. but the things got changed. Man with his boon of intelligence became king on earth. Respect towards other forms of living beings got reduced. Man behaved as if he has the rights over animals and other elements of nature. From the animal hunts of stone age to the latest criminal cases, myriad atrocities were committed by man on animals. During the ancient times, due to lack of proper knowledge, people were very superstitious and many animal sacrifices in the name of God were done. Kings in Vedic period used to hunt animals as recreational activity. Lord Buddha and king Asoka preached against animal killings and advocated non-violence. Presently, man is exploiting animals for food, clothes, skin, medical advancements and transport. The groups of protozoa, like Poraminifera, radioleria etc lives in oceans. Their skeleton is made up of calcium carbonate or silicon. They live under water and die forming an Ocean Ooze. They are strong and look like white rocks. These stones made up of skeletons are used for constructions in places like England, France, Egypt and North America. Shells, Oysters, Snails, Fish, Crab, and Prawns etc are aquatic animals used by man as food. Some tribes use the shells of oysters as monetary exchange material. The materials available from the Mollusca are used in making buttons, toys, jewels, road construction, building construction etc. Pearls are obtained from Pearl Oysters. The pearl is formed when an impurity enters into the shell by chance and the oyster spreads calcium carbonate on the impurity. All oysters may not necessarily have pearl. But, to find pearl, all oysters found are broken. This kills many oysters every day. Now artificially pearls are made by growing oysters out of sea and killing then for need of pearls. Silk clothes that we wear are obtained after boiling the live silk moths in hot water and killing them. Fish is a favorite food to many people. It is rich in vitamins and poly unsaturated fatty acids. Due to the growth in technology, vast ships and deep water fishing became possible. The rate of killing fish became more than the rate of birth. Hence, many fishes are becoming extinct. Snakes are treated now by man as threat to lives. Not all snakes are poisonous. There are only 4 types of snakes that are dangerously poisonous to human life. But any snake found is killed due to ignorance. Snakes help in controlling rat population. Rats spoil crops and causes plagues. Due to the lack of snakes, rats are spoiling food production that can feed 10% of world population every year. Snake skin is used to manufacture bags and belts. Some snakes are killed to take their venom to create Anti-venom injections. Hen, goat, sheep, pig, duck, turkey and even cattle are exploited by man for food purposes. Nails of tiger, Skin of deer, Tusks of elephants, Hair of Bear are fashionable products of royalties. Peacocks are killed for their colorful feathers and other birds for sake of food. Animals are also exploited for the sake of medical advancements. It is estimated that every year, for the sake of laboratory tests, 50 million animals are used. Previously, for the sake of collecting Insulin from cows, they were cut alive.

This shows the cruelty of man towards animals. Most of the mammals are put to test as they have close similarities with humans. Among that rats are 83%, Fish, birds, mammals of 12%, cows and other mammals of 4.3%, Dogs, cats of 0.4% and primates of 0.2%. Recently, for the stem cell research, rats were being used. For the sake of producing antibiotics, growth hormones, interferon and vitamins microorganisms like bacteria are used for fermentation process and they are killed by heating after production of respective vaccines. Pigs are locked in gestation crates and hens are locked in battery bones. Organizations like PETA (People for Ethical Treatment of Animals) and blue cross fight against atrocities on animals. In Britain, on average, a person of 70 years utilizes 600 chicken, 5 cows, 30 sheep and 30 pigs. This shows the exploitation of animals by man in the world. World should progress in much just and healthy environment respecting all the other forms of life too. Attitude of man should be changed by the nations for new world that shows kindness and love towards animals.

x---- END OF UNIT 2 ---x

U N I T III
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Genetic Engineering POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Briefly discuss the process of genetic Engineering. In what way is it useful to mankind? b. What are genetically modified crops? Discuss. c. What is Tissue Culture? Discuss the procedure and applications of Tissue Culture. 2. Stem Cell Research a. What are stem cells? What are the uses of stem cell technology? Discuss about the ongoing research of stem cell development. a. Discuss about the role of biofertilizers in Agriculture. b. Discuss about the role of biopesticides in Agriculture. c. Discuss about Bio-Fuels. d. Discuss the role of Bio-technology in development of Agriculture. e. How is Bio-technology applied in animal husbandry? Discuss about transgenic animals & their applications. f. How to use biotechnology in environmental cleanup process? TOTAL TOPICS 3 QUESTIONS 10

3.

Bio Technology

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Briefly discuss the process of genetic Engineering. In what way is it useful to mankind? Genetic Engineering is a technique of deliberate manipulation of genes within or between species. It is a laboratory technique used by scientists to change the DNA of living organisms. Recombinant DNA technology is the main tool of genetic engineering. Discovery of restriction endonuclease by Nathans laid the foundation for r-DNA technology. The technique of breaking a DNA molecule at desired places

to isolate a specific DNA segment (gene) and inserting that segment in another DNA molecule at a desired position is called Recombinant DNA technology. The genes responsible for insulin production in human beings are isolated and transferred to Escherichia coli. HUMULIN is human insulin which is produced from genetically engineered E.coli. The most potent bio technological approach for the improvement of the plants/ animals is the transfer of specifically constructed gene assemblies through various transformation techniques. The process of genetic engineering using r-DNA technology undergoes through 4 basic steps. They are: 1. Isolation of a gene. 2. Insertion of gene in to a vector. 3. Introducing recombinant vectors into a suitable host and 4. Selection of the transformed host cells. Isolation of gene or a fragment of DNA is the first step. Disruption of cells by enzymatic degradation of cell walls and detergent lysis of cell membranes by using strong detergents should be done. For this purpose, Restriction Enzymes are used. They were first discovered by NATHANS. They are usually found in bacteria. They cut DNA strand at specific palindrome sequences. ELECTROFOROSIS is the technique used to isolate DNA fragments. To select the desired DNA fragments separately, a technique called SOUTHERN BLOTTING is used. The next step is to insert the gene into a vector. Insertion of desired DNA fragment (gene) into a suitable vector to produce its copies is called as GENE CLONING. Recently, gene cloning is also done in computerized machine called THERMOCYCLER by a method called POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR).common types of vectors used for gene cloning are Plasmids, Bacteriophages and Cosmids. The DNA segments added to vector DNA now forms Recombinant DNA or Chimaeric Gene. Recombinant DNA is transferred into bacterial host cells. Later that cell is treated as transformed cell. Transformed cells are tested for the expression of introduced gene using COLONY HYBRIDIZATION method. Transformed Cells are identified using Genetic Markers. The search for the desired gene in colony is called PROBE. A probe is a radioactively labeled single stranded RNA or DNA. Gene specific probes are constructed with complementary DNA or (C-DNA) clones. The DNA synthesized from M-RNA using reverse transcriptase is called as complementary DNA. The applications of genetic engineering are very vast and its uses are enormous. CDNA is used in diagnosis of infectious diseases, identification of food containments and in many microbial tests. C-DNA probes are useful in DNA fingerprinting of murderers in forensic tests. Insulin is produced using E-coli bacteria cloned with r-DNA of human insulin gene. Growth hormones like Somatotrophin are produced using e-coli bacteria. Insulin is also produced using rats. Pseudomonas Forsens is a bacteria that is genetically engineered so that it prevents increase in number of insects and pests. In biogas plants, micro organisms that can produce fuel fastly are developed. Using DNA technology, high quality Rhizobium is developed. In Fermentation industry, alcohols, amino acids, acids are

being produced using microorganisms with help of genetic engineering techniques. Microorganisms that can degrade environmental wastes very fastly are being developed. CLONING, which is used to obtain similar copies of any particular gene, is a product of genetic engineering. R-DNA technology is applied in production of synthetics, vaccines, disease resistant seeds, pest resistant crops, production of hormones etc. Industries that use microorganisms and r-DNA technology are called Miniature Chemical Factories. Parthenogenesis and Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer are engineering techniques that can produce young ones without sexual intercourse between the parents. Either a sperm or an ovum is enough. Carbonic acids, distilled beverages, alcohols, acids, vitamins etc are all microbial products. BT brinjal and BT cotton are now in use. Many chemicals of medical value from plants can be developed in PLANT CELL SUSPENSION using Genetic Engineering. Genomic libraries of any organism are created using Genetic Engineering. It is applied in Gene Mapping as well as Chromosome mapping. Thus genetic engineering is very useful to man.

1. b. What are genetically modified crops? Discuss.


Genetically modified crops (GMC) are crop plants in which genetically modified genes are deliberately introduced on general plants. TRANSGENICS is a technology for producing GMC. Bulk of the transgenic crops produce is intended for human use, i.e., to be used as food. The food prepared from transgenic varieties is commonly referred to as genetically modified food (GM food). The food derived from GMC differs from conventional crops as protein encoded by transgene is present in them. They may have altered levels of important nutrients. Organisms that express foreign genes in them with transgenic technique are called as Transgenic Organisms. The method of integration of the foreign gene in the genome of a selected plant is known as TRANSGENESIS. Transgenesis can be done by 3 methods. They are Micro-Projectile Bombardment, Electroporation and Agrobacterim tumafacians mediated transformation (ATMT). ATMT is the most widely used method among the three. MICRO PROJECTILE BOMBARDMENT involves bombardment of gold and tungsten particles with desired gene in the target planet cells by tan instrument called micro-projectile. ELECTROPORATION involves stimulating the plant cell to take up the desired gene by subjecting them to electrical shock. The transgenesis in these two procedures is very low. 100% transgenesis is possible through ATMT. AGROBACTERIM TUMAFACIANS MEDIATED TRANSFORMATION involves integrating the desired gene with plant genome via Ti-plasmids of the bacterium Agrobacterim tumafacians. This is a natural soil bacterium that causes tumors in the plant body. A special region of Ti Plasmids known as t-DNA integrated with plant genomes and induces tumor, ligating the desired gene to t0DNA allows 100% transgenesis. GMC has many applications in fields of pomiculture, forestry, horticulture and associated fields; the most important use of GMC is Alleviation of Malnutrition. Golden Rice, genetically modified rice with increased amount of -Carotene and iron was developed by scientists from Swiss federal institute of technology, Switzerland. In 2006, ICRISAT developed Golden Groundnut with increased amount of vitamin A and -Carotene. Ventria bio-sciences of America developed GM Rice with increased amount of Lactoferin Lysozyme. Lactoferin binds iron and lysozyme increases immunity. GM crops with improved nutrients can be used in

developed and developing countries to alleviate vitamin A deficiencies in children and Anemia in both children and women. Pest Resistance GM crops can be developed by transgenics. Genes that are connected from other organisms can be inserted in to plant varieties for pest resistance. Worldwide Bacillus Thrungenesis (Bt) based pest-resistant GMC are developed. In India, the only BT crop that is cultivated is BT cotton. Throughout the world, widely used is BT-Soya bean. The gene for endo-toxins is collected from the bacterium and is inserted into various crop varieties. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee(GEAC) gave permission for field trials on BT-Corn, BT-Brinjal, BT-Soya bean etc. the general disadvantages of BT-based food crops are conceived allergies, development of resistance by pests and probability if the genes turning into wild variety. Salinity Resistance crops can be developed by Transgenics. Kolkata based BOSE institute has identified salinity resistant gene in a wild rice variety growing in Sunderbans. Frost resistant crops are made by inserting frost resistant gene from cold-water fish into crops like tobacco, potato, whose seedlings can now be resistant to sudden decrease in temperature. Projects are under progress to create GMC that are Physically Stress Resistant. Modified plants can resist on different type of stress like pollution, metal toxicity, drought and extreme temperature. Gene for virus coat protein has been toned and inserted into plants. This coat protein seems to immunize plants which are much more resistant to viral attack. These are called Virus Resistant Plants. Further, bio-diversity can be preserved using methods of Cryopreservation with help of Transgenics. Nitrogen Fixation and Phyto Remediation can be added into plants genes. Bio-transformation of plants happens and it gives new types of plant products. Through Micro Propagation plants can be produced in large numbers with transgenic technology. Mutations brought in seeds make the plants disease free. Through Protoplast Culture, hybrids are generated using Transgenics. Hence, GMC are vital in providing food security to growing population. Its varieties promote health and also help to overcome problems like malnutrition. 1. c. What is Tissue Culture? Discuss the procedure and applications of Tissue Culture. Tissue culture is the term commonly used to denote in vitro cultivation of plant cells, tissues as well as organs. It could be either an unorganized mass, eg, callus culture or suspension cultures. Tissue culture as a technique for plant production was developed only after HABERLANDT (1902), who predicted the totipotency in plants. Totipotency is the ability of a plant cell to grow into any of the parts of plant or into whole plant under controlled conditions. Tissue culture is based on principle of Cellular totipotency, i.e., ability of plant cell to grow and divide. Tissue culture is also called as Micro Propagation. The term tissue culture is commonly used for cell culture, tissue culture and organ culture (Cellular totipotency cannot be observed in animals). In vitro cultivation of plant cells or organs primarily serve two purposes. It keeps plant cells and organs free from microbes and it ensures desired development in cells by providing suitable nutrient media and other environmental conditions. General procedure of tissue culture has six basic steps. They are, Preparation of

medium, sterilization of medium, preparation of explants, Inoculation of explants, Incubation and Acclimatization of plantlets and transfer to pots. Nutrient medium is a mixture of nutrients in distilled water which are essential for growth of tissues or organs. It also acts as a stage for tissue culture. Generally selected medium for tissue culture is Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium. Culture medium is solidified on adding of 1.5% Agar. Nutrient medium without growth regulators is called Minimal or Basal medium. Minimal medium is useful for producing Callus. Callus is the undifferentiated mass of cells produced during tissue culture. Growth hormones like auxins, gibberellis, cytokinins are added to basal medium for differentiation and growth. PH of medium is maintained at 5.6 to 6.0. Culture medium is made free from microorganisms by a process called sterilization. Most commonly used sterilization technique is Autoclave Sterilization. Autoclave conditions should be maintained at 151 b pressure for 15 minutes for complete sterilization of medium at 121oC. A plant part which is selected for culturing in the medium is called explants (any part like root, stem etc). Seeds are sterilized on surface with 0.1% mercuric chloride. Such seeds produce aseptic seedlings which are the source of aseptic explants. The explants should be washed with a liquid detergent for 15 minutes. Explants are surface sterilized with disinfectant solutions like sodium hypochlorite. The transfer of sterilized explants on to the medium is called Inoculation of Explants. Inoculation should be under aseptic conditions. Aseptic conditions are maintained within a laminar air flow chamber. Ideal temperature required in a culture room is 25.2oC. Relative humidity required for culture is more than 50%. Callus should be transferred to medium with growth regulators to initiate organogenesis. ORGANOGENESIS is a process which induces formation of organs like root and shoot from callus. Higher content of auxins induce root formation in callus and this is called RHIZOGENESIS. Higher content if cytokinins initiate shoot formation. This is called CAULOGENESIS. Shoots are transferred to a rooting medium (containing high auxin) to develop roots. The non zygotic embryo like structures formed in cultures (on callus) is called Somatic Embryoids. Somatic Embryoids can develop into individual plantlets. Somatic Embryoids encapsulated with alginates are called Artificial or synthetic seeds. Acclimization of plantlets is allowing plant to be accustomed to use artificial soil called Soil Rite. Plants regenerated via organogenesis, embryogenesis or by direct developments from explants are to be acclimatized before their transfer to pots. Plants are gently washed to remove culture media and planted in plastic pots containing soil rite (material prepared from coconut shells and other organic matter). Pots initially covered with polythene bags for 1 or 2 weeks to provide sufficient moisture. Gradually, polythene bags are removed and the strong and healthy plants are transferred to regular pots. Plantlets produced through tissue culture should be acclimatized in glass houses and later transferred to fields. A flow chart on general procedure of tissue culture is given in next page. Applications of tissue culture: Growing many plants in a short period of time using tissue culture is known as micro propagation, rapid clonal propagation. Such a method is used as Afforestration and Social forestry. Seeds showing dormancy can be grown into plant when placed in a suitable medium. Tissue culture can be used to produce many

chemicals found in different parts of the plants that have medicinal value, since chemicals are produced in minor quantities which make it impossible to extract. For example, Vincristine and Vinblastine are two anti-cancer drugs that can be obtained from roots of Vincarosea. Plants that produce small size seeds (for example orchids) cant be grown by normal seed germination. Such seeds dont store food and hence can be grown on nutrient medium. Tissue culture can be used to develop artificial/ synthetic seeds. The Embryoids obtained from callus can be coated with sodium alginate and form Encapsulated Embryoids. Such structures are known as artificial seeds and can be transported from one place to another. Tissue culture can be used in bio-diversity conservation. Tissues/ organs of many endangered plants can be preserved in liquid nitrogen at -196oC. Such preservation by cold storage is known as Cryopreservation. Whenever needed, these parts can be used as inoculums/ explants. Crosses between genetically different plant yield weak embryos. Such weak embryos dont germinate and hence to be raised by tissue culture. Plants that can be propagated vegetatively generally produce viral infected parts. Virus free progency can be produced by culturing virus resistant stem apesis. Virus-free plants can be produced through shoot tip culture. Haploid and homozygous diploid plants can be produced in large numbers through tissue culture. Tissue culture is useful for culturing somatic hybrids. Seed dormancy problem can be avoided with Embryo Culture. Rare hybrids can be produced in large numbers through tissue culture. Variation obtained by the regeneration of plants from callus or protoplasts is known as Soma-clonal Variation. Soma clonal variation can be utilized in crop improvement. Thus it can be concluded that tissue culture plays a great role in conservation of plant bio-diversity.

2. a. What are stem cells: what are the uses of stem cell technology? Discuss about the ongoing research of stem cell development. Living organisms are made up of cells. There are about 10(power 17) cells present in a human body. Cells are arranged into tissues, tissues into organs and organs comprise organ system. There are more than 250 types of cells present in our body. The progenital cells which have the ability to change into many different types of cells by differentiation and specialization are called Stem Cells. They can replenish their numbers for long periods through cell division. After receiving certain chemical signals, they can differentiate, or transform into specialized cells with specific functions, such as a skin cell or nerve cell. Stem cells are basically of three types. They are: 1. Embryonic stem cells (ESC) 2. Foetal Stem Cells (FSC) and 3. Adult Stem Cells (ASC). Cord Blood Stem Cells and Amniotic Fluid Derived Stem Cells (AFDSC) are types of stem cells identified recently. 4-5 days after the formation of zygote, it develops in to a mass of cells surrounded by single layer of cell known as Blastocyst. The inner mass cells of the blastocyst have the ability to differentiate and develop into any of 250 different types of cells in human body. Such progenital embryonic cells are known as EMBYRONIC STEM CELLS. The ability of ESC to differentiate into all kinds is known as TOTIPOTENCY. In the foetus certain cells are found to have stem cell property and are known as FOETAL STEM CELLS. The ability of FSC to differentiate into many types of cells but not all is called as PLURIPOTENCY. Certain cells in adult body differentiate into few kinds of cells known as ADULT STEM CELLS. Their ability to differentiate into very little kind of cells is called as MULTIPOTENCY. Bone marrow, limbus cells of eye, oral mucosal cells are examples of ASC. CORD BLOOD STEM CELLS are the cells present in umbilical cord that can be stored for future use. Amnion is the immediate layer that surrounds embryo. Amniotic fluid is the fluid between Amnion and Embryo. Certain stem cells can be derived from this fluid and they are called as AMNIOTIC FLUID DERIVED STEM CELLS. These two types of stem cells (CBSC and AFDSC) exhibit pluripotency. Applications: The major application of stem cells is regenerating the damaged parts in various diseases. The branch of medicines that uses stem cells for this procedure is called RE-GENERATIVE MEDICINES. Using embryonic stem cells in regenerating the damaged body parts is known as THERAPEAUTIC CLONING. Principle used in therapeutic cloning is SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER. In this procedure, somatic cell like skin cell of a person whose body part has to be regenerated is taken and denucleated. This nucleus is then transferred into a de-nucleated egg. Such an egg behaves like Zygote. This is then stimulated artificially develops into blastocysis. Stem cells of blastocysis are then harvested for regenerating the damaged body part of that individual. Using the above procedure many types of diseases can be cured. They include Type-1 Diabetes, types of cancer, Alzheimer, Parkinson diseases, Spinal injuries, arthritis etc. adult stem cells can be used for same purpose but the Somatic Cell

Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) is not involved here. Adult stem cells of donor can be used in the recipient. The patients own adult stem cells can also be used in regenerative medicine. Research: Stem cells are an ongoing source of the differentiated cells that make up the tissues and organs of animals and plants. Stem cells are of great interest currently because they have potential for development of therapies for a variety of disorders and injuries. Extensive research is being carried out both nationally and internationally. The research centers/ institutions in India that are carrying out stem cell research are: i. AIIMS, New Delhi. ii. iii. iv. v. National Center for Biological Sciences, Bangalore. National Brain Research Center, New Delhi (Gurgaon). L.V.Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad and Reliance Life Sciences, Mumbai.

Of the above, Reliance Life Sciences (RLS) alone is carrying out research of embryonic stem cell. Good quality stem cell lines are available at RLS and it has US federal agency funding. The institute in the country took stem cell research institute to the common man is L.V.P Eye Institute, Hyderabad. From 2001, scientists of LVPI, Hyderabad could regenerate damaged eye parts by using stem cells limbus for more than 500 patients. They have a record of 70% success. Recently a team headed by YASHODA GANEKAR of LVP used oral-mucosal cells for regenerating damaged eye parts. The person in the world who got a license to harvest stem cells is ALISON MURDOCH of Britain. In 2007, MARTIN EVANS, MARIO CAPECHI, OLIVER SMITH were awarded a Nobel Prize for medicine for developing a new technique called GENE-TARGETING using the stem cells in mice. In Dec 2007, scientists from Japan, America independently developed a technique of converting normal adult stem cells into embryonic stem cells. Such cells were known as Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. This technique is known as Reprogramming. For the first time in Jan 2008, scientists of STEMAGEN COMPANY, USA could successfully develop and carry out SCNT (Stem Cell Nuclear Transfer) to develop human embryo up to blastocyst stage. In India, till now there is no specific research center for stem cells. In 2007, Union Minister for science and technology, Kapil Sibal laid foundation stone for the establishment of clinical research facility for stem cells and regenerative medicine in Hyderabad. In Feb 2008, vice president Hamid Ansari laid foundation for the establishment of a separate research center on stem cells called National Center for Stem Cell Science in Hyderabad. This developed with the help of CCMB and it is expected to be operational soon. There is no specific legislation known governing stem cell research in the country. Scientists from ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) provided a framework for this purpose. Their report is in circulation throughout the country and new act will be made possible by end of this year.

The research and developments of stem cells is targeted at particular diseases mainly. They are diabetes, Parkinson disease, Alzheimers, heart diseases, Spinal Cord and muscular diseases. 2% of above 65 yrs old people in the world are affected with Parkinsons disease. Stem cell research is being carried out to solve this disease. In mammals, by knowing the role of various genes in growth of organs can help to eradicate physical deficiency. By Gene Targeting, every organ of body can be studied. To examine effects of Gene Therapy on Cystic Pibrocine disease, stem cells research can be used. By using gene targeting, diseases like Cystic Pibrocine, Thalasemia, Hypertension, and Atherocin can be prevented. By discovery of gene targeting, a revolution in bio medicines is made possible. Ashish Mukerjee, a famous doctor of India, discovered that by treating stem cells, hereditary diseases like Thalasemia can be prevented. From the research done on rats, it was identified that Muscular Destrophy can be treated using stem cell technology. The diseased cells in heart can be replaced using stem cell process to avoid heart diseases. Thus, stem cell research is becoming vital and this knowledge is ready to play a great role and bring great positive changes in the next generations of world. 3. a. Discuss about the role of bio-fertilizers in Agriculture Fertilizers are materials used in farming that can increase yield capacity of the soil. Fertilizers can be categorized into three types. They are ORGANIC FERTILIZERS, INORGANIC FERTILIZERS and BIO FERTILIZERS. In organic fertilizers, farmyard manure, compost, green manure, vermin compost etc are used as crop enhancing materials. They increase the land fertility and crops yield. For plants growth, Macro Elements and Micro elements are must. 13 such types of elements are taken by plants from soil. Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium (NPK) are the major requirements among these elements. Hence, Inorganic fertilizers are supplied to soil, made rich with these elements. Bio- fertilizers refer to microbial populations, which are capable of enriching the soil fertility by their activities. They are used wither by mixing them with seeds or by spreading them over field during agricultural operation. Micro organisms such as nitrogen-fixing organisms, cellulolytic microbes, Phosphate-solubilizing microbes are commonly used as Bio Fertilizers. In 2008, the National Science Congress was help at Vishakapatnam. The role of bio-fertilizers was identified for sustainable agricultural production and change in agricultural pattern. P.M. called for a Second Green Revolution to conserve the soil fertility for needs of future. As much land under agriculture cant be increased, methods to increase to productivity without using too much of harmful chemical fertilizers are needed. Hence, all the agriculturists are now deeply in need of bio fertilizers. Bio fertilizers are cultured microorganisms to increase the natural fertility of soil. A good soil should be composed with 50% solids, 25% soil water, 25% soil air and microorganisms. Among the 16 essential elements of plants, Nitrogen is a critical element. Plants regularly require nitrogen. It is used in the synthesis of amino acids and proteins. N2 is highly inert and hence plants cant use N 2 in gaseous form. Plants use only NH4+ and NO3-. Conversion of gaseous nitrogen on to nitrates is called Nitrogen Fixation. Above 95% of fixation is carried out by microorganisms and this is called BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION. They naturally increase the fertility and conserve the soil.

Prokaryotes like Bacteria, Cyanobacteria and Eukaryotes like Fungi are the major types of micro organisms used. Bacteria can fix nitrogen. Algae can provide sulphates and fungi like Mycorrhiza supply phosphates naturally to soil. Different types of Rhizobium are found to be living in symbiotic association of roots-legumes. They form root-nodules and fix the atmospheric nitrogen and supply to plants. They are grown in mixed crops like red gram and peanuts. Legumes are naturally in pulses, beans too. Now using Rhizobium bacteria, nitrogen can be supplied to non-leguminous plants. Some bacteria that live freely in the soil that fix nitrogen are CLOSTRIDIUM, AZOTOBACTER, RHODOSPIRILLUM, AZOSPIRILLUM etc. AZOPIRRILUM is used as bio fertilizer in cultivation of maize, sorghum, bajra, ragi etc. NOSTOC, ANABENA, AULOSIRA, CALOTHRIX, SYCTONEMA are different types of Cyanobacteria used in bio fertilizers. They are widely used in rice cultivation and increase the yield by 3.27%. Water fern known as AZOLLA contains a Cyanobacterium called ANABENA AZOLLAE. This is used in rice cultivation. They provide nutrient, vitamins, auxins and other minerals. Among the fungal species, MYCORRHIZA is the most promising bio fertilizer. GLOMUS, GIGASPORA, ACAULOSPORA are different forms of Mycorrhiza. It supplies nutrients like sulphates and phosphates. Blue-Green algae or Cyanobacteria are also nitrogen fixation agents. THIOBASILLUS can produce sulphates. It is used in pulses, groundnut and soya beans. In India, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun and Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi are playing major role in development of bio fertilizers. National Bio fertilizer Development center was established in Ghaziabad (U.P). There are many advantages of bio fertilizers. They are low in cost and environment friendly. That is why the relevance of bio fertilizers is increasing rapidly. Now a day, using r-DNA technology, genetically modified microbes are produced in labs to make them perform functions which their natural counterparts can never perform. Agricultural surface run-off having chemical fertilizers contaminates water bodies. This is avoided using bio fertilizers. Using chemical fertilizers turn the soil acidic and alkaline. Bio fertilizers conserve the soil structure and its fertility. Long time use of bio fertilizers results in SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE. Bio fertilizers have limitations too. They cannot be complete alternative to chemical fertilizers. They are suitable for certain soils and certain crops only. They are not produced en mass and supplied to farmers. Hence, the research being made should solve these limitations to make SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION possible. 3. b. Discuss about the role of bio-pesticides in Agriculture. Cultured micro organisms, plant products and other bio-chemicals, that biologically control or destroy pests that damage crops, are called BIO-PESTICIDES or BIO-INSECTICIDES. A number of microorganisms are known to be pathogenic on insects. These microbes are called Entomo pathogens. They include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Use of microorganisms to control insects, pests, pathogens or weeds is known as biological agents. Bio control agents have been used to control mostly insects, pests and occasionally weeds. Bio technology helps in production of bio-pesticide microbes in large numbers. Bacteria like BACILLUS THURENGENSIS, PSUEDOMONAS FLOURESCENCE, Fungi like TRICHODERMA VIRIDI,

TRICHODERMA HARZIANUM and virus like NUCLEAR POLY HEDRO VIRUS (NPV) are few examples of bio pesticides. Bio pesticide can be categorized in to three types. They are microbial pesticides, botanical pesticides and Bio-chemical pesticides. Natural micro organisms used to control the pests by natural means can be termed as MICROBIAL PESTICIDES. Most widely used microbial pesticide is Bacillus Thuringiensis, a rod shaped bacteria first found in Thuringen region of Germany. This bacterium releases some endo toxins which have toxic effect on insects and their larvae. Especially, these toxins obstruct the food absorption in insect gut living it to die out of starvation. Bacillus Popilliae, Bacillus Cereus, Bacillus Lentimorbus, Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, Psuedomona Cepacea are other types of bacteria used as pesticides. Certain viruses are also used as bio pesticides. The most widely used viruses belong to the family Baculo Viridae. This family includes Baculo viruses and they act only against arthropodans. Entomopox Virus (EPO), Granulosis Virus (GV), Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Virus (CPV) are other forms of viruses used. Fungi also acts on pests by producing toxins known as fungal toxins/ mycotoxins. These fungi penetrate in body cavity of insects with their hyphae and release the toxins. Metarhizum anisopilae, Fusarium Sdani, Aspergillus Uchraceous, tricoderm and Tricogranum are various fungi used in bio pesticides. All this bacterial, viral and fungal organisms can be grouped under microbial pesticides. Plant products that have pesticide properties are called BOTANICAL PESTICIDES. As many as 2121 plant species have different pesticidal effects. Some exhibit repellant, attractant properties where as other exhibit anti- feedant properties. Azadiractha Indica (Neem) is an example. Neem seed extract are 2.5% effective on rice cut worm, rice leaf hopper, tobacco caterpillar etc. Extracts of Bougon Villa and Chempodium has anti-viral properties. The root extract of Tagetus, Asparagus is used as effective nematicide. Different species of Chrysanthemum yield an effective insecticide called Pyrethrin. Bio chemicals that control pests by harmless mechanism are called BIOCHEMICAL PESTICIDES. Most widely used bio-chemical pesticides are Pheromones. They act as sex attractants and help in trapping the male and female insects respectively and prevents damage of crops. Bio pesticides have many advantages. Bio pesticides are bio degradable and safe. They do not have any effect on soil micro life. Chemical pesticides on other hand are highly stable and destroy soil micro life. They further contaminate ground water and reach and accumulate organisms of higher trophic level in food chain. This does not happen in case of bio pesticides. Due to the disadvantages associated with chemical pesticides, experiments are carried out world over for employing bio pesticides as control agents for pests. In contrast to the chemical pesticides which pollute over environment, bio pesticides do not leave harmful residues. They are comparatively cheaper too. But the only disadvantage is they need to be very specific for their target pest. Bio pesticides, if used as part of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) can reduce the dependence on chemical pesticides and lead to sustainable agriculture.

3. c. Discuss about Bio-Fuels. Bio fuels are derived from biological sources. They play a vital role to prevent environmental degradation by using cleaner fuel to reduce dependence on imported finite fossil fuel supplied by renewable sources to some extent and to provide new demand for crops to support producer income and development of rural economies. The technology in which biological agents or their components are used to convert relatively to use sources of energy in to convenient to use fuels like biodiesel hydrogen is called FUEL BIO-TECHNOLOGY. Bio fuels are biologically produced fuels, for example, bio ethanol, biodiesel, bio hydrogen, bio methane etc. Biomass is the total cellular dry weight or organic material produced by an organism. Initially, biomass was the only source of energy available to and used by man. But the fossil fuels like coal, oil, petroleum reduced the use of biomass as fuel. As the fossil fuels are non renewable and about to get exhausted, the importance of bio fuels is now considered vital for mankind. Cereals, grams, sugar crops and other starches can fairly easily be fermented to produce ethanol. Cellulose materials including grasses, trees and various waste products from crops, wood processing facilities and municipal solid wastes can also be converted to Alcohols or Diesel type fuels. Oil seed crops (e.g.: rape seed, soya bean and sunflower) can be converted into Methyl Esters which can be blended with conventional diesel or burnt pure as bio-diesel. Organic waste material can be converted into energy forms which can be used as Automotive fuels. Waste of cooking oil, animal manure and organic household wasted can be converted into BIO GAS (e.g.: Methane). Agricultural and forestry waste products are also turned in to Ethanol. Sugarcane wastes called molasses is used in production of alcohol. Plants of Euphorbiesi like Euphorbia Triculai, Euphorbia Abissinia and Euphorbia Eulethyris (GOFER PLANT) produces oil. Calotrophis Prosiera, Capaiphera Longderpi, Capaiphera Multijuga and Capaiphera Eficinalis produces diesel. Pettosporum Reciniferom, Pettasporom Antuletum produces petroleum. Among all types of bio fuels, bio-diesel and bio-ethanol have much importance. Bio-Diesel is made by Transesterification. It is a chemical process in which oil or fat reacts with an alcohol, often Methanol, in the presence of a catalyst to produce glycerine and methyl esters. The most common catalysts are sodium or potassium hydroxide. Plants like JATROPHA CURCOS and PONGAMIA PINNATA are used mostly in production of bio-diesel. Such bio-diesel can be mixed with petrol/ diesel. This process is known as Blending. In India, B-5 Blend Bio-diesel is used. (95% petrol/diesel+ 5% bio-diesel) Bio-Ethanol is generated from bio mass. Plants like corn, sugarcane, sorghum, wheat are general sources of ethanol. In India, sugarcane is highly used. Sugarcane juice has residue called Molasses, which on fermentation with yeast like Sacchromycis Cerevisiae yields bio-ethanol. Hydrolysis of Sugar: C12H22O11 [Sucrose] +H2O Breaking the Sugar: C6H12O6 [Glucose/ Fructose] Invertase Zymase C6H12O6 [Glucose]+C6H12O6 [Fructose] 2C2H5OH [Ethanol] + CO2

The ethanol obtained is blended with petrol. In India, E-10 blend is used (90% petrol+ 10% Ethanol). In Britain/ USA research is going on to develop the blend to E-90 (90% Ethanol + 10% Petrol). In India, institutes like Punjab Agriculture University, Coimbatore Horticulture University, India Institute of Petroleum (Dehradun), Indian Institute of Chemical technology (IICT) and IIT Delhi, Chennai are shedding their efforts for R&D on bio fuels. In IOCL centre at Faridabad, 60 kilos of bio-diesel is produced every day. Mahindra and Mahindra Company at Mumbai set up a pilot plant on production of tractors that run on bio diesel. IOCL tied with railways to use the land of railways to grow Jatropha. Shatabdi express runs on bio diesel. All government vehicles in Chhattisgarh run on bio diesel. Gujarat has become first Indian state to run commercial buses using bio-diesel. ONGC plans to establish bio fuel plants at barmer district in Rajasthan. Government of AP decided to plant Jatropha in 88,000 hectors of waste land in state. To increase green cover in Chambal valley in M.P started spraying seeds of Jatropha using aircraft. Energy security by reducing dependence on fossil fuels and self sufficiency can be obtained using bio fuels only. Environmental pollution is prevented as CO2 emissions and green house gasses are less. Bio fuel is climate neutral fuel. Plantation of Jatropha and Pongamia increases green cover. It increases rural employment and brings wasteland under cultivation. Ethanol has high quality and suits for engines of automobiles. 3. d. Discuss the role of bio-technology in development of agriculture. Bio-Technology is playing a great role in providing food to growing population. Carl Ericay (1919), used the word Bio-Technology first. Bio-Technology is composed of two words, bio (Greek: Bios means life) and technology (Greek: technology means systematic treatment). It is a branch of applied biology. It is based on principles of Molecular genetics, Microbiology and Bio-chemistry. BioTechnology can be broadly defined as using living organisms or their products for commercial purposes. Knowledge of Bio-Technology has many applications not only in agriculture but also in horticulture, pomiculture, forestry and animal husbandry. The products of Bio-Technology are now being used extensively for agricultural development. Biopesticides, bio-fertilizers, bio-fuels, genetically modified crops and tissue culture are major applications now used in agricultural fields. Bio-fertilizers are low in cost and environment friendly. They replace the harmful chemical fertilizers that turn the soil acidic and alkaline in long run. Bio fertilizers are cultured microorganisms to increase the natural fertility of soil. Rhizobium bacteria are supplied to non leguminous plants to fix nitrogen. Clostridium, Azotobactor, Rhodospirillum, Azospirillum are various types of bacteria used in bio fertilizers. Nostoc, Anabena, Aulosira, Calothrix, Syctonema are different types of Cyanobacteria used as bio fertilizers. Mycohorriza, Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Thiobasillus are different fungal species used in bio fertilizers. These supply minerals like phosphates, sulphates and also can convert nitrogen to nitrates. Bio Pesticides are cultured microorganisms, plant products and other bio chemicals that biologically control or destroy pests that damage crops. Bacteria like

Bacillus Thrungenesis, pseudomonas Fluorescence, fungi like Trichoderma Viridi, Trichoderma Harzianum and virus like Nuclear Poly Hedro Virus (NPV) are few examples of bio pesticides. Bio-pesticides are bio degradable in nature. They do not have any effect on micro life in soil. They do not leave any harmful residues and are very environment friendly. They are used in Integrated Pest Management and replacing inorganic chemical pesticides actively. Using bio-technology, bio fuels can be generated. For this purpose, plants that are helpful to increase green cover and conserve soil are used extensively. In this way bio fuels contribute to agricultural development indirectly. Plants like Jatropha, Curcas and Pongamia Pinnata is used in production of bio-diesel. Jatropha is a hardy plant, resistant to draught and pest infestation. 95% of oil can be extracted from its seeds. Its leaves are used in Ayurveda. When Pongamia is used, N2 content of soil is increased; Margined/ wasteland can be brought under cultivation. Environmental pollution will be less in case of using bio-fuels. Genetically modified crop (GMC) is another product of bio technology in agriculture. GMC are crop plants in which genetically modified genes are deliberately introduced. The method of integration of foreign gene is called Transgenics. GMC helps in alleviation of malnutrition. For example, golden rice developed by gene modification is rich in -Carotene. Also, Pest resistant GMC are developed. Bacillus Thrungenesis (BT) is added to cotton forming BT cotton which can resist pests by producing endo toxins. Also, Physically Stress Resistant modified plants are developed that can resist on different types of stress like Salinity resistance, Frost resistance, Pollution, Metal toxicity, drought and extreme temperatures. Tissue culture is the vitro cultivation of plant cells, tissues as well as organs. Plant cells have an ability called totipotency, which means ability to grow into any part of plant or whole plant under controlled conditions. Tissue culture uses the technique of cellular totipotency. Many plants can be grown in short time periods using tissue culture. This is called Micro propagation, rapid clonal propagation. Seed dormancy problem can be avoided with embryo culture. Virus free plants can be produced through short tip culture. Tissue culture is useful for culturing Somatic Hybrids. Somoclonal variation can be used in crop improvement. Artificial/ Synthetic seeds can be produced using tissue culture. Tissues/ organs of many endangered plants can be preserved at low temperatures using tissue culture with help of cryopreservation. This, role of bio technology in agriculture is becoming vital and it is must for sustainable agriculture, conservation of bio diversity as well as leading the way for second green revolution. 3. d. How is Bio-technology applied in animal husbandry? Discuss about transgenic animals & their applications. Transgenic animals are the organisms which contain its genome, a gene or genes from other organisms by any of the Transfection technique. Transfection may be transient or permanent. Gene modification of animal may be aimed at improving their meat, wool, milk etc. genes are introduced into animals with a view to obtain a large scale production of proteins encoded by these genes in milk or meat. This approach is referred to as Molecular farming/ gene farming. Transgenics have been

produced in a variety of animal species, e.g. mice, sheep, rabbit, goat, cattle, poultry, fish etc. In creation of transgenic animals, the transgene should be introduced just after fertilization into the make pro-nucleus. There are three important methods of Transgenics (i.e. Micro-Injection, Nuclear transplant and trans-embryo technology. Micro-Injection involves introduction of transgene into male pro-nucleus of the zygote just after fertilization by a microscopic needle. The probability of genesis is 10%. Nuclear transplant method involves introducing a transgene into a separate nucleus and then transplanting it into an e-nucleated egg. The probability of genesis in this method is 2.5%. Trans Embryo technology method uses the Lenti-virus to insert transgene into the male pro-nucleus. 100% transgene is possible by this method. But the most widely used method is micro-injection, since it is very easy to carry out. Transgenic mice and rabbit are promising for gene farming, which aims at production of recoverable biologically and pharmaceutically important problems. Transgenic goat, sheep, and cattle have been achieved to produce better meat and to increase milk production. Various transgenic animals and their applications are given in detail below. Transgenic Mice are the first one to be produced using transgenesis. Since mice are also mammals like man, they are used in testing the transgenesis. They are helpful to man as disease identification agent during research on vaccines. Human proteins like insulin can be produced in milk of transgenic cattle. In April 2007, scientist from BIOSEDUS-Argentina developed 4 transgenic cows Patagonia 1,2,3,4 that can produce human insulin in their milk. Also, transgenic cows produce more casein protein, which has high value in pharmaceutics. When transgened with lactane, milk without lactane is produced. This kind of milk is good for persons suffering from digestion problems. Transgenic cows are further showing resistance to attacks of virus, bacteria and other parasites. Transgenic goats are created more for meat than milk. They grow fastly and produce more meat. Transgene sheep were developed to produce human blood clotting factor ix. Deficiency of blood clotting factor ix results in genetic order Haemophilia. This can be obtained from blood of transgenic sheep. Transgenic sheep that produce the enzyme Alpha-1 antitrypsin were also developed. The deficiency of this protein in general causes a degenerative lung disease called Emphycema. The transgenic sheep gives more wool that is rich in quality and they also produce good quality of meat. Transgenic pigs are used to obtain human haemoglobin in high quantities. This haemoglobin is used in experiment of blood transfusion. These pigs produce more meat and give birth to more number of piglets. They grow very fast. Transgenic hens are with more proteins and less oil content. These also show resistance to many kinds of bacteria and virus. Transgenic egg is rich in proteins and has high pharmaceutical importance. A number of fish species including salmon, zebra fish, gold fish, cattle fish, trout and carp have been given gene from another fish(e.g. ocean pout), which activates their growth hormones. So they grow larger and faster. Salmon grows 30 times the conventional one. Some microbes are genetically modified for cleaning the environment. Genes for enzymes that digest many different hydrocarbons found in crude oil have been transferred to bacteria like pseudomonous putida. So, they

clean up oil spills. Hence they are also called as SUPER BUG. Cloning is done using transgenesis. Dolly is the worlds first mammal (sheep) that got cloned in 1986. Transgenic animals also can produce important human proteins like growth factors {(epidermal growth factor, neutral growth factor etc), Somatotrophin, Interferons and many enzymes}. The transgenic products are cheaper than some types of recombinant DNA technology product. Production of pharmaceutically important chemical in transgenic animals is known as pharming. Due to ethical issues related to transgenic animals, this research on the topic is not moving in pace that one expects. 3. e. How to use biotechnology in environmental cleanup process? Environment is defined as the sum of all the factors outside an organism. it consists of both biotic as well as abiotic factors. Environment provides many life support systems including oxygen, water, energy, nutrients etc. but the various activities of like domestic agriculture, transport, war, industries etc generate wastes and pollutants which contaminate air, water and soil. In response, man is trying to minimize damaging effect of his activities. Environment biotechnology is used in waste treatment and pollution prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many wastes than conventional methods and greatly reduce dependence on methods for land based disposal. The application of bio technology in environmental cleanup process is known as BIO-REMEDIATION. This offers solutions in form of living organisms, natural and laboratory cultivated for cleaning up contaminated soil surface and water. The method of using living organisms like bacteria, fungi, Cyanobacteria and to a lesser extent plants, to reduce/ eliminate toxic pollutants is known as bio-remediation. Bio remediation using plants is known as Phyto-Remediation. Bio-remediation involves three methods. They are Bio-Stimulation, BioAugmentation and Intrinsic Bio-Remediation (or Natural attenuation). BIOSTIMULATION is the process of stimulating the bio remediation that occurs in nature by providing oxygen and nutrients to micro organisms. Microbial population in soil and water when supplied with nutrients, enhance their metabolic activities which result in complete bio-remediation. The nutrients and oxygen are generally supplied by pumping them into deeper layers of soil and water through pipes. BIOAUGMENTATION is the method of using laboratory cultivated micro organisms and synthetic micro organisms in bio remediation. This method is commonly and normally used in cleaning municipal wastes. INTRINSIC BIO-REMEDIATION naturally occurs in contaminated soil and water in full extent. This type of bio-remediation was observed in petroleum contaminated places such as old gas stations with leak, underground oil tanks etc. All the three types of bio remediation can be used at the site of contamination (In-Site bio remediation) or is carried out at a site other than original site (Ex-site bio remediation). Bio-technology is also used in preparation of BIO-MARKERS. These are generally enzymes that show certain physiological response towards contamination of different hydro carbons as well as heavy metals. Hence environmental contamination also can be identified using bio-technology. Metabolic activities of micro organisms are the basis for bio-remediation. Metabolism includes both catabolism and anabolism. Metabolic reactions that occur

towards synthesis of particular materials constitute anabolism. Metabolic reactions that degrade a chemical into many constitute catabolism. In anabolism, the microorganisms take up carbon, nitrogen in form of methane, ammonia etc from soil, water and air around them. Such materials are used for synthesizing building blocks of bio molecules (ex: amino acids for proteins, Nucleotides for Nucleic acid). Catabolism of microorganisms allows them to use unusual chemicals as source of carbon and energy. Bacteria digest the waste at site and turn it into harmless byproducts. After bacteria consume the waste materials, they die or return to their normal population levels in the environment. Bio-remediation is an area of increasing interest. Through application of bio technical methods, enzyme bio reactors are being developed. These retreat some industrial waste and food waste components and allow their removal through sewage system rather than through solid waste disposal mechanisms. Waste can also be converted to bio fuel to run generators. Microbes can be introduced to produce enzymes needed to convert plant and vegetable materials into building blocks for bio degradable plastics. In some cases, the byproducts of the pollution fighting micro organisms are themselves useful. For example, methane can be derived from a form of bacteria that degrades sulphur liquor, a waste product of paper manufacturing. This methane can then be used as fuel or in other industrial processes. Leaching of ores from underground or from waste heaps using bacteria recover metal from ores known as Bio-Mining and controls acid drainage. RESEARCH IN INDIA: The energy research institute (TERI) has created a preparation of 5 organisms called OIL ZAPPER to clear petroleum waste products. Oil Zapper is effective and low cost and has no harmful side effects. It can degrade different types of hydro carbons or other oil residues left after refining crude oil. It was developed by TERI with active co-operation of department if bio technology. More than 26,000 tonnes of oily sludge has been treated successfully with oil zapper. TERI also developed recently a new mixture of microorganisms, OLIVOROUSS that has more sulphur content than oil zapper. National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), GOA is involved in research activities for developing Bio-Markers for the pollutants like Organo Chlorinate pesticides (OCP), Poly Chlorinated bi-phenol (PCB), Petroleum Hydro Carbons (PHC), Poly Aromatic hydro carbons (PAH), poly chlorinated Dibenzo dioxins (PCDDDs). NIO is also developing bio markers for heavy metals (As, Hg, Pb, and Cr).

x---- END OF UNIT 3 ---x

U N I T - iv
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Microbial Infections + Common Present Day Infections and preventive measures + Introduction to Bacterial, Viral, Protozoal & Fungal Infections POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

a.

What are microbial diseases? Discuss in detail about bacterial diseases and their preventive measures.

b. Discuss in detail about viral diseases and their preventive measures. c. Discuss in detail diseases caused by protozoa and their preventive measures. d. Discuss in detail diseases caused by fungi and their control measures. e. Discuss in detail diseases caused by helminthes parasites and their preventive measures. 2. Basic knowledge of Infections Diarrohea, Dysentery, Cholera, TB, Malaria, HIV, Encephalitis, Chikunguniya, Bird Flu Preventive outbreaks TOPICS 3 measures during a. Discuss about diarrhea and its preventive measures.

3. TOTAL

a. Discuss the measures to be taken during various disease out breaks. QUESTIONS 7

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. What are microbial diseases? Discuss in detail about bacterial diseases and their preventive measures. The word disease is a very broad term. It covers a wide variety of conditions, in other words, any deviation from normal health leads to disease. Disease can also be defined as a disorder of mind or body. Microorganisms also cause these diseases/ infections. Microorganisms are very small and visible only through microscope. Study of microorganisms is called Microbiology. Bacteria, virus, fungi, helminth parasites, protozoal parasites are various disease causing microbes. Bacteria cause diphtheria, wooping cough, dysentery, ganeria, ciphillis etc. Virus causes chicken pox, measles, rabies, Japanese encephalitis, sleeping sickness, kala-azar or black sickness, malaria

etc. Fungi causes ring worm, athletes foot, Dobi itch etc. Helminth parasites cause entareobiasis, Ascariasis, Cistosomiasis, Tiniyasis etc. BACTERIAL DISEASES: Bacteria are very small organisms which are barely visible under light microscope. The smallest bacteria are about 0.1 micron in diameter, while the largest may be 60*6 microns. Bacteria may occur in three main shapes: spherical, rod-like and spiral. They cause various infections to man. They are discussed in detail below: 1. DIPTHERIA:

About Disease: Diphtheria is a serious disease generally attacking

children below 5 years, but it can attack an adult also. This disease is generally not seen in developed countries due to their immunization system. It is more in developing countries and countries without vaccination. Before vaccination was started in 1987 in India, every year 2000 deaths and 75,000 man-days of work was being lost. CORYNEBACTERIUM DIPTHERIA. The bacteria grow in membrane on the wall of throat and block the air passage.

Caused By: This disease is caused by rod-shaped bacterium called

Incubation Period: Incubation period is 2 to 5 days. Symptoms: The early symptoms of this disease may not be severe, such
as mild fever, sore throat and general feeling of indisposition. However, in latter period, symptoms become severe and complications arise. Among these are difficulty in breathing due to obstruction of throat by formation of membrane, general swelling and inflammation. If such complications arise, surgery becomes essential. Sometimes, the toxins produced by organism cause weakness, high fever and damage to heart and nervous system and death occurs due to choking. disease is spread by discharges from throat and nose of an infected person. When talking, coughing, sneezing, these bacteria enter into another healthy person. started early. DIPHTHERIA ANTITOXIN when given within 12-24 hours of appearance of symptoms completely neutralizes the toxin produced and saves the patient from severe illness or death. The antitoxin is given by injection, usually in single dose. Although antibodies may be helpful, the primary treatment is given by injecting antitoxin.

Transmission: Persons affected with this disease act as vectors. The

Prevention and treatment: Treatment of this disease is very effective if

To prevent this disease, children are immunized with Diphtheria Toxoid for monthly once in a period of 3 months. It has now become customary to immunize against diphtheria along with tetanus and whooping cough (DPT vaccine). The vaccine used for immunization of diphtheria, tetanus and pertusis (whooping cough) is called as triple vaccine or triple antigen. This triple antigen is used for the simultaneous immunization of children against three diseases. In the same type of vaccine Formal Toxoid or Alum Precipitated toxoid are being used.

Vaccination or immunization and serum inoculation have greatly reduced the infection of diphtheria. {Vaccine for diphtheria and tetanus was first discovered by Adolf Van Belming and Kitsato}.

2. WHOOPING COUGH:

About disease: whooping cough is also called as Pertusis. In china, it is


called as Hundred day cough.

Caused By: Bacteria. Incubation Period: 2-3 weeks. Symptoms: This causes cough repeatedly. The discharges of nose and mouth
contain these bacteria. To identify the disease, these discharges are tested using Fluorescent Antibodies.

Transmission: The persons affected with this disease act as carriers, when
the discharge of nose is spit on article during sneeze, they affect a healthy person who used them.

Prevention and Treatment: Persons infected with this disease are given

ERYTHROMYCIN drug to reduce the intensity. Antibodies like septran, ampicillin, tetracycline also can be used. To prevent this, mixed vaccine of DPT is used. Diphtheria, tetanus and pertusis vaccines are mixed to give good immunity towards these diseases. It is given to children above 3 months of age. Three injections should be given in a period of month. Vaccination after affecting with disease is useless. Hence, early vaccination is must to get rid of this disease. After immunization procedure was started in 1987 in India, number of cases with whooping cough got reduced considerably. 3. TETANUS:

About disease: Tetanus is a very serious and fatal disease. Very often death
may be result.

Caused By: This is caused by bacteria called CLOSTRIDIUM TETANI. This


bacterium grows in intestine of many animals without doing any harm. Horses are excellent breeders in it. The number of cases of tetanus was greatly reduced with decline of horse as means of transportation.

Incubation Period: 4 days to 3 weeks. Symptoms: the symptoms are painful contraction of muscles, usually of neck
and jaw, followed by paralysis of the thoracic muscles. Because of this symptom, it is also called as LOCK JAW. Death may occur after paralysis.

Transmission: the bacteria usually gains entrance into body tissues through

deep wounds. Infection may occur through a wound or an abrasion of the skin. Children are usually infected as a result of injuries sustained in the home or street. The newly born may be infected through navel. Unclean pins, needles, unsterilized medical equipments can cause this disease. This disease is not transmitted from man to man and infection occurs on direct contact.

Prevention and treatment: treatment is possible by injecting the Tetanus

Antitoxin. It is always advisable to take an anti-tetanus toxoid (ATS) {Tetanus toxoid or penicillin} injection, in case of an injury in road accident or cuts contaminated with soiled objects like animal fecal matter or street dust etc. It has now become a common practice to immunize the children by triple antigen or triple vaccine against tetanus, diphtheria and whooping cough. Immunization is very essential after 3 months of age. 3 injections in period of 1 month must be given to children. 4. LEPROSY

About disease: leprosy is a chronic communicable disease. It is also called

as HUSNEN DISEASE. Leprosy is a dreaded disease than most communicable diseases because of the social stigma attached to it. Even after patient is cured of this disease, it is very difficult to rehabilitate him. It is very essential to educate public about the actual nature of the disease. This disease is prevalent mostly in Africa and Asia. At places of pilgrimage in India, it is common sight to find flock of lepers begging for alms. 60% of worldwide lepers belong to India only. In 1981, 57 of every 10,000 persons in India were affected with the disease. By 200, 5 of every 10,000 were getting affected according to report of WHO.

Caused by: the disease is caused by bacteria called MYCOBACTERIUM


LEPER.

Incubation period: 2-5 hours Symptoms: the disease affects the nervous system. Skin, muscles, eyes,
bones, testis and other inner parts also gets affected. The disease is characterized by skin lesions including the peripheral nerves so that the infected becomes benumbed. The other symptoms of the disease include ulcers, nodules, and scaly scabs, deformities of fingers and toes and washing of body parts.

Transmission: The disease is communicated only after long and close


contact with infected parts. Children are isolated from leper parents early in life to grow into normal and healthy persons. This disease is not transmitted through air or water. It takes about 5 years to attack a healthy person in close contacts with infected ones. It is communicable but the process is slow.

Treatment: The disease can be identified using HISTAMINE EXAM which


estimates deformation of nerves. Recently, leprosy is being identified using Fluorescent Leprosy Antibody, Ebjoston exam.

There is no vaccine against leprosy. But using Multi Drug therapy method, the disease can be reduced considerably. Fompicin Dopsone, Clofagemine are drugs that can reduce the disease.

In 1955, Indian government has started National Program for Prevention of Leprosy. In 1983, the program was modified and target was set that infected persons should be less than 1 per every 10,000 by the year 2000. At present, India has announced itself free from leprosy. 5. TYPHOID

About Disease: Typhoid is an acute infection of the intestines. It is also


called as ENTRIC FEVER.

Caused by: The causative agent of typhoid fever is SALOMONELLA TYPHI.

These are rod-shaped, motile organisms from 1 to 3.5 microns long. Although S. Typhi do not produce toxin, they contain an endo toxin which is released on disintegration of the microbial bodies.

Incubation period: Incubation period averages two weeks, but it may be

short as even 7 days or as long as 23 days. Its duration depends mainly on the individual organism.

Symptoms: In most patients, pro dermal symptoms are displayed several


days towards end of incubation period in the form of mild malaise increased fatigability, irritability and poor appetite. The fever lasts for two or three weeks and it may relapse when other parts of the body like bone marrow, spleen or gall bladder are infected through blood stream. Death may occur due to hemorrhage or puncturing if the intestine.

Transmission: Typhoid fever is spread by intestinal discharges. Any person


carrying the typhoid fever germs in his intestinal tract can spread the disease to others, even though the person himself may not be suffering from the disease. These persons are known as healthy carriers. In addition, any person who suffers from the disease is likely to spread it to others. The principle means of spread are contaminated food and water.

Treatment and prevention: Vidal Exam is used to identify the disease.


Diagnosis of typhoid fever is made through pathological detection of the germ which causes the disease in the intestinal discharge of the patient. In recent years, attempt to cure typhoid carriers have been made by surgical removal of gall bladder in which the germs appear to be concentrated and by treatment with antibiotic such as chloromycetin, chlorofillical Bi Ampicillin etc. The prevention of typhoid fever is based on proper community sanitation, protection of water supply, protection of food from contamination of flies and by personal cleanliness. Vaccination or immunization against typhoid fever is advisable at any age during epidemic of the disease or during a natural catastrophe such as floods or hurricanes. Vaccination is also useful when there has been an exposure to a known carrier of the disease. Generally, TAB vaccines are given. In this, sterilized and killed salmonelle typhi, salmonelle para typhi A & B will be there. These develop antibodies in body, which protect us against future attacks by these bacteria in contamination. 6. CHOLERA

About Disease: Cholera is an acute diarrhea disease. It exists in several


forms. The type called ASIAN CHOLERA has persisted in India since thousands of

years and breaks out periodically. It has caused great suffering to mankind. During floods and after floods and other natural calamities, epidemic cholera breaks out in our country. This is caused by bacterium of the genus Vibrio.

Caused by: The causative organism is VIBRIO CHOLERAE. The vibrio


cholera was first isolated by Roch (1883). It is the most important member of genus vibrio. It is short, curved, cylindrical, rod-shaped about 1.5 micro meter * (0.2-0.4) micro meter in size, with rounded or slightly pointed ends. This is typically comma shaped.

Incubation period: The incubation period i.e. the period between the entry
of organism inside the body and the appearance of the symptom generally varies from less than 24 hours to about 5 days.

Symptoms: In its severe form, cholera is a terrifying illness in which profuse


watery diarrhea and vomiting may lead to hypovolemic shock and death in less than 24 hours. The clinical features of severe cholera result from the loss of large volumes of diarrhoeal fluid which is bicarbonate-rich isotonic electrolyte solution. This leads to elimination of extra cellular fluid volume, haemo concentration, hypokalemia, bace deficit acidosis and shock. The common complications are muscular cramps, renal failure, pulmonary edema, cardiac arrhythmias and paralytic cleus. Body temperature drops below 98.4 degrees centigrade and weight reduces. The clinical illness may begin slowly with mild diarrhea, in 1-3 days or abruptly with sudden massive diarrhea. The initial diarrhoeal stool may contain fecal matter, subsequent stools rapidly assume the rice water, appearance with flecks of mucus in a colorless fluid. The stool has a fishy odor. Purging is painless and effortless. Vomiting, which start along with diarrhea is copious, consisting of clear watery fluid secreted by upper part of small intestine. The fatality rate of infected persons used to be 30-50%.

Transmission: In human infection, the vibrios enter orally through


contaminated water or food. Vibrios are highly susceptible to acids and gastric acidity provides an effective barrier against small doses of cholera vibrios. Vibrios multiplying on the intestinal epithelium produce a entotoxin called CHLORAGEN CHOLERA. Rehydration Solution (ORS) should be given. Prescribed medicines suggested by doctor should be taken (Tetracycline Antibiotic). The important preventive measured are heating of food, boiling the drinking water, proper disposal of waste and protection as well as purification of drinking water. Vaccination may be quite useful for the protection from cholera. Immunity may be antibacterial or antitoxic. It is always advisable to take vaccine before travelling to a region known to be infected with the disease or during the outbreak of an epidemic. However, proper sanitation is a better control measure because immunization is effective only for a short period. {Vaccine for cholera was first discovered by Louis Pasteur}. 7. TUBERCULOSIS:

Treatment and prevention: To rehydrate the loss of water, Oral

About Disease: Tuberculosis is a respiratory disease responsible for the loss

of an enormous number of lives every year, being especially common among

people who live in dingy, congested parts of large cities. TB, when affects lungs, it is called as Pulmonary tuberculosis. Or, if it affects the digestive system, meningis, bones, joints, lymph nodes, skin etc then it is called Non-pulmonary Tuberculosis. Though the bacterial cause foe disease was identified 100 years ago, 15-20 million cases were registered worldwide. Every year, 7.25 million new cases are getting registered and in that about 3 million cases are becoming fatal. 95% of the cases are in developing countries only. This is mostly prevalent in countries of S.E Asia, west pacific and Africa. In Asia, the disease is becoming Drug Resistant. Many steps and actions taken by governments of nations became futile. The main reason for the spread of this disease is malnutrition and poverty. Also, the immigration to cities from villages, addition of AIDS to TB is causing this disease to spread like fire. To control this, a worldwide DOTS program is being implemented (DIRECTLY OBSERVABLE TREATMENT SHORT COURSE). In India, TB is one of the major problems. Pulmonary TB is more in India. According to report of WHO, 6 lakh Indians do not know that they are affected with TB. Annually, 19 lakh Indians get affected. Only 70% of them get treatment by DOTS. Caused by: Tuberculosis is caused by MYCOBACTERIA TUBERCULOSIS. Mycobacteria are slender rods that sometimes show branching filamentous forms resembling fungal mycelium. Mycobacteria mean fungus like bacteria. According to WHO, thi air borne rod shaped bacteria is infecting 1/3 rd of world population. But mere presence of TB-Bacillus does not indicate active TB. For every 1 second, a new person is infected with TB-Bacilli in any part of the world. Once infected with TB-Bacilli, a person may develop active TB, when the immune system weakens. This bacterium is red in color.

Incubation period: the incubation period is quite variable. Symptoms: The symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis are fever and chills,
cough that lasts 2 weeks or longer, sudden weight loss, sputum containing blood, pain in the chest, coughing of blood in mucous, night sweats and weakness or fatigue. If TB is not treated, it can be fatal. The bacilli destroy mucous membrane, epithelial tissue and enter blood. Once inside the blood, bacilli attacks vital organs like brain, liver, spleen, heart, kidney etc. multiple organ failure along with active TB finally leads to death.

Transmission: TB-Bacilli bacteria enter the body commonly by inhalation,

less oftn by ingestion and rarely by inoculation into the skin. The bacteria of tuberculosis invade any part of the body, multiply rapidly and destroy the tissues. Lungs are the favorite site of infection where small tubercules are formed. They release a toxin called TUBERCULIN. The disease spreads mostly by throat and nose discharges from a person suffering from an active stage of the disease. Major source of infection is the open human case shedding that bacillus in the sputum. The bacilli remain viable for weeks of infection. These bacteria are so wide spread that most of the persons develop a tubercular infection of their lungs at some time during their life, usually during youth. Most people overcome minor infections without knowing they had the disase; but if resistance is low, the infection may spread and damage the lung tissue extensively.

Treatment and prevention: The diagnosis of tuberculosis is made on the


basis of Positive Tuberculin Test, chest X-rays, positive sputum, gastric analysis,

Mantox etc. Active TB can be treated completely with a combination of medication that includes Isomizad, Rifampin (Rifadin), Ethambuhol and Pyrazinamide. This first line defense material should be continued for two months. And later, any two of them can be continued for rest of the treatment. The treatment generally continues for many months or few years. It should be under direct supervision of the doctor. If neglected, the active TD turns into Multi-Drug Resistance (MDR). It involves powerful second line defense medicine. If Mdr is not treated properly, a new variety that can resist all types of powerful drug known as extreme drug resistance (xdr) gets developed. Such TB was first found in 2006, in South Africa. In early 2007, it was observed in India too. Vaccination against TB with BCG vaccine provides considerable protection against the disease. The vaccine is injected into the skin. There are also other safety measures that can be effective in control of the disease. Complete isolation of a person with active TB, so that he may not spread the disease to others. One should maintain proper personal hygene as well as taking balanced nutrition is essential. This measure will keep the immune system active and early can resist the initial TB infection. Persons with active TB should be educated so that they are prevented from further spread. All children should be vaccinated against TB with Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) within 15 days after birth. Persons with cold, cough, fever should take immediate remedy measure. Prolonged fever weakens ones immune system and makes him susceptible to active TB infection. First vaccine of TB was discovered by Leon Calemate and Camelle Gurice. Control Program: Directly observed treatment short course (DOTS) is the most effective strategy to control TB launched by WHO. The 5 key components of it are: Political commitment to control TB Case detection by sputum smears microscopic detection of symptomatic patients. Patients should be given anti-TB drugs under the direct observation of health care provider, community DOTS preovider. Regular and uninterrupted supply of anti-TB should be ensured and Systematic recording and reporting system that allows assessment of treatment results of each and every patient and whole TB program should be carried out.

In 2006, WHO recommended the adoption of new STOP TB for speeding up the TBcontrol. Its components are: Perusing high quality DOTS and its expansion and enhancement. Addressing TB-HIV and Multi Drug Resistance (MDR) and other challenges Contributing to health system strengthening Engaging all health care providers Empowering people with TB and communities and Enable and promote research.

In India: A revised national control program was launched in India in 1993,

as a pilot project in 5 states. In 1997 RNTCP (Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program) was declared a national program. By March 24, 2006, the program was extended throughout the country. RNTCP involves the DOTS of WHO for better performance. 85% of infected persons are getting treated using methods of chemotherapy under the program. But still, much progress should be made to eradicate this disease completely from India. 8. DETAILS OF OTHER MINOR DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA Scarlet Fever: STREPTOCOCCUS SCARLATINAE 3-5 days Swelling of throat, cough and continuous fever The bacteria are spread through discharges of nose, nouh and throat of infected person. Maintaining proper sanitation measures and boiling the drinking water can prevent this to a greater extent.

Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms: Transmission: Prevention:

IOBAR Pnemonia: DIPLOCOCCUS PNEMONIAE ------Shivering, chest pain, stomach Ache, breathing difficulty and scales on body. Bacteria enter into lungs through respiratory system. Wearing masks, staying away from unhygienic and dirty places.

Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms: Transmission: Prevention:

Bubonic Plague: PASTURELLA PESTIS 2-10 days

Sudden fever, vomiting, skin becomes dry with black spots, swelling of nodes Transmission: This disease gets transmitted from rats to man. Prevention: Controlling rat population, proper medicines and vaccination with doctor supervison. Bacillary Dyssentry: Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms: Transmission: Prevention: Ganeria: Shijella Dyssentria 1-4 days Fever, vomits, stomach ache, blood in stools and continuous diarrohea. Gets transmitted through food and water contaminated by flies, which acts as carriers of this bacteria. Clean and hygiene environment, eating food after heating, drinking boiled water.

Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms:

Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms: Transmission: Prevention:

DIPLOCOCCUS (Nisseria Ganeria) 2-8 days Urethra swells and becomes red, burning sensation while excretion, boils near urethra. Through sexual contact. Following safe sex measured and avoiding illegal sex contacts.

Syphillis: TREPONEMA PALLIDUM 10-90 days Wounds on private parts, big swellings on the skin, node system gets destroyed. Through sexual contacts and touch. Same as in Ganeria.

Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms: Transmission: Prevention: Botulijum:

Caused By: Incubation Period: Symptoms: Transmission: Prevention:

CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM 18-66 hours Intestines in digestive system swells, vomiting, diarrhea, tiredness, mild eyesight and paralysis. Through Contaminated food. Same as in Bacillary Dysentery.

1.

b. Discuss in detail about viral diseases and their preventive measures. Viruses are infective microorganisms. They do not fall strictly in the category of unicellular microorganisms as they do not possess a cellular organization. Viruses have a very simple structure. They consist of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat. Some of the infectious viral diseases are discussed below. VIRAL DISEASES: 1. CHICKEN POX: infections. Susceptibility to chicken pox is very high, practically universal. Chicken pox is very rare in adults and children above 10 years of age. Stable lifelong immunity follows after an attack and second attacks are extremely rare.

About disease: Chicken pox is one of the commonest and mildest of childhood

Caused By: This is caused by VARICELLA VIRUS. Incubation Period: In case of direct viral attack, it is 2-5 days and in case of
indirect infection it varies between 12-16 days.

Symptoms: The primary symptoms are rise in temperature and general

discomfort. Skin eruptions appear first. All these lesions do not appear at once, but in gradual stages. The length and severity of the disease is dependent upon the number of eruptions produced. In severe cases, almost the whole body is covered in eruptions. infected person or by contact with clothings or other articles soiled with discharges from an infected person. Entry of the virus is the respiratory tract.

Transmission: It is usually transmitted by contact with spores or by skin of an

Treatment and prevention: It is usually an uneventful disease and recovery is


the rule. One attack confers to lasting immunity. Preventive measures include isolating the patient, the patients bed and clothing should be kept neat and clean. Patient should be kept away from public places until all crusts have fallen off. Some suitable lotion may be applied on the eruptions in order to check itching in skin. 2. SMALL POX:

About Disease: Small pox is an ancient disease and was once prevalent in
most parts of the world.

Caused By: Variola Virus is the causative agent of small pox. It was first
demonstrated microscopically by BUIST in 1887. Pox virus is stable and if protected from sunlight may remain viable for months at room temperature.

Incubation Period: Symptoms: High fever and generalized aching. Affects respiratory passages.
Rash on the body 2 days later which spreads over the body. Secondary affection by bacteria causes permanent scarring of the skin.

Transmission: Droplet infection. Contagion possible via wounds in skin,


clothing, bending, and dressing etc. variola virus enters the body by inhalation. After initial multiplication in local lymphatic tissue, the virus is transported to blood where further multiplication takes place. Depending on the clinical features, small pox is classified into hemorrhagic, flat, ordinary and modified form in descending order of severity.

Prevention and treatment: VACCINIA VIRUS is used as the small pox

vaccine. Living attenuated viru is applied by scratching the skin. Patients bed and clothing should be neat and clean. Some suitable lotion may be applied to control itch on skin. Vaccine for small pox was first discovered by EDWARD JENNER. 3. MUMPS:

About disease: Mumps or epidemic parotitis is a common contagious disease


of children characterized by non-suppurative infection of the parotid glands. The name mumps is derived from the mumbling speech of the patients.

Caused By: It is caused by Paramyxo virus (RNA virus). This virus is about
100 to 200 nm in size.

Incubation period: 12-21 days. Symptoms: Occurs mainly in children. Fever, followed by swelling of the
parotid (salivary) glands on on or both sides lasting about 10 days. Testes, Ovaries and pancreas are other organs that may be affected. Inflammation of the testes in male after puberty may cause sterility.

Transmission: Droplet infection or contagion via infected saliva to mouth. Prevention: Living attenuated virus is used as vaccine to control mumps.
4. MEASLES:

About Disease: Measles is the commonest and the most infectious of


childhood exonthemata. It is also called as RUBEOLA.

Caused By: It is caused by a virus, POLYNOSA MORBILLORUM which is very


unstable and perishes rapidly outside the human organism. The virus resembles paramyxoviruses morphologically.

Incubation period: Incubation period is from 12 to 14 days. Symptoms: Occurs mainly in children. Fever, inflammation of respiratory
mucous membranes, sensitivity of the eyes to light, loss of appetite, vomiting and rash eruption of the skin. Also, sore throat, runny nose, watery eyes and cough happens. Small, white spots (Kopliks spots) appear inside mouth on wall of cheek. Two days later reddish rash appears on neck at hairline and spreads over the body. Virus can also damage kidneys or brain. Patients are likely to be infected with pneumonia as a secondary infection.

Transmission: Mainly caused by droplet infection. The source of infection is


a sick person. The virus is spread by discharges from nose or throat.

Prevention: Living attenuated virus is used in vaccination. Properly


organized hygienic conditions for the patient, careful nursing and protection from secondary infection are of immense significance for the treatment of measles and prevention of complications. One attack of measles gives permanent immunity. Vaccine for measles was first discovered by John.F.Enders. 5. RABIES

About disease: Man is usually infected by the bite of rabid dogs or other
animals. The virus is present in the saliva of animal is deposited in the wound. If untreated, about half of such cases develop rabies. Rabies is also known as HYDROPHOBIA.

Caused By: This disease is caused by Rahabdo viruses. These are bulletshaped with single stranded RNA genome.

Incubation Period: Usually from 1-3 months. Symptoms: The course of the disease in man can be classified into 4 stages
prodrone, acute neurological phase, coma and death. The virus first stimulates and then destroys the cells of the brain and spinal cord. The symptoms includes severe headache, high fever with alternating stages of excitement and depression. The patient has difficulty in swallowing even liquid and develops severe muscular spasm in throat and chest. The patient dies a painful death following restlessness, choking, convulsions and inability to swallow liquids.

Transmission: The disease is not transmitted from man to man, but only
through bite of rabid dogs.

Prevention and treatment: The long incubation period from 1 to 3 months


makes it possible for a rabies vaccination, after a bite to develop immunity and prevent the disease from occurring. Death results from almost every case of the disease that develops in animals, including man. The treatment of rabies is one of greatest contributions to mankind by PASTEUR and hence it is known as Pasteurs Treatment. It consists of a series of injections given once for 14 days. The injection is prepared from fixed virus. The injections induce the formation of antibodies in the patient. Any person bitten by a stray dog should take treatment as a preventive measure.

6. POLIOMYELITIS:

About Disease: Polio is one of deadly virus disease. It paralyses the limbs of
the affected person, by destroying nervous system and makes him handicapped throughout his life. This is one of the major diseases still prevalent in developing countries, especially in India. Polio can be caused by 12 types of viruses.

Caused by: It is caused by Polio Virus (Entero Virus), a type of


Picornavirus.

Incubation period: 7-14 days. Symptoms: Fever, headache and feeling of stiffness in neck and other
muscles. Nerve cells to muscles are destroyed causing paralysis and muscle wasting. When breathing muscles are paralyzed, an iron lung may be needed. Most cases of paralysis occur in children aged 4-12 years, but adults may also be affected.

Transmission: Disease spreads through droplet infection or via human


faceces. The virus enters the body by ingestion. Inhalation of droplets can also be mode of entry. The virus multiplies in the lymphatic tissues of the alimentary canal. After multiplication in these sites, virus enters the blood stream and is carried to the spinal cord and brain. In the central nervous system, the virus multiplies selectively in the neurons and destroys them.

Prevention: Living attenuated virus is given orally, usually on sugar lump.

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) is safe and effective. It should be given for all children below 5 years. All developing populous countries, except India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Nigeria get rid of this disease by using IPV (INJECTABLE POLIO VIRUS). OPV gives virus specific resistance whereas IPV gives immunity to resist all the 12 types of polio viruses. India is taking active projects like Pulse Polio to prevent this dangerous disease permanently. {Polio vaccine was first discovered by Johannes.E.Salk}. 7. DENGUE FEVER:

About Disease: Dengue virus is widely distributed throughout the tropics


and subtropics. It is also called as BACKBONE FEVER.

Caused By: Dengue Virus. Incubation Period: 5-8 days. Symptoms: Dengue presents typically as a fever of 103-105 degrees
Centigrade ad sudden onset of headache, retrobulbar pain, pain in the back and limbs, vomit sensation, pain of forehead, eyes pain while rolled, excess thirstiness, red scars on body, pulse rate becomes low and blood pressure becomes very low. The fever is typically biphasic and lasts for 5-7 days followed as a rule of recovery. Dengue may also occur in more serious forms, with hemorrhagic manifestations. (dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or with dengue Shock Syndrome).

Transmission: Dengue virus is transmitted from man to man, by mosquito


called ADES AEGYPTI.

Treatment and prevention: there is no special treatment and rule of


recovery should be followed. To reduce body temperature, PARACETAMOL should be taken. Asprin and Broofin must not be used. Doctors guidance is must while getting treatment.

Present Scenario: According to reports of WHO, 40% of worlds population,


i.e, about 250 crore people are on threat of developing dengue fever. Hemorrhagic fever, developed due to dengue, may cause death within 12-24 hours. Every year, about 5 lakh persons are becoming hospitalized due to dengue fever. AP has shown gradual progress in controlling dengue in India. In 2004, about 230 cases were registered. In 2008, only 9 new cases were registered according to government records. In 1956, Indian Government started a Dengue prevention project which later extended to state of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, UP, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. The action on dengue is also under National Malaria Prevention Program. 8. YELLOW FEVER:

About Disease: yellow Fwever is a viral disease.

Caused By: It is caused by an arbovirus that is arthropod-borne virus (RNA


virus).

Incubation Period: 3-6 Days. Symptoms: The disease starts as a fever of acute onset with chills,
headache, backache, nausea, vomiting, and tenderness in pit of stomach. Affects lining of blood vessels and liver. Eyes become yellow. Faeces coloured black due to digested blood. On fourth day, vomit blood and bile (So-called Black vomit).

Transmission: Transmitted by Vector-Arthropods like ticks and mosquitoes. Prevention: Living attenuated virus is given as vaccine. Control of vectors by
having clean and hygiene environment and good sanitation facilities is important. 9. COMMON COLD:

About Disease: cold is a viral disease (infection). Caused By: It is caused by a large variety of viruses, most commonly Rhinovirus (RNA virus).

Incubation Period: 1-2 Days. Symptoms: Nasal and bronchial irritation, resulting in sneezing and
coughing. Usually only affects upper respiratory passages. Secondary bacterial infection may occur.

Transmission: main mode of transmission is droplet infection. Vaccination: For immediate relief, many anti-cold drugs like No cold, D-cold
total, coldarin etc can be used. For vaccine purpose, living or inactivated virus is given as intro muscular injection. It is not very effective because so many different strains of rhino virus exist.

10.INFLUENZA:

About Disease: It is a viral disease. Also called as flu. Caused By: It is caused by Orthomyxo virus.
Incubation Period:

Symptoms: Sudden fever with headache, sore throat and muscular aches.
Affects epithelia of respiratory passages, trachea and bronchi. Recovery within one week, but after effects lung tissue by bacteria, leading to puemonia.

Transmission: Main mode of transmission is droplet infection.. Vaccination: Killed virus that belongs to the right strain should be used in
the vaccination.

11.HERPES SIMPLEX:

About Disease: It is a viral infection. Caused By: HERPES VIRUS SIMPLEX. Incubation Period: Symptoms: Wounds and swelling on skin. Transmission: Droplet infection.
12.HERPES ZOSTER:

About Disease: It is a viral infection. Caused By: HERPES VIRUS ZOSTER. Incubation Period: 7-14 days. Symptoms: For children, small wounds rise in the mouth, irritation and
itching on the skin followed by eruptions. person.

Transmission: through droplet infection, discharges of mouth of the infected


13.HEPATITIS B: (JAUNDICE)

About Disease: It is a viral infection. Caused By: DNA virus. Incubation Period: From 6 weeks to 6 months. Symptoms: Infects liver. Flu-like symptoms. Jaundice, nausea and severe
loss of appetite.

Transmission: Blood borne and can be spread by sexual intercourse. Vaccination: Vaccination is done through Hepatitis B vaccines, made through
process of GENETICAL ENGINEERING. 14.ENCEPHALITIS:

About Disease: It is a condition of inflammation of brain. This is caused by a

number of different viruses, few bacteria, fungi and protozoans. If microorganisms affect only layers if brain called Meninges, then it is called as Meningitis. This is caused by organisms like Encephalitis Orbovirus. If it extends to brain cells as well, then disease is called Meningo Encephalitis. If only cells are affected with layers are untouched, then the disease is called Encephalitis alone.

Most of the viruses responsible to encephalitis attack brain in secondary infection. The inflammation of the brain is a reaction of bodys own immune system. The action of T-Lymphocytes to destroy the infectious virus results in the inflammation of brain. There are more than a dozen viruses that cause encephalitis. In some cases, the viruses are spread by direct contact, whereas in other cases, they are spread by animal/ plant virus. Caused By + Transmission:

Encephalitis Caused by Non-viral organisms: Ricketsia, mecoplasma pneumonia, Bacteria, fungus, metazoan tekrensig, econsig, cistosomia, protozoa etc. Encephalitis caused by animals: monkey bites cause encephalitis. Also, Lympho Cyto Viral rats can cause encephalitis. Encephalitis transmission from man to man: encephalitis also can be transmitted feom man to man, without any vectors in between. For example, Mumps, Measles, Rubella, Cytomegallo virus, Herps Zoster, Vericella, Adino virus, Reo-virus, Influenza virus and Entero Virus like Polio, eco virus, cocakse virus etc. Encephalitis spread through Arthropoda organisms: mosquitoes generally spread encephalitis in particular period in a year. Among these Dengue fever and Japanese Encephalitis is major. Japanese Encephalitis: Japanese Encephalitis is a mosquito borne viral disease recognized in Japan since 1871. This disease is widely distributed in China, Korea, Indian subcontinent and south East Asia. In India, Japanese Encephalitis was first recognized in 1955 in Vellore, TN caused by outbreak of Culex genus mosquitoes. The condition of inflammation of brain is caused by Flavi-virus. The virus is generally present in domestic pigs and wild birds and spread by mosquito bites. The mosquito called TRITAENIORTHYCUS spread this disease mainly. The virus is still active in TN and AP, causing disease mainly in infants, indicating the endemic nature of the disease. The mortality rate lies between 3050%. Residents of rural areas in endemic locations are at a greater risk of getting Japanese Encephalitis. Recently, it emerged as public heath program in Kerala.

Incubation Period: 1-6 days. Symptoms: The disease typically has an abrupt onset with fever, headache,
vomiting, lethargy, nausea problems, tremors, seizures, stiff neck, and decreased consciousness. Symptoms of encephalitis range from mild to severe. In severe conditions, this disease leads to coma, paralysis and death. The fever is high and continuous. Residual neurological damage may persist in up to 50% of survivors.

Treatment and Prevention: Blood test, CT scan and ICG will not help in

detecting encephalitis. The presence of encephalitis can be found by testing spinal fluid. The recent tests like ELISA TEST can be used to detect the disease. Also, polymerase chain reaction test is very useful in detecting the disease. But, these tests are costly for rural people to afford. It starts at Rs 5,000 minimum, which makes poor to deny taking it and later proving to be fatal for them. General bacterial antibodies cannot control the viral encephalitis. Special anti-

viral drugs like GANCYCLOVIR ACYCLOUR, FOSCAMET and AZIDETHYMIDINE etc should be sued to control this disease. It is always good to believe in Prevention is better than treatment. Reduce the risk of getting disease from those who are affected. Most infections are spread by hand-hand, mouth-hand touch. To avoid this hand should be washed regularly in the day. Reduce the chance of bites from dogs, bats, rats, squirrel, fox etc. To prevent mosquito-borne disease like Japanese Encephalitis, being bitten by mosquitoes should be avoided. Use insect repellents on all exposed skin particularly between dusk and dawn, because mosquitoes are more active during this period. Use mosquito nets while sleeping. Locate piggeries away from the human dwellings. Fever, vomiting should be controlled by taking proper medicines. By controlling fits, children can be saved from death. Entero Viral Encephalitis can be controlled by drinking boiled water. To avoid Measles Encephalitis, vaccines for measles should eb gived to children between 9 to 15 months of age. Similarly, vaccination for polio and mumps should be given to children. Also citizens should take care with personal interest in maintaining proper sanitation, living in hygiene environment etc. Government should provide properly purified drinking water, spray mosquito repellants regularly and provide vaccines at low cost in all government hospitals without fail. Japan, China, Korea now got rid of Encephalitis with their regular vaccination procedure. So, to save the citizens of India, especially childrens lives, everyone should give and active hand to control encephalitis. 15. AIDS:

About the disease: AIDS is a short form of AQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIENCY


SYNDROME. This is caused by a retrovirus called HIV or Human Immuno Virus. AIDS is a condition of decreased immunity that results due to HIV-infection and many other secondary infections. This disease was firsts recognized as a distinct disease in California State of USA in 1981 and is considered the first great pandemic disease of the second half of 20th century. The disease appears to have begun in central Africa as early as 1950s and UN report in 200 estimates that, between 1981 and 2003, at least 70 million people have been infected with AIDS, 25 million people have already died and 40 million are still surviving with the disease. Among the whole infected persons, 60-70% belongs to Asian countries only. Adults between 20-49 years are mostly affected with this deadly disease. In India, about 5.5 million people were affected with AIDS. Maharashtra stands in first place and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka follows in respective order. It is very sad to know that India stands third place as nation with most number of AIDS affected persons, next only to South Africa and Nigeria.

Caused By: AIDS is caused by a retro-virus, HIV. It is an animal virus with

RNA as main genetic material. HIV is an enveloped virus, with an envelope surrounding the capsule. HIV has 2 molecules of RNA in the core. In general, there are 2 types of HIV. They are HIV1 and HIV2. The most common prevalent is HIV1 and HIV2 is relatively less and found in West Africa and rare elsewhere.

Incubation Period: For the disease to show all its symptoms and become fullfledged, 7-9 years time is taken.

Transmission: The virus is transmitted among human by any of the


following ways like sexual contact, Blood transfusion. Syringes/ needles and congenital transmission from mother to baby through placenta or only during delivery. HIV is blood-borne and can also be spread by sexual intercourse between homo-sexuals. {HIV specifically infects the T4-lymphocytes (or CO4 lymphocytes), a type of white blood cells. After attacking the host cell, HIV releases the core containing RNA molecules into the cytoplasm. These RNA molecules are used as template for synthesizing DNA in a process known as Reverse Transcription. The DNA thus forms integrated with host genome. Such viruses that integrate with their genetic material to host cell are called as LentiVirus (Pro Virus). Upon activation, the pro-viral DNA produces many copies of RNA around capsid and envelope. This results in production of daughter-viral particles. As the T4-lymphocyte cells burst, these daughter viral particles are released. They infect fresh T4 cells. As the number of T4 cells decrease, immunedeficiency sets in and in a condition of many secondary infections occurs lead to AIDS. Generally, there will be 1000-1200 T4- lymphocytes present in every cubic millimeter of blood. Greater the number of lymphocyte cells dies, greater the immunity deficiency occurs.} PROCESS According to recent estimates, 3.86 million Indians are living with AIDS. Among that, 84.45% cases are because of sex-related causes, 3.20% cases are due to taking drug injections, 3.18% cases are due to blood transfusion and 2.39% due to pre-natal transmission. 75% of infected persons are men. 50% of newly registered cases involve young men below age of 25. Every year, 22837 newly born children are getting AIDS and 11434 die due to it. In India, 160000 children are living with AIDS. According to early estimates, AIDS patients in India can rise to 25 million by 2010.

Symptoms in various stages: Immune deficiency develops in four stages.


Sero-conversion stage: This stage starts 15-30 days after the entry of the virus. The symptoms include flu-like illness, fever, headache, skin rash, night sweats and lymphadenopathy. The infected person will not be able to identify it. Therefore this stage may pass unnoticed. Early immune detection stage: This stage has the long duration in AIDS. The infected person is asymptomatic and remains to look healthy for a few years. In this stage, the person is capable of infecting others, peripheral nerves and cranial nerves are affected. They will be in a condition of degeneration. T4 count of 1000-1200 T4 lymphocytes before stage 2 is reduced to 500-700 by end of stage2.

Intermediate Immuno depletion stage: the number of T4 cells drop to 400200 for cubic millimeter of blood. In this stage, 1st phase infection appears. Painful sores are caused by fungus, severe athletes foot, whitish patches on tongue, tuberculosis also steps in. Advanced Immuno Depletion Stage: The number of T4 cells decrease below 200. Serious opportunistic diseases occur in this stage like pneumonia, toxoplasmosis in brain, meningitis. When T4 count reaches below 100, the person

is infected with CYTOMEGALOVIRAL RETINILES. A person within his stage dies within few months.

Symptoms in general: AIDS related complex (ARC) may develop in about

25% of people testing postitive to AIDS virus. ARC include loss of apetite, loss of weight (about 10% of bodys weight), fevers, persistent dry cough, white spots due to thrush (candidan Albicans), shingles, lymphoma (cancer of lymphatic system), pneumonia, Cryptosporidosis (severe diarrhea), tuberculosis and other diseases resulting from breakdown of the immune system.

Tests to confirm AIDS: To recognize AIDS, four different types of tests are

available. They are Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA test), Western Blott test, CD4 scan, Viral Load test.

Treatment: No accurate and proper treatment is available till today that can
eliminate HIV totally from the body. But using Chemotherapy, viral multiplication is controlled and suppressed to a larger extent. This is available as Anti-Retro Viral Therapy (ART). As on June 2007. 127 ART centers are in the country. The National AIDS control Organization (NACO) has set a target to increase this number to 250 by 2010 2011. AZIODOTHYMIDINE, ZETOVIR and NEVIRAPINE are some 1st line medicines given to AIDS patients by NACO. For those patients who develop resistance to these, production of 2nd line medicines was started by NACO in Thambaram of Chennai. Vanadium 200, Pifos tablets, Tuberculinum 200, Arsenikum Album 200, Sulphur 200 are the various drugs used to tackle individual secondary attacks during weakened immunity conditions. In India: In 1987, National AIDS Control Program was launched in the country. By the end of 1987, of the 907 people who had been tested, 135 people were found to be HIV positive and 14 had AIDS. By the end of 1980s- rapid spread of HIV was found in north east mainly due to injecting drugs. In 1992, the government of India set up NACO to oversee the formulation of policies, prevention and control programs relating to HIV and AIDS. In 2001, government adopted the National Prevention and control program of India launched 3 rd phase of NACP for period of 2006-2011. At present, there are 2.5 millions with HIV in country. India stands in 3rd position after South Africa (5.5 million) and Nigeria (2.9 million). According to UN report (UNAIDS) Nov 2007, worldwide 3.32 crores were living with HIV.

Prevention: Prevention is better than treatment. It is a million dollar

sentence that can protect lives from dangerous diseases like AIDS. There is no specific vaccine developed for AIDS. Hence focus should be on preventive measures. SAFE SEX: the major component of HIV measure heterosexual content. Awareness on safer sex is to be increased. Use of condoms should be encourages. Condoms made with latex rubber and sheep gut membrane are available. Condom is not a preventive measure, but it is also protective against many other sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Adolescent boys and girls should be given enough information about sex and STD. Sex-education should be made compulsory in all schools for high school students. People should cultivate ethics not to have sex before marriage. Monogamy, avoiding illegal sexual

contacts is must. Ban on brothels and prostitution will reduce the spread of these diseases. STERILIZATION OF MEDICAL TOOLS: Reusable medical instruments like syringes, needles, forceps, and rubber gloves should be steam sterilized at 120OC for 20 minutes. As far as possible, disposable instruments should be used. Government policies should be strictly followed in all blood banks and during blood transfusion. Blood- bottles should be labeled with HIV status. EDUCATING CIVILIANS: by shaking hands or by eating along with infected persons will not cause AIDS. Also, by kissing, hugging, working along with infected persons will not spread AIDS. Bathing in same water, using infected persons clothes also cause no harm. AIDS is also not transmitted by mosquitoes and discharges of mouth and nose (droplet infection). So, civilians should be educated on this content, so they will not cause any atrocities to the affected persons. Using medium of arts, people can be educated effectively. PUBLIC PROGRAMS: NACO and SAPCP should adopt methodologies to contain spread of HIV. Also, national and international sources like NSS, Red Cross, Lions club, Rotary should provide more funds to contain the spread of AIDS. In India, Pune National AIDS Research Institute is working on production of AIDS vaccine called CANDIDATE, which was put to test in 2004, with financial help of ICMR. Much progress still has to be made to eradicate this dangerous disease. 16. CHIKUNGUNIYA:

About Disease: The word Chikunguniya has been derived from a Swahili/
makonde word which means That which bends up. The name was given because of bent posture of affected person which results due to arthritic symptoms of the disease. Another name for it is BUGGY CREEK VIRUS. It is endemic in Africa and has been reported in parts of Asia. Chikunguniya was first discovered in TANZANIA in 1953. In India, it was first recorded in Kolkata, in 1963. That was followed by epidemics in Chennai, Pondicherry and Vellore (1964), Visakhapatnam, Rajahmundry and Kakinada (1965). It reemerged in India in 2005. Before this, it was last identified in Barsi (Maharashtra). It is believed that the virus entered India from islands in Indian Ocean like Mauritius, Mayotte, camoros etc. In 2006, the disease again became wide spread in states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and AP. By 2007, the virus spread was reduced and it is present only in Kerala now.

Caused By: Like dengue fever, Chikunguniya is also spread through

mosquito bites only. This A group virus is spread by mosquitoes of Aedes, Culex and Mamsonia genus. In India, it is spread mainly by mosquitoes like Aeses Aegepti (Yellow fever mosquito) and Aedes Albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito). The virus that causes Chikunguniya is Chikv virus. This belongs to genes of Alpha virus of the family Togaviridae. Chikv develops a typical arthritis in joints of the body. Virus after entering blood specially attacks the joints. Virus develops a condition of inflammation in the sinovial fluid present between joints. This is the reason for the cause of joint pains.

Incubation Period: 1 to 12 days. Types: Chikunguniya cases are clinically classified into two types. They are
Silent Chikunguniya and Active Chikunguniya. In silent Chikunguniya, virus infects but without any symptoms. In general, active Chikunguniya lasts for few weeks. But if it lasts for months and sometimes even years, it is called as chronic Chikunguniya.

Transmission: The spread is only through mosquitoes. Spread from one


person to another due to direct contact or touch has never been reported. Aedes agypti mosquito gets infected when it bites a person infected with disease. When this bits another healthy person, it transmits virus to him thus infecting him.

Symptoms: The common symptoms are high fever of order 102 degrees
Fahrenheit, headache, chills, nausea, vomiting, rashes, photophobia, and infection in conjunctiva in some. Rashes will be throughout parts of body. There will be severe pain in joints (Arthralgia) and severe muscular pain (Myalgia). Swelling of joints and stiffness is also seen. There is a slight effect on nervous system in children. Acute infection lasts for a few days to couple of weeks. Joint pain and fatigue lasts for several weeks in some patients.

Treatment: There is no vaccine for Chikunguniya. Symptoms are treated

rather than disease. PARACETAMOL is given to reduce fever in early stages. Later, if fever is continued, IBUPROPANE is used. To provide relief from joint and muscle pain, painkillers like Chloroquine Sulphate 200mg should be given. The disease is identified using IGM Antibody test in ELISA method. This disease should not be confused with dengue fever, as it is not as dangerous as dengue. Homeopathy medicines like Rustox, Cedron, Arnica, Belladona etc can be sued to cure Chikunguniya. Movement and mild exercise may improve stiffness and relief from morning joint pains.

Prevention: Best way to deal with Chikunguniya is Prevention. It should be


ensured that there is no stagnant water. To protect from mosquito bites, mosquito nets and coils should be sued. Insect repellants should be applied on exposed parts of body. Long sleeved and long legged dresses should be worn. Awareness has to be spread by government and non-government organizations about the possibility of mosquitoes breeding in stagnant water in domestic households and slums. Insecticides should be sprayed in open drains. Everyone should maintain their cleanliness and ensure hygiene and healthy environment to control diseases like Chikunguniya. 17. BIRD FLU:

About disease: Bird flu is also called AVIAN INFLUENZA. It is a respiratory

disease in birds caused by virus. The virus responsible for bird flu is generally seen in the intestine of wild birds and migratory birds, but they rarely gets effected by them. This disease is very contagious and can spread fast, especially in domesticated birds like poultry, ducks and hens. This disease was first identified in 1918-19 in Spain. Almost 5 crore people lost their lives during this out-break. In 1997, this disease again attacked Hong Kong.

In 2003, it got started in Vietnam. The recent attacks in 2006, caused great loss of poultry industry in Asian countries. In about ten Asian countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc, about 25 million poultry birds are culled. In Thailand, 2.6 crore poultry birds and in Pakistan 40 lakh birds were killed. In February 2006, the bird flu outbreak in India caused loss of Rs 35,000 crore poultry business. As of now, only 4 states in India got affected by Bird Flu till now. They are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur and West Bengal. In India, recent outbreak occurred in Jan 3 2008 in maragram (village), Birbhum (District) of West Bengal. The outbreak occurred within 2 months after WHO in Paris declared India Bird Flu free in Nov 2007. Last outbreak occurred in July 2007 in Chingmerong (Manipur).

Caused By: Bird flu can be classified into Mild Bird Flu and Sever Bird Flu.

The virus responsible for severe form is AVIAN INFLUENZA A VIRUS known as H5N1 Virus. H - means Haemagglutin and N means Neuraminidase. These are surface proteins on the virus. The presence of these proteins makes different virus strains like H1N1, H1N2 etc. the different protein combinations cause symptoms differently and respectively.

Symptoms: Birds with Mild Bird Flu, stop laying egg and show ruffled

feathers and no other symptoms. Symptoms of sever bird flu are watery secretion from nose and mouth, watery faceas / excreta, changes in movements, inability to lay eggs, and inflammation of neck and eyes. These birds die within a period of 48 hours. Such birds when found immediately should be isolated and doctor should be consulted. Once bird flu is confirmed, regular and continuous culling of symptomatic birds should be carried. This measure prevents further spread of virus. Very rarely, bird flu infects humans. In 1997, bird flu epidemic in Hong Kong about 330 persons infected with H5N1 died. Symptoms of Avian influenza are typical fever, cough, muscle pain, sore throat, gradual eye infection, pneumonia, severe respiratory diseases and other complications leading to death.

Transmission: The virus is spread through air, dust and fertilizers. Using
spoiled food for poultry and cattle, polluted water, unclean instruments and clothes will spread the virus. This disease affects mainly birds and wild fowls like ducks, geese, swans etc. Sometimes, these birds itself act as carriers. Wild fowls were healthy carriers; they spread it but are resistant to the disease. Virus spreads through nasal, oral, feacal and egg routes. Migratory birds are main carriers, spreading the flu over continents. In humans, there is no evidence of direct attack of H5N1. Eating meat and eggs of infected birds transmits the disease to humans.

Treatment: Medicines like RIMANTADINE and AMANTADINE are effective


against normal flu and can be used against H5N1 too. But they cannot control the virus completely. In such cases, special drugs that can inhibit H5N1 completely are prescribed. TAMIFLU (Oseltama Virus) and RELENZA (Zanam Virus) are such drugs.

Prevention: Effected and dead birds shouldnt be touched directly. Wearing


gloves is recommended. Poultry birds should not be allowed to enter the house. Children should be discouraged from collecting eggs from poultry and shouldnt be involved in dressing the chicken. Pregnant and children should be kept away from affected animals. Hands should be washed perfectly in case of contact with birds. Knives ans other instruments used in dressing should be thoroughly cleaned. One should not eat cooked and raw chicken together. Both chicken and egg are to be boiled up to 70 degrees centigrade before consumption. Any symptomatic bird should be immediately isolated. Once bird flu is confirmed, rapid and efficient culling of effected birds will prevent spreading of disease. Culled birds should be buried in ground in a place far away from habitation. 18. SWINE FLU:

About Disease: Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) were recent demonstrations of emergence of new infections with pandemic proportions from human-animal interface. The recent ongoing outbreak of Swine Flu is even more dangerous than all its predecessors. It is fast and spreading like fre all over the globe, from North to South. Swine flu was first identified in April 2009 in Mexico. Swine in Mexican language means PIG. The virus strain that causes fever in pigs mixes with viral strain in human through Genetic Reassortment. It attacks humans as INFLUENZA A (H1N1) virus. In June 2009, World Health Organization (WHO) announced the pandemic alert on swine flu by making it phase 6 disease. Phase 6 or Pandemic marks that disease is widespread over a whole country or large parts of the world. This is the highest of all the levels of danger in WHOs chart. Till now, in various countries, 2,14,289 persons got attacked by Swine Flu and 1,808 persons died due to the disease. America tops the chart with 45,926 persons affected and 436 persons dead. Other countries like Mexico, Brazil, Australia, Chile, Thailand, Canada, Peru, and Britain are major victims of Swine Flu. It took almost 2 months for this virus to reach India. Since June 2009, large number of Indians lost their lives because of Swine Flu. To be frank, the preventive measures of a populous country like India in controlling the virus are unsatisfactory and not up to mark.

Caused By: Swine Influenza Virus (SIV) of typeH1N1 strain causes Influenza

Swine Flu. H means haemagglutinin and N means neuraminidase. All influenza A viruses contain both H and N with strains assigned an H number and an N number depending upon the forms of the proteins (Ex: H1N1, H1N2, H5n1 etc). Swine flu is caused by A (H1N1) subtype. A worrisome possibility is that the new strain will mix with seasonal flu viruses to produce unpredictable strains, particularly with avian flu H5N1 virus to form a strain that spreads more easily. The genetic change that enables a flu strain to jump from one animal species to another, including humans, is called ANTIGENIC SHIFT.

Symptoms: Fever with body temperature above 102 degrees C. Headache,


running nose, pain in throat (inflammation), cough are major symptoms. Swelling on skin, body pains, nausea, vomiting, Diarrohea and digestion problems are other symptoms observed. In matured stage, death occurs due to failed

respiratory organs and choking. This attack can be fatal to persons of various categories like pregnant, patients suffering from Asthma, Cardiovascular diseases, obese and diabetes. Also, persons suffering with pneumonia are more in danger. People who smoke are easily prone towards viral attack.

Transmission: Just like any other flu, swine flu also spread very fatally. The

disease spread through droplet infection. Discharges from nose and mouth, throat spread the disease. In 1918, Spanish flu claimed lives of 4 crore people and in 1957, Asian flu caused death to 40 lakh people and in 1968. Hong Kong flu again was fatal to 40 lakh people. The recent swine flu is more dangerous than these and can cause massive destruction to life if not controlled. Hardly within one week of its identification in Mexico, it spread to coasts of America, Britain and Australia. Till now, above 2 lakh persons of 122 countries got affected with this swine flu strain H1N1.

Treatment: Drugs used for flu like TAMIFLU and RELENZA are sued to
control the disease. Anti-viral medicines like Admantin Remanditin 2, Neuraminidane etc are also used. To reduce fever and pains, Paracetamol is used. More liquid food and enough rest should be taken.

Prevention: best way to control swine flu is to prevent it. Prevention is


better than treatment, especially in case of swine flu. Avoiding roaming in crowded places is major step towards spread of disease. Wash hands regularly with soap. Drink maximum possible water in a day. Take enough rest and nutritious food. Keep ourselves active with body exercises. Wear Masks while travelling and working outside. Cover nose and mouth with hands while sneezing and coughing. Do not touch nose and mouth with hands to avoid spread. Take steps to improve immunity of the body.

1. c. Discuss in detail diseases caused by protozoa and their preventive measures. Protozoa are unicellular organisms. Some of these cause diseases and some act as parasites. They affect human through food or by vectors like flies and mosquitoes. They enter into human body and cause diseases like Malaria, Amoebiasis etc. details about various diseases are discussed below. PROTOZOAL DISEASES: 1. MALARIA:

About Disease: Malaria is one of the major diseases to mankind. This is


worldwide and is caused by parasites of Plasmodium species. In India, about 21 lakh malarial cases get registered every year. Due to this, it is causing lot of loss to economy and society. To tackle malaria, Indian government is even implementing National Malarial Elimination and Control Program (NMECP).

Malaria is derived from Italian words Mala means bad and aria means air. The cause for malaria, the protozoan parasite is first discovered by Charles Laveron. These parasites are discovered in human RBC by GOLGI. On 1897, Aug 20, Ronald Ross for the first time observed plasmodium in mosquito gut wall of

FEMALE ANOPHELES mosquito. Then, the role of the mosquito in spreading malaria was known to the world. To recognize this achievement, Aug 20 is declared as World malaria Day. Ronald Ross was also awarded with Nobel Prize in 1902 for his research. Malaria as a disease is described even in ancient days by Charaka and Hippocrates. But only by 1948, complete knowledge on malarial diseases and its medication came into use. Annually, 300-500 million people are getting malaria and about 1.1-2.7 are dying and in this children below 5 years of age are about 1 million. Malaria also indirectly causes respiratory diseases, malnutrition, diarrhea etc. According to National health survey of India, 3,697 of every 1 lakh people get this disease and on rural areas, 4,254 per lakh and in urban areas 2,156 per lakh are dying due to Malaria. Poor countries are 200 times more prone to Malaria than rich countries.

Caused by: Malaria is caused by protozoan parasite called Plasmodium.


Protozoans are unicellular organisms. Four species of plasmodium cause malaria in humans, they are: 1. PLASMODIUM VIVAX causing benign Tertian Malaria, one of the most common malaria and spans 3 weeks. 2. PLASMODIUM FALLIPARUM causing Malignant tertian malaria,w hich is fatal. 3. PLASMODIUM MALARIAE causing Quartan malaria of medium severity 4. PLASMODIUM OVALE causing Mild Tertian Malaria with mild fever.

Transmission: The malarial disease is spread by mosquito bites. FEMALE


ANOPHELES MOSQUITO is main vector carrying the disease. For malaria parasite to complete a life cycle, it needs two hosts. They are Man as primary host and FEMALE ANOPHELES MOSQUITO as secondary hosts. Infective stage in man starts with entry of sickle shaped sporozites of plasmodium. SPOROZITE of plasmodium (when bitten by infected mosquitoes), enters into liver of humans. They consume food stored n liver and develop into new stages known as CRYPTOZIDES. Later liver cells burst and these attack other new liver cells. From there they enter into red blood cells of man. They consume globin from haemoglobin in blood. Thus they grow in number. The haeme part is converted into toxin called HEMOZOIN. Meanwhile, new stages are developed called MEROZITES. The bursting of RBC releases both merozites and hemozin, which further infects more RBCs. The release of haemozin starts malarial symptoms. After many generations, some merozites develop into new stages known as Gaemtocytes, both male and female. When a female anopheles mosquito bites a malaria infected person, all the stages of plasmodium enter into gut of mosquito, but only gameotocytes survive. Gametocytes produce gametes in the crop of mosquito. In the crop, sperms developed from male gametocytes and eggs developed from female gametocytes unite to form Zygote.

The zygote then comes out of the crop and attached to the gut-wall. It develops into a mobile stage known as OOICINITE and latter forms a cyst around it to develop into SPOROBLAST. The nucleus of sporoblast divides and many sickle shaped microscopic sporozytes are developed. They release into salivary glands of mosquito. Such a mosquito, when bites a healthy person, releases sporozites into blood. The production of sporozites is called SPOROGENY.

Symptoms: After ten days high fever develops. Head ache, body pain,
nausea, recurrent chill fever, sweating are common symptoms. The fever suddenly gets down by sweating and recurs every time hemozoin is released. Hence, fever may be continuous, irregular or twice daily.

Treatment: Age old medicine QUININE is used in treatment of malaria. It is


obtained from bark of the tree CINCONA OFFICIANLIS. Most commonly administered drug is Quinine Sulphate. It is taken orally. Quinine dinitro chlorate is given to destroy the asexual parasite circulating in blood. Quinine Hydrochloride is effective in case of plasmodium falciparum. DARAPRIM has suppressive doses that act against all species of plasmodium. Specific vaccine is not developed so far for malaria; hence other preventive measures must be implemented.

Preventive Measures: The major preventive measure is protecting


ourselves from mosquito bites, adequate screening of household should be carried out and use of mosquito nets ca protect humans against mosquito bites to a greater extent. Use repellants either liquidators or ointments. Pyrethrum based insecticides are very effective against adult mosquito. Mosquitoes generally bredin stagnant waters, ponds, irrigation canals, stagnant municipal water as well as air coders. Therefore it is very important to eliminate such water bodies or keep the minimum aquatic vegetation if drainage is not possible. Destruction of mosquito larvae with oil spray or insecticide should be done. Larvicidal fish like Gambusia, Minnows, trouts etc should be introduced into stagnant water. Even insectivorous plants like Utriculria (Blackler wort) will serve the purpose. This measure is an example of biological control. Regular fumigation and fogging of insecticides is advised in malaria prevalent areas. Reproductive and genetic control mechanisms can also be employed to control the mosquitoes. Female and male mosquitoes when exposed to high concentration of X rays become sterile. Such sterile mosquitoes when released into atmosphere result in decrease of number of mosquitoes. Genome of

mosquitoes can be modified using genetic engineering so that it can be in viable and sterile. 2. DYSENTERY:

About disease: Dysentery is caused by polluted water and food. Severe

intestine infection caused by certain Amoeba and bacteria are termed as dysentery. Mexico, India, China, Bangladesh, Pakistan are worst effected by dysentery because of poor sanitation. Shiga Bacillus, Fleksnor Bacillus and Sone Bacillus are various bacterium that causes dysentery. But dysentery is caused by protozoal organisms like Amoeba are more dangerous. This type of dysentery is called as AMOEBIASIS/ AMOEBIC DYSENTERY.

Caused By: Common form of Amoebiasis is caused by ENTAMOEBA


HISTOLICA.

Transmission: It is spread through contaminated food and water. Uncooked


food, unhygienic food preparation causes this spread. Entamoeba Histolica lives in colon of the intestine. The life cycle includes 4 stages. They are: TROPHOZITE, PRECYSTIC STAGE/ MINUATA FORM, TETRANUCLEATE CYST and METACYST STAGE. Tropozhite is adult form. It lives in the intestinal tissues and regularly feeds on tissues as weill as blood cells. The tropozcite increases in its number by BINARY FISSIOn. After increase in number, the tropozites reach the lumen of colon and become rounder and smaller. This stage is known as precystic or minuata form. Immediately cyst wall is formed around minuata in a process. The nucleus inside the cyst divides twice to form tetranucleate cyst. The tetranucleate cyst are passed out of human body through defacation. If defacation is done in open areas, the tetranucleate cyst stages can reach and contaminate food and water via housefly and cockroaches. Even the patient can contaminate food and water with cyst. Scuh contaminated food and water is consumed and patient is infected with tetranucleate cyst. This stage passes through the small intestine. The cyst wall is dissolved in the process of Excystation. The new stages released are known as Metacystic stages. The core nuclei divide to form 8 daughter Amoebae known as Amoebulae. They enter the tissues and develop/ grow into tropozite.

Symptoms: Amoebic dysentery is characterized by severe diarrohea, in which


mucus and blood is excreted in stools. General symptoms include dispersia (indigestion), constipation, loss of apetite, flatulence, nervousness and weakness. In certain cases, intestinal ulcers occurs. If the tropozite enters the blood, they cause ulcers in liver, spleen, brain, kidney etc. Cutaneous Amoebaisis occurs when cystic stages accumulate around the anus as well as botox. Can lead to death also in extreme cases.

Treatment:

Amoebiasis is generally treated with parasite killer like Metronidazde, Diloxanide Furoate etc. in 400 mg, 2 times a day for 5 days. The above dosage is not applicable to children, pregnant and breast feeding women. If ulcers occur in internal parts, then treatment under direct supervision of doctor is suggested. water shouldnt be used for growing vegetables. Hygienic food handling and

Preventive measures: Human excretes shouldnt be used as manure. Sewage

preparation, prevention of spread by flies and No acceptable chemical prophylaxis are some more preventive measures. Good personal sanitation and high hygiene has to be maintained. One should regularly wash hands with soap before food consumption and after defecation. Contaminated food and water should be disposed off safely. Municipal authorities should concentrate on supply of pure and safe drinking water and improve sanitation facility. Milk should be avoided for few days after dysentery. Patient should not cook food. Health is Wealth, this should be everyones motto. 3. SLEEPING SICKNESS:

About disease: This disease is also called as TRYPANOSOMIASIS. Caused By: This disease is caused by Trypanosoma Gombians and
Trypanosoma Brusel, types of protozoa. Through lymph nodes, they enter into brain and settle there.

Transmission: This disease is spread by fly bite of TSE-TSE-FLY. Through


this, protozoa enter into healthy person and create Sleeping Sickness.

Symptoms: Lymph glands enlarge, fever, enlargement of spleen and liver


follows. Later parasite invades nervous system. Results in sleepiness and muscular spasms. In extreme conditions, may lead to mental retardation, coma and even death.

Control and Treatment: Tsetse flies live in restricted areas Fly Belts. Fly
screens on doors and windows, spraying of cattle, moving human settlement areas to areas cleared of flies etc are few control methods. Drugs to kill parasites in humans can be used (Eg: PENTAMIDINE). 4. DELHI BOILS OR ORIENTAL SOARS:

About disease: Delhi boils is also called as Oriental Soars. Caused By: This is caused by protozoa LISHMANIA TROPICA. This settle in
reticule Endothenial Cells present in skin.

Transmission: This disease is spread by bite of SAND FLY. Symptoms: Wounds (boils) form at places bitten by SAND FLY. They bite
mostly on face, hands and legs.

Control: Flies can be controlled by maintaining hygiene and clean environment


around us. Fly screens should be used on doors and windows. 5. KALA - AZAR:

About disease: It is also called as Black Sickness. Caused By: It is caused by a protozoal organism called Lishmenia
Donovane. They settle in Reticulo Endothileal cells of skin.

Transmission: Through bite of Sand fly or bit of female Plebatamos


Argentipes mosquito, protozoa enter the body.

Symptoms: Through liver and pancreas swelling, jaundice occurs. The colour of
total skin of body turns Black. Hence it is called Kala Azar.

Control: To control flies and mosquitoes are only ways to prevent this disease.
This disease is seen mostly in Bengal, Bihar, Assam, U.P, A.P and T.N. 6. GIYAROIYASIS (DIARRHEA):

Caused By: This disease is caused by protozoa called ZIYARDIA


INTESTINALIS. They settle in vagina portion or testes opening.

Transmission: from unclean and dirty sanitation and due to contamination of


food and water reaches man.

Symptoms: Diarrheal symptoms, fever, blood loss, allergy etc.


7. VAGINITIS:

Caused By: TRICHOMONAS VAGINALIS settles in private parts of man and


woman and causes this disease.

Transmission: Through womans vagina, attacks during sex. Also using


soiled towels and toilet commodities may cause this.

Symptoms: Itching in vagina, swelling of vagina and release of yellowish liquid


from vagina. 1. d. Discuss in detail diseases caused by fungi and their control measures. Fungi are eukaryotic Protista that differ from bacteria and other prokaryotes in many ways. Study of fungi is known as Mycology. Fungi cause various infections to man as discussed below: FUNGAL INFECTIONS: A) TINEA PEDIS: (ATHLETES FOOT)

About disease: Also called as Athletes foot disease. Caused By: Caused by fungus called TRYCOPHYTON. Transmission: Communal changing and bathing facilities with wet floor. Symptoms: Presence of sodden, peeling and cracked skin between toes. Often
persistent in hot summer months.

Control: Disinfection of communal bath and shower floors. Exclusion of infected


individuals. Drugs like Griseofulving Antibiotic are taken by mouth. B) TINEA CAPITITIS: (HEAD RINGWORM)

About disease: Also called as Head Ringworm. Caused By: Caused by fungi like Microsporom and trycophyton. Transmission: Highly contagious, direct contact by way of combs, brushes,
caps, hats etc.

Symptoms: Small scaly spot with broken hours. Spot increases in size, covered
with grayish scales, thicker at edges forming a distinct margin. Griseofulving Antibiotic are taken orally.

Control: Local application of fungicides as a variety of ointments. Drugs like


C) MATHURA FOOT:

Caused By: Caused by fungus called Mourella Micetome. Transmission: virus enters the skin through cuts and wounds. Symptoms: contagious disease happens in bodys lower parts. There will be
swelling and wounds. Chance of being handicapped. D) CANDIDA ABICANS(THRUSH):

About disease: Also called as CANDIDIASIS or THRUSH. Caused By: Caused by fungal organisms. Transmission: Can occur in mouth, vagina, intestine etc. Infection may arise
due to loss of acidity in vagina, for example during pregnancy or as a result of diabetes in humans. Infants can be infected in mouth region at birth.

Symptoms: Local infection of yeast organisms forming fluffy white patches. Red
inflamed skin under patch. Severe irritation.

Control: Search for underlying predisposing factor. Drugs used locally as lotions,
creams or pessaries (vaginal infection). Drugs like Amphotericin can be used. E) DOBI ITCH:

Caused By: Fungal organisms. Transmission: Using soiled articles of infected person. Sort of a ringworm
disease. parts.

Symptoms: Rashes red in color occurs; generally in between thighs and inner Control: Anti fungal ointments, personal cleanliness, hygiene environment, using
cleaned towels and utensils etc.

1. e. Discuss in detail diseases caused by helminthes parasites and their preventive measures. The bite of bugs belonging to family of Platy helminthes, Nematy helminthes parasites causes various infections in humans as well as animals. HELMINTHE PARASITE INFECTIONS: 1. TINIASIS:

Caused By: Tiniasis is caused by Tinia Soliam. It settles on small intestine


of man.

Transmission: Life cycle of the parasite has a part in pigs. When beef is
consumed by man; this enters into human stomach and settles on small intestine.

Symptoms: Indigestion, Diarrhea, loss of blood, nausea. Control: By cooking pigs meat at very high temperatures, at 100-130 degree C,
this can be controlled. 2. CYSTOSOMIASIS:

About disease: Also called as Bilhargiasis. Caused By: Caused by Cystosoma Haematobium. It settles in lower
intestines or urinal bladder.

Transmission: Life cycle of this parasite has part in snails (Bulinus) that lives
in fresh water. Parasites present in urinal bladder, reach snails through urine. During larvae stage, they get separated from snails and enter into water again. The tail of these larvae has fork shape. Due to this, they can enter easily into man. gets swollen. Blood will pass in urine without any pain. If this is neglected, there is danger of block if testis, causing disease called Fibrosisi, because of stocking up of calcium for 3-8 months. 3. ENCHILOSTOMIYASIS:

Symptoms: Swelling occurs at skin where larvae enter into body. Later, liver

About disease: Also called as Hook Worm Disease. Caused By: Caused by parasite Enchylosoma Duyodinel. It settles in small
intestine of humans.

Transmission: It is contagious infection. Through infected persons stool, the


parasites come out as Filariform Larvae. When man walks in places like that, without any slippers, this larvae gets inside him and infection occurs.

Symptoms: Dermatitis: the path in which larvae travels in body becomes red,

creating holes that cause itching, loss of blood, infected person turns pale, face becomes swollen, indigestion etc. 4. ASCARIASIS:

Caused By: Caused by parasite called Ascarsis Lumbricoidin. It settles in


small intestine of humans.

Transmission: It is contagious disease. Through larvae of the parasite and


from contaminated food and water this infection gets transmitted.

Symptoms: When this parasite infects man, they enter into lungs and cause

pneumonia. Fever like typhoid also occurs. Due to deficiency of vitamin A, proteins and malnutrition, Night Blindness happens. Also, Jaundice and Appendicitis infections may occur. 5. ANTEROBIASIS:

About disease: Also called as Pin Worm Disease. Caused By: Caused by parasite called Entaerobius Vermicularis. It settles in
Appendix, colon and Secum.

Transmission: It is a contagious disease. By consumption of contaminated


food and water that contain larvae of this parasite causes this infection.

Symptoms: At Anus skin disease like Exima occurs. Urine is passed out during

nights without knowledge. Lack of sleep. Due to itching, when infected person scratches, larvae re-enters and causes the disease again. 6. FILARIASIS:

About disease: Also called as ELEPHANTIASIS or ELEPHANT FOOT. Caused By: Caused by helminthes parasite called Ukraria Bankrath. They
settle in lymph nodes and lymph glands.

Transmission: A part of lifecycle of parasite is in mosquitoes. So, through


mosquito bites this infection occurs. Generally, Qulex Mosquitoes spread this disease. This is a contagious disease too. Through mosquito bite, larvae enter into skin and reach the lymph nodes. This larva grows big and long and settles in lymph nodes present in the legs. Due to this, leg turns swollen and fat. Hence it is called as Elephant Foot also.

Symptoms: Elephant foot, also hands, legs, schrotum, penis, lips, clitoris, breast
can be affected and turn big.

In India: Filaria is one of the major health issues in India. About 454 million
people in 18 states are prone to this infection. This is contagious disease and causes handicap for whole life. It is seen in Bihar, U.P, A.P, Orissa and T.N.

To prevent this, National Filaria Control Program was started in 1995. To tackle operations in unsurveyed places and to kill mosquitoes in larvae stage itself by spilling oils on contaminated waters. Also, growing fish that feed on this larvae as biological control. Under this program, 205 control units and 199 filaria units are being run by the government of India. SECOND TOPIC DISEASES PATH: DYSENTRY Check out in Protozoal diseases. CHOLERA Check out in bacterial diseases. TUBERCULOSIS Check out in bacterial diseases. MALARIA Check out in Protozoal diseases. HIV Check out in viral diseases. ENCEPHALITIS Check out in viral diseases. CHIKUNGUNIYA Check out in viral diseases. BIRD FLU Check out in viral diseases. a. Discuss about diarrhea and its preventive measures.

2.

About Disease: Diarrhea is a condition of passage of or loss of liquid stools

more frequently than usual. It is primarily a Gastro-Intestinal infection. Severe diarrhea may be life threatening due to fluid loss, mainly in case of infants and children. Diarrhea due to infection occurs worldwide and causes 4% of all deaths and 5% of health loss. It is killing about 2 to 2.5 million in developing countries annually. About 4 billion cases register worldwide. It is main killer of poor people. In South East Asia and Africa, diarrhea is responsible for as much as 8.5 and 7.5% of all deaths respectively. Diarrhea in children is mainly caused by ROTAVIRUS.

Types of Diarrhea: Diarrhea can be classified into two types they are: Active
and Chronic diarrhea. Active Diarrhea: Spans for 48 72 hours. Caused by: a. Viral Gastroenteritis: Caused by several viruses, leading to inflammation of stomach and intestine.

b. Food Poisoning/ Botulism: Illness caused by bacterium Clostridium


Botulinum. Botulinum toxin produced by the bacterium causes the small intestine to release large amount of water leading to diarrhea.

c. Travelers diarrhea: Tourists from temperate countries, when visit tropical

countries are susceptible to infection by Entero toxegenic Coil (ETC) present in fruits, vegetables, sea-foods, raw meat, water, ice cubes etc. This causes sudden onset of diarrhea.

d. Bacterial Enterocolitis: Is inflammation of small interstine and colon by


various bacterias.

e. Cholera diarrhea: Caused during severe form of cholera because of infection


by vibrio cholerae. Chronic Diarrhea: Lasts for 2-3 weeks and even longer. Chronic diarrhea is due to chronic intestinal inflammation as observed in CROHNs DISEASES. Excessive

consumption of fruit juices, metabolic disorder like thyro-toxicosis and diabetes, excessive consumption of alcohol, coffee, sweets, lactose intolerance; wheat gluten intolerance; chronic pancreatitis resulting in fatty stools and also due to prolonged administration of antibiotics.

Symptoms: Loss of appetite, indigestion, Nausea/ vomiting, stomach pain,


abdominal cramps, dehydration, fever, frequent water motion, dark urine etc.

Treatment: Treatment with antibiotic is rarely needed and may cause side
effects like chronic diarrhea. In case of active diarrhea, it could be advisable to drink 4-5 litres of water, preferably with sugar and salts. Readymade ORS may be used. Water should be continuously taken till urine change in light color. Soups that contain salts should be taken. Anti-diarrhea agent like LOPERAMIDE is advisable.

Preventive measures: Good personal hygiene should be maintained. One


should regularly wash hands with soap before taking food and after defecation. Contaminated food and water should be avoided. Municipal authorities should concentrate on supply of safe drinking water and improve sanitation facilities. Milk should be avoided for at least 3 days after diarrhea is controlled. Milk has to be pasteurized before use. Patient should not be allowed to cook food. 3. a. Discuss about preventive measures to be taken during various disease out breaks.

To prevent infections through air transmission: TB, flu like bird flu, swine flu
etc are transmitted through air. Wearing masks and maintaining clean and healthy environment is important. To prevent TB, BCG vaccines should be given to children.

To prevent infections through contaminated water: Through polluted water,


infections like cholera, typhoid, amoebiasis are spread. Drinking boiled and filtered water is main prevention mechanism. Vaccines for diseases like cholera should be taken. Government should supply drinking water after proper chlorination and filtration.

To prevent infections due to bites of flies and mosquitoes: Malaria is


caused by bite of female anopheles mosquito. Gambusia fish is grown in water so that it eats larvae present in contaminated water. On polluted water, kerosene or oils are sprayed to kill mosquito larvae. Mosquito nets and coils should be used. Food should be protected from flies and mosquitoes. Should live in clean and hygiene environment. Applying insect repellant ointments like odomos on exposed parts of body. persons, stop using articles of infected persons will control further spread. PERSONAL HYGIENE, CLEANLINESS, SANITATION, VACCINATION, DISCIPLINE, CLEAN ENVIRONMENT, TREATMENT AT RIGHT TIME etc. are common and most important preventive measures for all kinds of disease outbreaks.

To prevent infections due to direct contact: Staying away from infected

x---- END OF UNIT4 ---x

UNI T -v
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Introduction to Immunity POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

a. What is Immunity? Discuss about


different types of Immunity? Discuss in detail about viral diseases and their preventive measures.

b. List out the differences between


types of Acquired Immunity. 2. Fundamental vaccination concepts in a. Discuss about vaccination, its history and its types. b. detail about vaccines. Discuss various types in of

c. Discuss about derivation of vaccine using plants. d. Discuss in detail, the immunization scheme in India and safety measures to be followed during vaccination. 3. Traditional Methods of Vaccine Production & Production of DPT & Rabies Vaccine a. Discuss the preparation of DPT vaccine.

4. 5. TOTAL

b. Discuss the method of preparation of rabies vaccine. Production of Modern Vaccines a. Discuss the preparation of any Hepatitis Vaccine modern vaccine. Applications of Immunological a. Discuss how methods in diagnosis various immunological methods are used in diagnosis. TOPICS 5 QUESTIONS 10

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. What is Immunity? Discuss about different types of Immunity?
In process of evolution, the body of organisms has developed the property of distinguishing self and non-self self is accepted and non-self is rejected or

degraded. For rejection or degradation of non-self organisms body has evolved a remarkably versatile defence system called IMMUNE SYSTEM This system operates through various mechanisms which are collectively grouped under the name of Immunity or Resistance (Defence). The Immunity is therefore in susceptibility of body to effect of non-self factors like pathogen micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, virus and parasites) and their toxins and other kinds of foreign substance. The Latin term immunis means exempt is the source for word immunity. It is generally understood to mean protection from infectious disease. The branch of biology that deals with immunity or resistance is called IMMUNOLOGY. Immunity or Immune Response that operate in body against microbial pathogens and other foreign substances are fundamentally of two types. They are INNATE (Non-Specific or Natural) Immunity & ACQUIRED (Specific or Adaptive) Immunity. TYPES OF IMMUNITY:1) INNATE IMMUNITY: It is also called as Non-specific or Natural Immunity. It refers to inborn ability of body to resist and is genetically transmitted from one generation to next. This immunity offers resistance to any micro-organism or foreign material encountered by the host. It includes general mechanisms inherited as part of innate structure and function of each vertebrate and acts as first line of defence. Innate Immunity lacks immunological memory i.e., it occurs to same extent each fine a micro-organism or foreign material is encountered. Innate Immunity can be divided into species, Racial and Individual Immunity. [Ex. for Innate Immunity is skin, phagocytes, killer cells, antimicrobial bodies, sneeze, cough etc.] Species Resistance (Immunity) is that in which a disease affecting one species do not affect other species. For example, humans do not contact cattle plague, chicken cholera, hog cholera, infectious horse anemia etc, while animals are not affected by many human diseases such as enteric fever, scarlet fever, syphilis, measles etc. Racial Immunity is that in which various races (breeds) show marked differences in their resistance to various infectious diseases. For example, Brahman Cattle are resistant to protozoan parasite responsible for tick fever, where other breeds of cattle are not. Similarly, Black Africans affect to sickle cell anemia, a genetic disease, are resistant to malaria, while malaria affects other human races. Individual Immunity means immunity of individuals of same racial background and opportunity for exposure, differs from one another. For example, children are more susceptible to diseases such as measles and chicken pox, while aged individuals are susceptible to diseases like pneumonia. 2) ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: It is also called as specific or adaptive immunity. It refers to an immunity that is developed by host in its body after exposure to a suitable antigen or after transfer of antibodies or lymphocytes from an immune donor. Acquired immunity is highly adaptive and is capable of specifically recognizing and selectively eliminating foreign macromolecule and immunity to one type of antigen does not confer resistance to others. To be clearer, it is ability of antibodies to differentiate between antigen molecules differs even by a single amino

acid. The basic characteristics of Acquired Immunity are specificity, Diversity and Memory. Specificity means acquired immunity is extremely antigen specific, as it act against a foreign body. Diversity means acquired immune system generates tremendous diversity in recognition of molecules. As a result, it is able to specifically recognize billion of different structures on foreign antigen. Memory means, once acquired immune system has recognized and responded to an antigen, it is able to respond to this antigen more quickly and strongly following a subsequent exposure. This is due to constitution of immunologic memory that makes basis for long term immunity in body of host. Immune system always will be able to discriminate between self and non-self antigens.

The acquired immune system of body performs the following three major functions: i) It has to recognize anything that is foreign to the body. The foreign material is called non-self. The recognition system of acquired immunity is so highly specific that it is able to differentiate one pathogen from another, cancer cells, and even bodys own self proteins from foreign non-self proteins. ii) After recognizing the foreign invader, the acquired immune system responds to the invader by recruiting its defensive molecular and cells to attack. This response is

called EFFECTOR RESPONSE. It either eliminates the invader or makes it harmless to host and thus protect the body from disease. iii) The acquired immune system remembers the foreign invader even after its first encounter. If the same invader affects again, the system provides more strong and intense resistance due to its rapid memory. This response is called ANAMNESTIC RESPONSE. This eliminates invader from second attack and protects host from disease. Acquired Immunity is further classified into Active Acquired Immunity & Passive Acquired Immunity. Active Acquired Immunity is again classified as Natural Active & Artificial Active Immunity. Similarly, passive Acquired Immunity is classified as Natural Passive & Artificial Passive Immunity. They are discussed in detail below. ACTIVE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: This results due to exposure of antigen and followed by production of antibodies. This is of two types. They are:

a) Natural Active Acquired Immunity: Immunity which we get by natural

infection of body by a pathogen. (E.g. Chicken pox, Chikunguniya etc). When these viruses enter the body, antibodies are developed and they provide resistance for life time. This immunity is obtained as a response to antigen introduced by vaccination. Vaccines involve attenuated, killed or processed pathogens with antigens that dont cause disease but can induce immunity for life-time (Ex:-Polio Vaccination)

b) Artificial Active Acquired Immunity:

PASSIVE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: It is the immunity that a non-immune individual acquires by receiving anti-bodies from another immune individual. This may be natural or artificial.

a)

Natural Passive Immunity: The immunity transferred from mother to child in form of antibodies during pregnancies through placenta and after birth through milk is known as Natural Passive Immunity. Artificial Passive Immunity: Transfer of immunity in form of antibodies from an immunized donor to the non-immunized recipient is known as Artificial Passive Immunity. The good example is Anti Tetanus Serum, produced in horse. ATS contain antibodies towards tetanus that are produced in horse.

b)

ANTI-BODIES: Anti-bodies are also called as Immunoglobins (Ig). There are generally 5 types of anti-bodies. They are: 1.IgM 2.IgG 3.IgA 4.IgD. 750 billion types of anti-bodies can be produced by out body. IgG is the most significant and abundant anti-bodies. IgE is during allergies (immediate hyper-sensitivity) and IgA is during secretion. Anti-bodies are antigen specific molecules. The first anti-body released after any pathogenic infection is IgM, IgG is most abundant, immunology present in the blood. IgA is most abundant immunoglobin in body, secretions like tears, milk semen etc. IgE immunoglobin that participates in immediate type hyper sensitives or allergies. IgD is immunoglobin released in minor amounts with out any function (Particular function). [JUST FOR KNOWLEDGE]

The whole types can be summarized along with various characteristics as in table below:
Immunizing Agents Nature of Immunity Dose required Relative duration of Source of Antibodies Self

Immunity

Type

Origin

Function Therapeutic (caused to treat established disease) Prophylactic (caused to protect against disease)

Natural Active ACTIVE Artificial Active

Antigens

Natural

Clinical or small sub clinical disease Toxoid or small vaccine Passive across placenta b/w mother & foetus Serum rich with antibodies

Small

Long

Antigens

Intentional

Small

Long Short (3-6) months or some times (12-15) months Short (2-3 weeks)

Self

Natural Passive PASSIVE Artificial Passive

Antibodies

Natural

Large

Other than self

Prophylactic

Antibodies

Intentional

Large

Other than self

Therapeutic

Based on particles that provide immunity, Immunity can be divided into two types. These are infact can be called as branches of acquired immunity. They are (i) Humoral Immunity & (ii) Cellular or Cell-Medicated immunity. HUMORAL IMMUNITY: It is based on action of soluble proteins called antibodies produced by B-lymphocytes. In this type of immunity, B-lymphocytes synthetic anti-bodies in response to detection of antigens and these anti-bodies counteract with those antigens. Anti-body immunity is often referred to as Humoral immunity because the anti-body molecules flow extra cellular through the blood and other vital body parts which are called humors in Greek. CELLULAR (OR) CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY: The cell-mediated or cellular immunity is that, where the T-lymphocytes destroy other cells having antigens on their surface without any mediation by anti-bodies. Immunity obtained by work of both T-lymphocytes & B-lymphocytes is technically termed as SPECIFIC IMMUNITY. 1. b. List out the differences between types of Acquired Immunity.

Acquired immunity can be classified as Active Acquired Immunity & Passive Acquired Immunity. Their differences are listed out in the table gives below: Sl. No 1. 2. 3. 4. ACTIVE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY Active immunity is produced actively by hosts immune systems as a result of stimulation by antigen. It is induced by microbial infection or by contact with antigens. It lasts long Active immunity is effective only after period of time, required for generating antibodies and /or Immuno competent cells. This period of time is called lag period There is often a negative phase during active immunity development. During negative phase the level of measurable immunity is lower than that of before the antigenic stimulus. Active immunity enjoys immunological memory due to which subsequent challenge secondary response) in host is more effective. It proves to be more effective and confers better protection of the host Active immunity does Immuno deficient host. not work in PASSIVE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY Passive immunity is transferred from one host to another i.e., it is received passively by the host. It is conferred by antibody administration in host. It lasts short. Passive immunity does not possess any negative phase.

5.

Passive immunity does not possess any negative phase.

6.

7. 8.

Passive immunity licks immunological memory. Subsequent administration of antibodies is less effective due to immune elimination. It is less effective and produces comparatively inferior protection of host. Passive immunity works in Immuno deficient hosts.

2.

a. Discuss about vaccination, its history and its types. The term vaccine is derived from the latin word Vacca, which means Cow. The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of Memory of the immune system. Vaccines are preventive medicines that are administered orally, intravenously before any infection. A vaccine is nothing else about whole or part of pathogen which have been processed or modified in such a way that it has lost its capacity to produce the disease, but still can induce immunity when introduced into the body. Vaccination is the process of giving vaccines/ shots to children or adult so that they develop immunity against a particular disease. In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogens or inactivated/ weakened pathogens (vaccine) is introduced into body. These antigens generate the primary immune response, and the memory B and T cells. When the vaccinated person is attacked by the same pathogen, the existing memory T or B cells recognize the antigen quickly and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of lymphocytes and antibodies.

EDWARD JENNER, an English physician, in his landmark experiment in 1796 scratched the skin of a boy to introduce into his body the fluid from a sore of milkmaid who was suffering from cow pox. When this boy was later exposed to small pox, he showed resistance to the disease. Louis Pasteur, a French scientist, found that ageing cultures of cholera bacteria were too weak to cause disease when injected to chickens, but chickens injected with these cultured become immune to fowl-cholera using this method. Pasteur later developed a vaccine against rabies in 1885. An ideal vaccine should be with following features. It should not be tumorogenic or toxic or pathogenic, i.e. it should be safe. It should have very low levels of side effects, e.g. fever following immunization etc. in normal individuals. It should not cause problems in individuals with an impaired immune system. It should not spread either within the vaccinated individual or to other individuals (i.e. vaccines). It should not contaminate the environment. It should be effective in producing long lasting Humoral and Cellular Mediated immunities. The technique of vaccination should be simple. The vaccine should be cheap and easily affordable. So far, no vaccine developed can be called as Ideal Vaccine. Immunization is either active or passive. In active immunization, the appropriate antigen preparation is introduced into the concerned individuals. This evokes an immune response in individual leading to development of Humoral and Cellular Mediated immunities. In case of passive immunization, on the other hand, antibodies produced provide immunity against concerned individuals. As a consequence, passive immunity has short life. Monoclonal antibodies can be used for passive immunization. Prevention of diseases is most desirable, most convenient and highly effective approach to health than getting treatment after receiving disease. This can be possible only through vaccination or immunization using biological preparations called vaccines. There are different types of vaccines. Live Attenuated Vaccine, Killed/ Inactivated Vaccine, Toxoid Vaccine, Sub-Unit/ Component Vaccine and Recombinant Vaccine etc are different types of vaccines based on preparation methods. 2. b. Discuss in detail about various types of vaccines. Vaccines can be grouped into three types. They are: i. Conventional vaccines. ii. Purified Antigen vaccines and iii. Recombinant vaccines.

Classification of Vaccine types

Conventional Vaccines: They consist of whole pathogenic organisms, which may either be Killed (most bacterial and some viral vaccines), or live with attenuated pathogens whose virulence is greatly nullified. Conventional vaccines are produced in wither whole animals or cultured animal cells. Conventional vaccines, although highly effective, but are at high cost. Conventional vaccines can be classified as given below:

1.

Live Vaccines: These vaccines are usually created from naturally occurring pathogens like viruses. These are prepared by weakening or attenuating the pathogen. Such a pathogen, when introduced is capable of inducing immunity and immunological memory, but not inducing the disease. Ex: Oral polio vaccine (OPV), DPT vaccine, BCG vaccine, Varicella(chicken pox), Mumps vaccine, attenuated measles vaccine etc.

2.

Killed/ Inactivated Vaccines: These vaccines are completed with inactivated pathogens that when introduced into body cannot cause any disease, but induces immunity and Immuno biological memory. These vaccines should be taken more times for better immunity. Ex: Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV), Rabies Vaccine, Influenza Vaccine.

3.

Toxoid Vaccine: Toxoid vaccines are prepared by treating the vaccine with chemicals lie formalin (40% - HCHO) to destroy their ability to cause illness. Ex: Diptheria Toxoid Vaccine etc. Purified Antigen vaccines: These vaccines are based on purified antigens isolated from the concerned pathogens, i.e. these are non-recombinant. Since they do not contain the organism, the risk of pathogenicity is avoided. Examples of such vaccines are mostly from bacteria, ex: vaccines based on Polysaccharide Antigens from the bacterial cell wall capsules of Neisseria Meningitis for Meningitis Vaccine and pneumonia etc.

Recombinant Vaccines: Recombinant vaccines are antigenic preparations developed based on recombinant DNA technology. The desired gene for antigen is isolated from pathogen and cloned in a suitable host. Such host cells can be grown from production of more antigens using fermentation process. [Ex: Hepatitis vaccines]. Recombinant vaccines can be further classified into: DNA vaccines: These belong to third generation of virus vaccines. The gene encoding the relevant immunogenic protein is isolated, clones and then integrated into a suitable expression vector. This preparation is introduced into individual to be immunized. The gene is ultimately expressed in the vaccinated individual and the immunogenic protein is expressed in sufficient quantities to invoke both humoral and cell-mediated immunities. Using DNA vaccine is advantageous, because purification and preparation of DNA vaccines is easier, cheaper and more rapid. They are safer and more specific because of high purity, and they elicit a more potent immune response than purified protein vaccines.

1.

Recombinant Proteins or Sub-unit vaccines: Vaccines that are prepared by using only a part of pathogen (preferable antigen) are known as sub-unit or component vaccine. Such sub-unit vaccines have antigen conjugated with proteins. It is better method of vaccine production since only a part of pathogen and not the whole pathogen is introduced. The vaccines are based on recombinant proteins i.e. proteins produced by recombinant DNA technology are Sub Unit Vaccines. Ex: Haemophilius Influenza Type B (HiB) vaccines, Hepatitis vaccine etc. Recombinant protein vaccines are further classified as:

2.

1. Using whole protein molecule: Complete immunogenic proteins obtained from


genetically engineering methods, cultured animal cells are used in preparation.

2. Polypeptide: Only an immunogenic portion of protein obtained from genetic

engineering method is used as vaccine. For example, the immunogenicity of footand-mouth disease virus coat proteins due to its amino acids 114-160 and also 201-221. Segments of proteins containing either of these two amino acid sequences are effective in immunization. They induce antibodies which neutralize the virus and thereby provide protection against foot and mouth disease. But, their cost is high since they are produced by either bacterial fermentation or in animal cell cultured and should be stored at very low temperatures.

These are different types of vaccines produced so far, for the purpose of immunization procedure. 2. c. Discuss about derivation of vaccine using plants. Vaccines are produced using pants and their parts are called as Plant Derived Vaccines. Many efforts are being carried out in various countries to develop such vaccines. The main objective is to: (1) develop edible vaccine and (2) Production of recombinant antigenic protein to be used as vaccine.

Edible vaccines are produced from transgenic plants, trough which an orally active antigen of the target pathogen is expressed and accumulated which is fed to animals/ humans for immunization against the pathogen. Antigens of several pathogens (e.g. enteric pathogens) produce immunogenic response when delivered orally; such antigens are good for edible vaccines. The gene encoding the orally active antigenic protein is isolated from the pathogen and a suitable construct for constitutive or tissue-specific expression of the gene is prepared. An example of an edible vaccine provided by the E-coli heat labile enterotoxin (LT), B subunit (LT-B) is expressed in potato. The heat labile toxin (LT) produces diarrhea and is structurally, functionally and antigenically very similar to the cholera toxin (CT). Both LT and CT are excellent oral vaccines as they stimulate immune response against other antigens fed with them. The honey made from the nectar of such transgenic plants is expected to contain the immunogenic protein and will serve as a vaccine when consumed. Plants also can be used to produce RECOMBINANT AND SUB UNIT VACCINES. Plants can serve as efficient production systems for antigenic recombinant and subunit proteins, which can be purified as vaccines. It is expected that production costs by plant will be much lower than those by bacterial fermentation. There are two distinct strategies for the production of recombinant antigens in plants. They are (1) integration of the transgene into plant genome, and (2) expression as a coat protein fusion of a plant virus. Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) gives high yield thermo stable vaccines and is easily purified. The recombinant CPMV particles displaying the HIV-1 epitope in their S-coat proteins were immunogenic in mice. In addition, the antibodies raised against this recombinant CPMV were able to neutralize three different strains of HIV-1. Further development may be able to produce plant virus based vaccines for human use. Thus far, over a dozen antigens of pathogen origin have been expressed with a view of using them in vaccines. Examples of such antigens are (1) rabies virus glycoprotein, (2) CT-B toxin, (3) for and mouth disease antigen etc. three antigens, namely, LT-B, HBSAg and NVCP (Norwalk virus capsid protein) have been successfully expressed in transgenic potato and are currently undergoing human clinical trials. The result of the first human clinical trial suggests that LT-B can induce mucosal and systematic immune responses. 2. d. Discuss in detail, the immunization scheme in India and safety measures to be followed during vaccination. Vaccine production was started in India by public sector, Haffkine Institute in 1899, Central Research Institute (Kasauli) in 1905 and Pasteur Institute of India (Coconoor) in 1907. These three institutes used to produce vaccine against Cholera, plague and rabies. The central drugs laboratory (Kasauli) has been entrusted with testing and pre-release certification of vaccines meant for UN agencies. Vaccine production board was continued in 1976 to assess and monitor the status and quality of vaccine production. At Noida, National Institute of Biology is being set-up to provide national level quality center for biological products of international quality. All these and many other private organizations are shedding their efforts to provide vaccines for purpose of Vaccination or Immunization. Government of India announced the immunization programmers for children of nation and provides

vaccine to prevent six major preventable diseases like Tuberculosis, Diptheria, Pertusis, Tetanus, Polio and Measles. In India, the expanded programme of immunization (EPI) was launched in 1978 to control vaccine preventable diseases (VPDS). The EPI includes three shots of TETANUS TOXIDE to pregnant that prevents both the mother and child from tetanus. After birth of the child, GoI recommends/ provides vaccines for the following diseases TB, Polio, Diptheria, Wooping cough, Tetanus, measles, Hepatitis B vaccine. Schedule: Birth to fifteen days {BCG + OPV} (Zero dose) + HepB 1 Six to eight weeks (OPV - 1) + (DPT 1) + Hep B2 Ten to twelve weeks OPV 2 + DPT 2 Fourteen to sixteen weeks OPV 3 + DPT 3 Six months of age Hep B3 Nine months completed Measles vaccine Fifteen to eighteen months booster dose of OPV + DPT Four to six years OPV 2 Booster Ten years Tetanus Toxoid Sixteen years Tetanus Toxoid These vaccines are minimum number of vaccines that an individual should take. Indian Academy of Pediatrician recommended following vaccines:

Six to eight weeks HiB (1st dose) Ten to twelve weeks - HiB (2nd dose) Fourteen to sixteen weeks - HiB (3rd dose)
Fifteen to eighteen months MMR (Measles + Mumps + Rubella) + Hib booster SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: Vaccines can be given to a child who is suffering with mild fever or cold. But if the fever is severe, the vaccination should be postponed till recovery. The most important thing in vaccination is regularity. One has to immunize the child according to the calendar. The vaccination card should be taken every time to the doctor and after vaccination; one should ensure the entry in the card. One has to remember the next date for vaccination. One has to understand properly the implication of giving or not giving vaccines that are under optional category. The child can be fed, including breast feeding, before and after vaccination. There is no need for the child to starve. Firm pressure for few minutes at the injection site should be applied with spirit, massaging etc. it is better to wait and observe the child for thirty minutes after vaccination so that if any reaction develops, doctor can be contacted immediately. It is normal that patient gets pain, redness and swelling at injection site. Most of he vaccines are very safe. Rarely a nodule may form at injection site. Following DPT vaccine, child may develop mild or moderate fever, which usually responds to paracetamol. Aspirin should be avoided. Patients who show severe reaction to previous immunizations should not receive vaccine again. Individual with severe egg allergies shouldnt be given MMR-Vaccine.

Individuals with decreased immunity should not be given live attenuated vaccines. One should take inactivated forms of such vaccines. Any number of vaccines can be given on same day at separate sites. But, if not given on same day, there should be gap of 2-4 weeks between any two vaccinations. Extra doses of OPV in pulse immunization are a noted exemption. Even vaccines like rabies are exemptions to this rule, where 5 shots are given within 25 days of period. 3. a. Discuss the preparation of DPT vaccine. DPT vaccine is preventable medicine for DIPTHERIA, PERTUSIS (or whooping cough) and TETANUS. Hence it is known as Triple Antigen/ Triple vaccine. All these three diseases are caused by bacteria. The triple vaccine includes two toxoid diphtheria and tetanus toxoid and one inactivated Pertusis vaccine. The three vaccines are first produced separately and then mixed in suitable composition for developing triple vaccine. Diphtheria is caused by bacterium called Corni Bacterium Diptherium. This bacterium release a toxin called diphtheria toxin. The toxin is inactivated completely by subjecting to action of formalin/ beta propiolactone. Once inactivated, the toxin becomes toxoid. It is then tested for purity and safety. Pertusis/ Wooping cough is caused by bacterium called Bordello Pertusis. The Pertusis is prepared by inactivating bacteria in cultures. The activation is mostly done by subjecting the bacterial cells to the action of formalin/ cultures. Hence, Pertusis vaccine contains inactivated bacterial cells. Tetanus is caused by bacteria called Clostridium Tetani. This releases toxin tetanospaimin, which is responsible for typical effects. Tetanus toxoid is prepared by inactivating toxin with chemicals like formalin/ beta propiolactone. The above vaccines prepared separately and then mixed produced DPT vaccine, a triple antigen. The method involved includes absorbing the three vaccines to Aluminum Phosphate chemical and mixing it with NaCl suspension. Every 0.5 ml of DPT vaccine includes 25% of diphtheria toxoid, 4% of Pertusis and 5% of tetanus toxoid. A suitable preservative like Thiomercan is mixed in 0.01%. the vaccine finally prepared is tested for its purity, safety and potency before its release. The vaccine is stored below 10 degrees centigrade and can be used till the period of 36 months. Serum Institute of India, Pune produces large amount of DPT vaccine in the country. DPT vaccine dosage should be followed regularly to protect children from these harmful bacterial diseases. First dose of DPT should be given in between 6-8 weeks of age. Second dose of DPT should be given in between 10-12 weeks of age. Third dose of DPT should be given in between 14-16 weeks of age. Later, a booster dose of DPT should be given after 15-18 months of age. 3. b. Discuss the method of preparation of rabies vaccine. Rabies is a neuro-muscular disorder caused by Lysa Virus of the family Rhabdoviridae. The virus is transmitted to humans generally by the bite of animals like dogs, cats, bats, squirrels and foxes. The virus is generally present in the blood and saliva of infected animals. After entering human body, virus develops into

skeletal muscles first and then reaches central nervous system. In last stage, virus damages the medulla oblongata and leads to respiratory failure and death. This is dangerous disease and can be prevented by Rabies Vaccine. RABIES VACCINE is prepared by attenuation and inactivation of the virus. The most common and widely used method for vaccine production is PURIFIED VEROCELL RABIES VACCINE (PVRV) METHOD. The production if vaccine in this method involves two basic steps. They are Attenuation and Inactivation. ATTENUATION of lysa virus is carried out by passing it through various generations of vero cells. A verocell line is a culture of cells established from a primary culture of Vervet Monkeys (AETHIOX) kidney cells. After getting passed through 130-140 generations, the virus is successfully weakened. The second step involves INACTIVATION, purification and production of final vaccine. This is carried out in following steps:

1. Clarification of the virus: The viral suspension obtained after attenuation is


clarified by filtration through 0.45 micro M membrane filter. 2. Concentration of the Virus: The viral suspension is then concentrated by 10-25 folds by ultra centrifugation. 3. In-Activation of the virus: The virus suspension is inactivated by betapropiolactone. After inactivation, the virus suspension is stored at -40 degrees centigrade. 4. Purification: The purification of virus is done by Sucrose-Density Centrifugation. The purified fractions are diluted with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and again clarified by fertilization through a 0.45 micro meter membrane. The samples are then stored at -40 degrees centigrade. 5. Production of Bulk Vaccine: The bulk vaccine is prepared by mixing the purified virus with 5% human serum albumen. The concentration of the virus is then adjusted to 2.5 international unit/ ml (IUML) and then filtered through 0.45 micro meter membrane. 6. Production of the final vaccine: The final vaccine is prepared by distributing bulk vaccine in 1 ml amount into bottles freezed, dried and sealed. The final vaccine should meet the requirements for human vaccine prepared in cell lines published by WHO. Each final lots of vaccines produced should be tested for purity, safety and potency. The vaccine may be used up to 36 months from date of release when kept between 2-8 degrees centigrade. 4. a. Discuss the preparation of any modern vaccine. Preparation Procedure of hepatitis B VACCINE From unit 1 (TOPIC 1), Question 3. Schematic Diagram is given below:

5. a. Discuss how various immunological methods are used in diagnosis. The diagnosis based on immune reaction is known as Immune Diagnosis. Many immunological techniques are developed to identify the pathogen in the form of antigen and anti body. Hence, diagnostic test based on antigen, antibody reaction is called Immunodiagnostic test. Immune diagnosis offers an improved testing technology making the diagnosis faster, cheaper and easier. The most common immunological methods used in diagnosis are Immuno Electrophoresis, Agglutination, VDRL (Vernal Disease research Laboratory), Complement Fixation Test, Radio Immuno Assay (RIA) test, fluorescent Antibody technique and ELISA test. IMMUNO ELECTROPHOROSIS is an immunological method used to separate a particular antigen from serum proteins as process of PRECIPITATION. In this method, the serum proteins are first separated by electrophoresis on agar-plate. On the same agar-plate, antibodies specific to desired antigen are placed. The diffusion of these antibodies takes them to desired antigen on plate. If antigen really occurs, then antigen-antibody reaction is visible in form of precipitation. This technique is used to test protein in urine and body-fluid. Also, this is used to detect normal and abnormal serum proteins, identification of myloema proteins and abnormal proteins in other cancers. AGGLUTINATION TEST is the test in which visible clumping or aggregation of cells(or particles) takes place due to reaction of surface-bound antigens of such cells (or particles) with homologous antibodies. Pathogens causing many diseases like typhoid fever (Salmonella Typhii), Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhea), rickets diseases

are detected by Agglutination tests. It is probable best known for its use in human blood typing or Haemagglutination. In some cases, where the antigens are not present on cell or particle surfaces and remain free in soluble state, the direct agglutination tests normally fail. For detection of such antigens, passive agglutinization test is employed. An excellent example of passive agglutinization test is using latex beads as carrier is one of the modern pregnancy tests. VDRL test is employed to detect the infection of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) like syphilis. Syphilis is caused by bacterium called Treponema Pallidum. The disease leads to cutaneous lesions that are transmitted by direct sexual contact. The bacterial infection leads to formation if antibodies in the blood serum in test. The blood serum of patient is taken and spread after which a VDRL Antigen is applied to it. When floccules appear on slide, syphilis is confirmed. The floccules are formed due to antigen-antibody reaction. VDRL tests main purpose is FLOCCULATION. COMPLEMENT FIXATION TEST was developed in 1907. It is used to recognize infections by bacteria, virus and fungi. Serum of the patient is taken as antigen and antibodies taken from guinea pig are used as complement. The antigen-antibody reaction can make us determine presence of infection. RADIO IMMUNO ASSAY test is an immunological method using radioactive substance for quantitative measurement and identification of antigens, antibodies, hormones, drugs etc. This technique is based on the competition between radiolabeled and un-labeled substances in an antigen-antibody reaction to determine the concentration of un-labeled substance. RIA is the most sensitive method available today that permits measurement of antibodies and antigens even in very small quantities that is up to picograms. This technique is very commonly used in Endocrinology (reproductive biology) for the assay of hormones. This method is also used to detect many enzymes, serum proteins and even Hepatitis B antigen. The FLUORESCENT-ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE (Immuno fluorescence) is often used to identify unknown antigen. The technique is based on the behavior of certain dyes which fluorescence (glow) when exposed to certain wavelengths of light. Such dyes are Fluorescenin Isothiocyanate which emits apple green glow and Rhodamune Isothiocyanate which emits orange-red light. Fluorescent antibody technique may be direct or indirect. It particularly helps identify specific strains of microorganisms within a mixed microbial population. It is also useful in identifying those pathogenic microbes that are difficult or impossible to culture in Vitro. ELISA test is the short form for Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent test. Elisa test is an immunological technique used for quantitative determination of the concentration of antigen or antibodies. This technique was first introduced in 1970 by Engval and Perlmann. Later it was pioneered by two groups of scientists, one in Holland by Van Weeman and Schurs in 1972 and later developed by Clark and Adams in 1977. ELISA is based on, as the name suggests, enzyme linked antibodies absorbed on some solid surface. There are two methods prevalent in ELISA test. They are Indirect Elisa for detection and measurement of antibody and Direct Elisa used for detection of antigen. Among the tow, indirect Elisa is most successful method for HIV detection. ELISA basically involves detection and estimation of antigen or antibody through mediation of an enzyme linked antibody or antigen that turns a substrate into a chromosomic product.

ELISA is used to detect variety of antibodies and antigens. Many viral infections and bacterial toxins can be detected by this method. The basic pregnancy test carried out now-a-days is based on ELISA. Many animal and plant proteins, both normal and abnormal are detected and quantified by ELISA. ELISA is most successful technique in the detection of HIV Infection. Using ELISA test is advantageous over other methods of serology because of its simplicity, less expensiveness, sensitivity and accuracy (similar to that of RIA), stability of reagents and most importantly lack of radiation hazards as radio isotopes are not used. Elisa, however, is a time saving device and can be completed within hours even in laboratories with rudimentary facilities, if prepared enzyme-conjugated antibodies are available. These are the different types of diagnosis applications based on immunological methods.

x---- END OF UNIT5 ---x x---- END OF SECTION2 ---x

DEVELOPMENT & ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS

UNI T -i
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Environmental Segments POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. Define Environment and discuss about various segments of Environment. a. What are environmental problems? Discuss the measures for protecting Environment. a. What is Environmentalism? Discuss in detail. a. Discuss about (Protection) Act. Environment 2. Promoting Environment Protection Modern Environmentalism The Environment (Protection) Act Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Water Pollution Cess Act Forest Conservation Act

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

a. Discuss about Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. a. Discuss about Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. a. Discuss about Water Pollution Cess Act. a. Discuss about Forest Conservation Act. b. Discuss about Wildlife Protection Act.

TOTAL

TOPICS 8

QUESTIONS 9

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. Define Environment and discuss about various segments of Environment. The Environment (French: Environir to encircle or surround) can be defined as the circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms. All social, cultural, technological, physical elements of natural world constitute as important parts of Environment. Thus environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point of space and time. It is a composite term for the conditions in which organisms live. It includes both biotic and abiotic substances. In other words, environment is the totality of all physical, social, and biological factors, individually as well as collectively, that comprises the natural and man made surroundings.

Various factors affect the environment in numerous ways. Climatic Factors, Topographic Factors, Biotic Factors, Edaphic Factors etc. have multiple affects on Environment. For sustainable life, the man environment relationship should be balanced properly. Considering its basic structure, environment may be divided into two broad types viz. physical environment and biotic environment. Physical environment is subdivided into three broad categories viz., (i) solid, (ii) liquid and (iii) gas which represent three basic realms of the earth known as the Lithosphere, the Hydrosphere, and the Atmosphere. The biotic component of environment called as Bio-Sphere consists of plants and animals including man as an important factor. Biosphere is located at the tri junction of the three components Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere. To be simpler, area on earth where life is located is termed as Biosphere. All these segments interact with each other in process of formation and support of life, maintaining a perfect balanced ecosystem. LITHOSPHERE is the rigid portion of earth that comprise of rocks, mountains, land and other solid layers of earth. It is the one which supports the oceans and continents. There is a semi viscous fluid in the upper mantle of earth surface called as ASTHENOSPHERE. Rigid Layer rocks of earth crust floats on Asthenospheric fluid in form of Lithospheric plates. These Lithospheric plates are in motion and they are dynamic. These continuous movements are termed as TECTONIC FORCES. Volcanism of the earth surface, mountain building activity (orogeny), seismic activity etc. is caused because of the movement of lithospheric plates in various directions. Tectonic Movements also cause the creation of land forms. All types of Flora and Fauna depend on land forms. They provide habitat to bio sphere. They help in modification of components of the environment.

CRUST ASTHENOSPHERE

A C B
MANTLE

LITHOSPHERIC PLATES CORE

INTERNAL LAYERS OF EARTH

The surface layer of lithosphere is covered with thin layer of nutrients called as Soil. Soil formation is called as Pedogenesis. It is a natural and long drawn process. For formation 1cm. thick layer almost 5000-10000 years period is consumed. Soil is formed by a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes between REGOLITH (disintegrated rock particles by erosion of rocks called Rubble) and HUMUS (decomposed organic matter by bacteria). Soils are rich with a variety of macro and micro nutrients. Soil also holds moisture in it. This is crucial for plant life. Sustenance of plant life is linked to soil which is part of lithosphere and various types of plants that grow in an area depend on the type of soil. This soil provides the base for cultivation of crops and food production. The food security of human beings thus depends on lithosphere via soil. Hence the importance of Lithosphere as a vital segment of environment is clearly can be noticed. HYDROSPHERE is made up of water, essentially in form of oceans. Ocean can be considered as basins between continents that store huge water bodies. They occupy 71% of the earths surface. Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean are major oceans. Pacific Ocean is the largest and occupies 1/3rd of earths surface. Also there are large numbers of inland and offshore seas. Life began on earth in oceans as unicellular organisms. Biodiversity in oceans is much greater than on land. Land near Oceans is categorized as shown in above figure. Continental Shelf has gentle slope with less than angle of 1 o. It is a part of continent but latter on submerged in oceans. Continental slope is steep at angle of 5 o or more. Continental Rise is moderately raising slope angle between 1o and 3o. Abyssal Plain is wide and huge. It consists of ridges, hills and low land basins and deep narrow trenches. 80% of total ocean basin is occupied by Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

CONTINENTAL SHELF WATER

B CONTINENTAL SLOPE

CONTINENTAL RISE

C D LITHOSPHERE LAND CATEGORY NEAR WATER BODIES

ABYSSAL PLAIN

Hydrosphere is the source of water for sustenance of Biosphere. It plays an important role with hydrological water cycle. There is also close link between

Atmosphere and Hydrosphere. Water moves from Hydrosphere to Atmosphere by Evaporation. Water is returned to the Hydrosphere by process of Condensation. This continuous flow of water from hydrosphere to atmosphere and atmosphere to lithosphere is crucial for sustenance of Biosphere. Hence it can be said that Hydrosphere has control on the global climate. Any small change in the temperature of oceanic water results in cascading effect on the global climate. The phenomenon of EL NINO/ LA NINO represents oceanic control on temperature. EL NINO is the abnormal rise in sea surface temperature in the Pacific Ocean. It results in change of oceanic current. Warm waters along the Peruvian and Central American coast replace the Hambolde (Peruvian) cold current. It raises 2-3o in 5 years. Role of evaporation increases humidity of pacific air masses. This change in humidity is transmitted to global areas. It is called GLOBAL TELE CONNECTIONS. It results in on time rains, droughts and it has impact on Asian Monsoons. LA NINO is due to decrease in surface temperature of oceans. EL NINO and LA NINO are good examples to show control of hydrosphere over global climate.

CLOUD SUN VAPOUR EVAPORATION CONDENSATION RAIN

WATER

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Hydrosphere is a huge reservoir of various resources for human beings. Marine food, wide variety of organisms, mineral resources (like hydro carbons, fossil fuel that is extracted from continental shelf), poly-metallic modules (like chromium, magnesium etc. are extracted from Abyssal Plain which is rich in metallic elements) are found in Oceans. Many other minerals are available in dissolved forms in Ocean. Hydrosphere is also source of Energy. Energy can be obtained from water resources in many ways. Some of them are: Ocean Thermal Energy, Wave Energy, Tidal Energy, Salinity Gradient Energy, Ocean Currents Energy, Ocean Winds Energy, Hydro Power etc. Also Navigation, Shipping is crucial for global economic trade and

transportation as well as in bonding cultural contacts. It has rich bio diversity. It is closely connected to lithosphere through sedimentation cycle. Through the process of erosion the rocks are eroded and converted into sediments and transported and dumped into the sea floor. This is responsible for bio diversity of the oceans as they supply nutrients which are crucial for survival of various organisms. Hence Hydrosphere is vital for man kind. ATMOSPHERE is a thin layer of air, aerosols and gases surrounding earth surface and held towards it by gravity. The deep blanket of gases that envelope the earth extends to several thousands of kilometers above its surface. It is a mixture of many gases. It contains huge numbers of solid and liquid particles collectively called as Aerosols. Nitrogen and Oxygen comprise of nearly 99% of clean, dry air. Remaining gases are mostly inert and constituted about 1% of atmosphere. The atmospheric composition is Nitrogen (78.09%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon (0.93%), CO2 (0.03%), Hydrogen (0.00005%) and other gases (0.00006%). Atmosphere is classified into various layers. They are TROPOSPHERE, STRATOSPHERE, MESOSPHERE, IONOSPHERE and EXOSPHERE.

EXOSPHERE IONOSPHERE MESOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE TROPOSPHERE

EARTH

LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric layer between earths surface and an altitude of 8km at poles and 18km at equator is called TROPOSPHERE. Troposphere is the most important layer of atmosphere. It is densest of all the layers. This accounts for more than 2/3 rd of the total matter of atmosphere. More than 99% of water vapor moisture is located in this layer. Troposphere has average thickness of 12 km. The thickness is greater

at equator, so gets more heated. When heated air raises to great heights centrifugal force acts more at equator, hence velocity is maximum at equator. Troposphere ends with Tropopause. Temperature falls at the rate of 6.5o C per Km in Troposphere. Temperature is -45o C at Poles and -80o C at equator. It has almost 75% of the air. Therefore, weather, cyclones, anti cyclones etc. all occurs in troposphere. Also this layer causes surface run off or drainage. This causes pattern of flora in different areas. For example, in tropical areas evergreen forests exist and in temperate and arid zones flora like bushes, thorny jungles and shrubs exist. Process of erosion by strong winds and drainage system erodes lithosphere. This tropospheric part of atmosphere plays important role in the global climate. STRATOSPHERE lies above Troposphere up to altitude of 50 km. from earths surface. In this layer temperature rises from -60oC to 0oc. It is free from dust particles and also from atmospheric turbulences. Hence this layer is ideal for flying of jet aircraft. At 25 km. height the ozone layer is concentrated with in stratosphere. This ozone layer is called as OZONOSPHERE. Above this ozonosphere negligible amount of moisture is found. Ozonosphere is also called as CHROMOSPHERE, as chemical activity takes place here. It is the protective sheet to earth from UV radiations, thus saving earths surface. In this layer temperature rises rapidly due to absorption of Ultra Violet rays. MESOSPHERE is chemically active layer. Meteors mainly burn here hence it is layer of meteoric activity. Temperature decreases with height like in Troposphere. It is considered as coldest layer of atmosphere. IONOSPHERE is the layer of atmosphere that is in ionic state. It is electrically charged layer. Temperature increases due to absorption of solar radiation by ionized particles. Radio waves are reflected by ionized layers. Due to electric charge radio waves gets reflected and long distance terrestrial radio communication system on earth came to exist. Reflected radio waves are received on earth by receivers. Hence it is also called as Communication layer. EXOSPHERE is uppermost layer beyond height of 400 km. Temperature gradually increase here. Inter-Intra molecular forces are very weak. Gases are in kinematic state/rarified. Density is very less in this layer.

-100 C 10 C 0 C -60 C
o o o

EXOSPHERE IONOSPHERE MESOSPHERE OZONOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE 8KM


E AUS POP TRO TROPOSPHERE

400 80 60 50 -80 C 18
o

-45 C Pole

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

Equator

The entire ecosystem on the earth are controlled and sustained by the atmosphere. It is a part of physical environment. Global climate is controlled by atmosphere. The flora, fauna and drainage on earth which is vital for biotic life is controlled and regulated by Climate. Climate is the out come of atmospheric life. Climate is made up of two components. They are temperature and rain fall. Average global surface temperature is 13oC. Temperature is crucial factor of climate. Green house gases (GHG) are responsible for this warm temperature. GHG are transparent to short wave insulation but they are opaque to long wave terrestrial radiations. This temporal storage of long wave terrestrial radiation by GHG in atmosphere causes and controls surface temperature. This climate is controlling eco system on earth. Biodiversity on earth is possible because of warm temperature. Precipitation is controlled by clouds in the atmosphere by evaporation and condensation process. Hence the three abiotic environment segments Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere coordinate with each other to provide support to Biosphere. Hence it can be concluded that with out these four environmental segments life on earth might not be possible. All these segments are vital for mankind and equally important. 2. a. What are environmental problems? Discuss the measures for protecting Environment. Environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point of space and time. It is a composite term for the conditions in which organisms live. It includes both biotic and abiotic substances. In other words, environment is the totality of all physical, social, and biological factors, individually as well as collectively, that comprises the natural and manmade surroundings.

Distance from Surface (KM)

Of all the organisms on earth, man is the most intelligent, skilled and civilized creature. He is both the creator and the moulder of his environment. With his tremendous scientific and technological advancement, man has to a large extent, succeeded in controlling and dominating nature. In this process, he has interfered with nature and disrupted his biotic and abiotic environments. Some of the major environmental problems are discussed below. At present many environmental problems prevail. ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION is the first problem. Large scale pollution of natural environment has been in India as a result of unprecedented urbanization and industrialization. Most important source of pollution is fast growing population. Large scale consumption of resources causes creation of huge wastes. Hence pollution and population rise proportionally. Further pollution is complicated by wide spread poverty of masses. A large proportion of Indian population lives below the poverty line in slum areas without basic civic amenities. Environment Pollution includes Air Pollution, Water Pollution, Soil Pollution and Sound Pollution too. AIR POLLUTION is due to excessive smoke and dust particles released from chemical and manufacturing factories and industries, smoke emitted by vehicles, smoke from natural disasters like volcanoes, using nuclear weapons, improper disposal of chemical and nuclear wastes etc. WATER is polluted as inorganic and chemical wastes are left into seas and oceans for drainage. Many aquatic animals are becoming extinct due to water pollution. SOIL POLLUTION is due to agricultural wastes, industrial wastes, mine dust, desertification, domestic rubbish etc. Industrial, commercial, residential activities and functions with loud noises causing SOUND POLLUTION. CLIMATE CHANGE is next most important environment problem. CLIMATE is the word used to describe the average weather condition, which have been measured over many years. The state of atmosphere and weather conditions keeps changing from time to time. This is due to increase in pollution of air, water and sound. The extensive usage of hazardous materials such as nuclear materials, uncontrolled release of dangerous gases like CO2, CO and other green house gases, smoke released in unlimited amounts from factories, vehicles etc. caused the damage to Ozone Layer (O3) of atmosphere. This made a hole in the ozone layer, exposing ourselves to UV rays and other dangerous radiations from sun. Due to excessive radiations received the average temperature of earth has been increased. This is termed technically as, GLOBAL WARMING. Due to Global warming, the threat has been posed to existence of glaciers and melting of ice caps, thus merging land areas near by oceans and seas. The increased temperature has also been fatal to existence to some marine animals. The effluent chemical wastage that is being released into seas also cause for death of marine animals. Hundreds of Olive Ridley Turtles that were found dead near shores of Vizag Sea is an example. ACID RAINS are caused due to air pollution. Oxides of Sulphur and Nitrogen combine with atmospheric moisture to yield sulphuric and nitric acids that are deposited as rains. The problem of Acid Rain originated with Industrial Revolution. This rains causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble. Depletion of Soil, Temperature rise, increase in average temperature of earth, sub merging of ice caps, reduction of land percentage, floods in coastal areas, droughts in temperate zones, Worsening of urban air, depletion of fisheries and other aquatic animals, extinction of variety of flora and fauna, loss of bio diversity, increased water shortage etc. also can be attributed as Environmental Problems.

It is impossible to solve the problems of environment pollution with in a short period. But it should be believed that at least now is better than never. Reforestation and planting should be done in large scale, so that excessive CO2 is consumed by trees. Industries and Factories should be checked for pollution limits. Factories and vehicles with excessive pollution should be controlled. Trade on rare animal and plant species should be banned. Safe disposal methods of wastage should be discovered. Recycling and reusage of solid wastes should be in practice to great extent. Clean development mechanisms and energy saving schemes and international agreements should be practiced strictly and sincerely. Global cooperation is must for protecting our environment. Every one should spread their hand in saving energy. Man should show equal respect towards other species. Thus problems of environment can be solved slowly and steadily. 3. a. What is Environmentalism? Discuss in detail. ENVIRONMENTALISM is a broad philosophy and social movement centered on concern for conservation and improvement of natural environment for the sake of development of individual and human civilization. Environmental degradation is happening due to social, cultural and economic activities of human beings in their search for better standard of living. Due to pollution, number and quality of environment resources will come down. This will have impact on development of human society. Development is closely related to natural resources like air, water, soil, forest and rocks etc. Economic activities of human being are eroding the resource base and development is becoming unsustainable. Our developmental processes are at risk and in return human beings are at risk. We should have concern for environmental conservation and development of environment. Hence the environmental risks are being identified and societies are acting towards protection and conservation of Environment. Environmentalism can be categorized into Radical Environmentalism, Reformist Environmentalism, Free Market Environmentalism and Elite Environmentalism. RADICAL ENVIRONMENTALISM speaks that the present day pattern of economic activity and political system should be over hauled. Present day economic activities are not for basic needs but sophistication and consumption. Political systems are supporting these energy intensive production economic activities. So Radical Environmentalism activists protests to stop this kind of patterns. Environmentalism is propagated as a way of life. This type of Environmentalism is not popular. REFORMIST ENVIRONMENTALISM suggests minimizing environmental degradation with legislative measures, by organizing research and technology in EcoFriendly manner, generating awareness in the society as whole. This is more popular. International Organizations like GREEN PEACE, EARTH WATCH and IPCC etc. are examples of this kind of Environmentalism. FREE MARKET CAPITALISM is another type of Environmentalism. Popular Environmentalism is the breeding ground for Capitalism. Environmentalism is used as disguise for capitalism indirectly strengthening free market. With out opposing capitalism organized commercial exploitation with profit motive is used by Entrepreneurs. It is particularly seen with MNCs. Indiscriminate exploitation of environment and hijacking resources is observed. Societal and Political system which is strong advocate of Capitalism gives the right for exploitation of the resources.

Individual Inheritance of resources is the root cause for this. Superficial remedies are needed for protests under this kind of Environmentalism. Capitalist mode of production is forced on others. The western countries develop certain technology and sell them as eco-friendly and third world countries are forced to buy them. Overseas funds promote popular Environmentalism. They are becoming instruments in the hands of certain MNCs and developed countries. Environmentalism is becoming an obstacle for development of developing countries like India. There is always conflict between environment and development. Development is not possible with out environmental degradation. Certain parts of Asia & Sub-African countries have pressurized environment in pristine conditions and they are forced to lie in backwardness. Developed countries discriminately exploited the resources and polluting the global environment to great extent and expecting developing countries to compensate it with environmental conservation. Western Countries do not possess any moral rights in preaching and benefits of development must be balanced with environmental degradation. ELITIST ENVIROMENTALISM is the movement by Elitists for Elitists. It is oriented in western countries. Restrictions are put on usage of external goods and only local goods which are organic products is asked to use. These organic goods produced in local areas are at high price. Hence the problem of TOO POOR TO BE GREEN arises. This is against the philosophy of Environmentalism and its scope become narrower. Also there may be some commercial interests in discouraging products from third world countries which are cheaper. Non-tariff barriers are further used to promote economic interests. There is also certain attribution of motives. They are not respecting sovereign rights. Exploitation of blue whales is done in large scale by Japan. Green Peace organization entering these waters in protest is resulting in global tension. Though, Environmentalism is prompted and funded by USA there is lot of difference between what they preach and they practice. Due to this conflicts are rising between third world countries and developed countries. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS spread the awareness about economic degradation and compelling the government to take action and educating the masses. Origin of environmental movements can be identified since time immemorial. In Medieval period, Arab Geographers like Ibn Al Jazzar and Al Tammi wrote about agricultural development and effects on environment. In Europe, King Edward-I (Britain) banned the burning of coal. The real environmentalism started during the Industrial Revolution. Large scale environmental degradation started with Industrial Revolution. In North America, Benjamin Franklin (Philadelphia) organized a huge mass movement against tyrannies and dumping of waste in their vicinity. In 1863, by passing ALKALI ACTS USA Society is in fore front of Environmentalism. In 20 th century, environmentalism gained momentum. Loss of certain species like PASSENGER PEGION (extinct) and AMERICAN BISON (endangered) has resulted in large scale mass awareness. In 1966, to conserve these species NATIONAL PARK SERVICE is established by US President Woodrow Wilson. Use of DDT in Agriculture is gone into research in USA. Research analysis of DDT in food chain and finally into mothers milk and passed into further generations and it is scientifically established. There were mass movements and subsequently US government banned use of DDT in 1972. This was first major success of environmentalism. Series of publications of researches by academicians are released as books. In 1948, A SAND COUNTRY ALMANAC was released. ALDO LEOPOLD was its author. This book is a catalogue of human development on economic degradation. It described human beings think that they are apart from environment. It gave a call

for respect towards environment. It is the first influential book on Environmentalism. In 1962, a book called SILENCE SPRING authored by RACHEL CARSON was released. It is a milestone book on different types of degradation. Environmentalism is inherent in Indian Culture. It is imbibed in Indian traditions. Nature Worship is done taking different components of nature as sacred totems. This shows Indias respect to environment. Later in course of development and the respect towards environment weakened. Environmentalism as a movement in India can be traced to 1970s. CHIPKO MOVEMENT was started in 1970s in Tehri Gahirwal Region of Uttarkhand. This was led by Sunderlal Bahuguna. He is a Gandhian, social activist and first person to organize a mass movement for sake of environment. This movement opposed indiscriminate forest felling by contractors as physical and livelihood security is threatened. Large scale deforestation led to soil erosion and floods. And led to decrease in agricultural productivity and area became prone to land slides. There is loss to life and property. The drainage channel will be shifted and relocated. This aroused environmental concerns all over India. Recently NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN was organized and led by Medha Pathkar. All these movements compelled government to take following steps for protecting environment. Series of legislations like Forest Conservation Act, Wild Life Conservation Act, Environmental Protection Act, Air/Water Act etc. Also various institutes concentrating on environmental management were established like National Environment Engineering Research Institute (Nagpur), Indian Institute of Forest Management (Bhopal), Himalayan Institute & Forest Management (Dehradun), Institute of Arid Forest Research Institute (Jodhpur), Coniferous Forest Research Institute (Shimla) etc. Administrative arrangements were made. Department of Environment is latter changed to Ministry of Environment & Forests, which is becoming a part of international agreements pertaining to environmental conservation and development. I n 1975, as part of CITES convention, International trade in endangered species and their body parts is prohibited. India also ratified KYOTO PROTOCOL agreement. India is also actively participating in global environment issues apart from concentrating on its own environmental pressures. 4. a. Discuss about Environment (Protection) Act. On 5th June 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock Holm and there after June 5th is celebrated all over world as World Environment Day. India is the first country in world to have made provisions for protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. Article 48(A) of the constitution provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51(A) provides that it shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. Also India passed several legislations to safeguard the environment. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is one of such important environment legislations. THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986:

The Act consists of 26 sections distributed among four chapters and extends to whole India. Section 2 of this act defines various important terms. Some of these definitions are as follows: Environment includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists among and between water, air, land and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro organisms and property; Environmental Pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment; Environmental Pollution means the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant; Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by reason of its chemical or physico-chemical properties or handling is liable to property or the environment. The act provides general powers to the Central Government to take all necessary measures for the purpose of: a. Protecting and improving the quality of the environment; b. Preventing, controlling and abating environmental planning and execution of a nation wide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects; c. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources what so ever; d. Restriction of areas in which industry, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards; e. Laying down procedures and safeguards for prevention of accidents which may cause environmental pollution; f. Laying down procedures for handling of hazardous substances; g. Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances that are likely to cause environmental pollution; h. Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of environmental pollution; i. Collection and dissemination of information on environment pollution; and j. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution. 5. a. Discuss about Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. On 5th June 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock Holm and there after June 5th is celebrated all over world as World Environment Day. India is the first country in world to have made provisions for protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. Article 48(A) of the constitution provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51(A) provides that it shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. Also India passed several legislations to safeguard the environment. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 is one of such important environment legislations. THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981: Salient features of the act are as follows:

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv) (v)

(vi) (vii)

(viii)

(ix) (x)

The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be harmful to human beings or any other living creatures or plants or property or environment. Noise pollution has been inserted as pollution in the Act in 1987. Pollution Control boards at the central or state level have the regular authority to implement this act. The boards perform similar functions related to improvement of air quality. The boards have to check whether or not the industry strictly follows the norms of standards laid down by the board under Section 17 regarding the discharge of emission of any air pollutant. Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has provisions for defining the constitution, powers and function of pollution control boards, funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures. Section 20 of the Act has provision for ensuring emission standards from auto mobiles. Based on it, the state government is empowered to issue instructions to the authority Incharge of registration of motor vehicles. (Under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939). As per Section 19, in consultation with the state pollution control board, the state government may declare an area with in the state as air pollution control area and can prohibit the use of any fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing pollution. No person shall, without prior consent of State Board operate or establish any industrial unit in the air pollution control area. Section 31 of Air Act has a provision for appeals to be made to appellate authority consisting of a single person or three persons appointed by the Head of the State, Governor. It is constituted to hear such appeals as filed by some aggrieved party due to some order made by the State board within 30 days of passing the orders.

6. a. Discuss about Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. On 5th June 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock Holm and there after June 5th is celebrated all over world as World Environment Day. India is the first country in world to have made provisions for protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. Article 48(A) of the constitution provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51(A) provides that it shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. Also India passed several legislations to safeguard the environment. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is one of such important environment legislations. WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974: The salient features of the act are summed up as follows: (i) It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground water.

(ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

It provides for the establishment of Central and State boards for pollution control. It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit the Central and State pollution boards. The act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the same.

The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards which have been conferred the following duties and powers as given below: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): It advises the central government in matters related to prevention and control of water pollution. Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides them technical assistance and guidance. It organizes training programs for prevention and control of pollution. It organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through mass media. It collects, compiles and publishes technical of statistical data related to pollution. It prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents. It lays down standards for water quality parameters. It plans nation wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution. CPCB establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluent sample. State Pollution Control Board (SPCB): The State Pollution Control Boards also have similar function to be executed at state level and are governed by the directions of CPCB. The board advise the state government with respect to location of nay industry that might pollute a stream or a well. It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples from any stream, well or trade effluent or sewage passing through an industry. The State Board is empowered to take legal samples of trade effluent in accordance with the procedure laid down in the Act. Every industry has to obtain consent from the Board by applying on a prescribed format providing all technical details, along with a prescribed fee following which analysis of the effluent is carried out. The board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal of trade effluents. While development is necessary, it is all the more important to prevent pollution which can be jeopardize the lives of the people. Installation and proper functioning of effluent treatment plants (ETP) in all polluting industries is a must for checking pollution of water and land. Despite certain weaknesses in the Act, the Water Act has ample provisions for preventing and controlling water pollution through legal measures. 7. a. Discuss about Water Pollution Cess Act. On 5th June 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock Holm and there after June 5th is celebrated all over world as World Environment Day. India is the first country in world to have made provisions for protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. Article 48(A) of the constitution provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51(A) provides that it shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. Also

India passed several legislations to safeguard the environment. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 is one of such important environment legislations. WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) CESS ACT, 1977: Parliament adopted the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 to provide funds for the Central & State Pollution Control Boards. The Act powers the Central Government to impose a Cess on water consumed by industries listed in Schedule-I of the Act. The industries as specified in Schedule-I are required to pay quarterly water Cess to local authorities. SCHEDULE-I consist the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) Industrial Cooling, Spraying in mine pits or boiler feed; Domestic purposes; Processing which results in water pollution by biodegradable water pollutants; or Processing which results in water pollution by water pollutants which are not easily bio degradable or toxic.

SCHEDULE-II has the following important sections under it: Under Section 3: The Cess shall be calculated at such rate as may be specified by the Government. The rate notified/specified by the Government indicates two rates for Cess calculation. Lower one for industries complying with Section 25 of Water Act 1974 and standards of effluent as prescribed under EPA, 1986 and higher one for those failing to comply with the above mentioned conditions. Under Section 4: For the purpose of measuring and recording the quantity of water consumed, every person carrying on any specified industry and every local authority shall affix meters of such standards and at such places may be prescribed. Under Section 7: Where any person or local authority, liable to pay the Cess under this act, installs any plant for the treatment of sewage or trade effluents, such person or local authority shall be entitled to a rebate of 25% of the Cess payable by such person or local authority, provided that the person/local authority is not contravening prescribed Section 25 of Water Act 1974 and effluent standards prescribed under EPA, 1986 and is not consuming water in excess of the maximum quantity as may be prescribed by the government for any specified industry or local authority. Under Section 9: Any officer or authority of the State government specially empowered in this behalf can enter any premises at any reasonable time for the purpose of carrying out his duties under this Act. Under Section 10: If any person carrying on any specified industry or local authority fails to pay any amount of Cess payable under Section 3 with in the date specified in the order of assessment made such person or local authority is liable to pay interest on the amount to be paid as laid down. Under Section 13: Any person or local authority aggrieved by an order of assessment made under Section 6 or by an order imposing any penalty made under Section 11 may with in such time as may be prescribed, appear to such authority in such form and in such manner as prescribed.

8.

a. Discuss about Forest Conservation Act. On 5th June 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock Holm and there after June 5th is celebrated all over world as World Environment Day. India is the first country in world to have made provisions for protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. Article 48(A) of the constitution provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51(A) provides that it shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. Also India passed several legislations to safeguard the environment. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 is one of such important environment legislations. THE FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980: This act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. Except J&K this act is adopted all over India. The Act covers under it all types of forests including reserved forests, protected forests or any forested land irrespective of its ownership. The salient features of the Act are as follows: (i) The State Government has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry purposes. If at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of Central Government, after which it can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve forest for non-forest purposes (e.g. mining) or clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing them by economically important trees (reforestation). (ii) It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there is an advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the Central Government. (iii) Any illegal non-forest activity with in a forest area can be immediately stopped under this Act. Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type of plants/crops or any other purpose (except re-afforestation). However, some construction work in the forest for wild life or forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making water holes, trench, pipe lines, check posts, wireless communication etc.). 1992 AMENDMENT IN THE FOREST ACT: In 1992, some amendment was made in the Act which made provisions for allowing some non-forest activities in forests, setting of transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploitation, drilling and hydroelectric projects. Wild life sanctuaries, National Parks etc. are totally prohibited for any exploration or survey under this act with out prior approval of Central Government. Cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber and plants which are cash crops, are included under non-forestry activity and not allowed in reserve forests.

Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil yielding plants or plants of medicinal value in forest area need to be first approved by the Central Government. This is because newly introduced species in the forest area may cause an imbalance in the ecology of the forest. Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is considered a non-forest activity. The reason is same as described above. Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc. from river beds located with in the forest area fall under non-forest activity. Any proposal sent to central government for non-forest activity must have a cost benefit analysis and environmental impact statement (EIS) of the proposed activity with reference to its ecological and socio-economic impacts. Thus, the Forests (Conservation) Act has made ample provisions for conservation and protection of forests and prevents deforestation. 8. b. Discuss about Wildlife Protection Act. On 5th June 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the UN Conference on Human Environment in Stock Holm and there after June 5th is celebrated all over world as World Environment Day. India is the first country in world to have made provisions for protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. Article 48(A) of the constitution provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51(A) provides that it shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. Also India passed several legislations to safeguard the environment. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 is one of such important environment legislations. THE WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972: The act, a land mark in the history of wild life legislation in our country, came into existence in 1972. Wild life was transferred from State list to Concurrent list in 1976, thus giving power to the Central Government to enact the legislation. The Indian Board of Wildlife (IBWL) was created in 1952 in our country, which after the enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act actively took up the task of setting up Wildlife National Parks and Sanctuaries. The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) It defines the Wild-life related terminology. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory board, wildlife warden, their powers, duties etc. The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale, possession, transfer etc. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals. It provides for legal posers to officers and punishment to offenders. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species.

Several Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like Lion (1972), Tiger (1973), Crocodile (1974) and Brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this Act.

x---- END OF UNIT 1 ---x

U N I T - iI
S.No. 1. 2. SYLLABUS TOPICS Natural Resources POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. What are natural resources? How are they classified? Forest Resources Types and a. Differentiate between various types Uses of Forests? b. What are uses of Forests? c. Give a brief account of Forest Resources in India & discuss various problems /threats of forests and government measures in protection of forests. Water Resources Types of a. Describe about importance water Dams, Drought Occurrences & as a natural resource. How is it useful? Floods b. Discuss about various types of water resources? What are the issues involved in Water Resource Management? c. Discuss the effects of over water usage. What is the government strategy to handle the issues? d. What is a dam? Discuss about various types of dams and issues involved in constructing the dams. e. What is a drought? Discuss about different types of droughts and suggest measures taken and preferred in controlling drought. f. What is a flood? Discuss about different types of floods and suggest measures taken and preferred in controlling floods. Land Resources Soils & a. What are land resources? Cropping Patterns Differentiate between various types of soils. b. Discuss about cropping patterns observed in India. Mineral Resources a. Explain about mineral resources available in India along with their hotspots? b. What are environmental impacts involved in mineral extraction? What are remedial measures? How to conserve minerals? TOPICS 5 QUESTIONS 14

3.

4.

5.

TOTAL

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. What are natural resources? How are they classified? Any thing of utility or use to mankind is called as Resource. Generally they are used in and for Economic Development activities. Resources naturally available in physical environment are called as NATURAL RESOURCES. Life on this planet earth depends upon a large number of things and services provided by nature and natural resources. Thus water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wild life are all examples of natural resources. The biotic as well as abiotic environment offer natural sources. Resource utilization is the core of human civilization. Technology is the one which paves the way for utilization of the resources that led to the development of society. With greater the technology available, the utilization of resources will be more. Concept of resources is broad and wide. According to ZIMMERMAN, resources are a dynamic rather than a static concept. The resources we use today are not in use yesterday and the things we could not expect today may become resources of tomorrow. It depends on technological advancement. Concept of resources may vary from country to country as technology varies with time. For example, things like Ash and Sludge are now used as resources. Crushed Sugarcane is used as resource. Solid waste used in recycling is also a resource. Thus Resource utilization is a broad and dynamic concept. CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:

Natural Resources

Renewable Resources

Non-Renewable Resources

Inexhaustible Resources

Exhaustible Resources

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES Natural Resources are classified into Renewable and Non-Renewable resources. RENEWABLE RESOURCES: The resources that do not exhaust and are abundant in nature and that can be regenerated with in a given span of time are called as Renewable Resources. For example, wildlife, wind energy, bio mass energy, tidal energy and solar heat etc.

are renewable and inexhaustible sources. Some resources like land, water, forest resources are renewable but exhaustible. They can be renewed with proper scientific management and proper utilization. These are naturally replenishing and conditionally renewable resources. Indiscriminate use of these resources will lead to exhaustion. NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES: These natural resources bound to be depleted. They cannot be regenerated. There is natural replenishment. Mineral resources are finite and are not dependent on scientific management. Coal, Iron, Oil etc. are examples of non-renewable resources. These should be utilized care fully. It is key for socio-economic development of society. Sustainable use of these resources is crucial. Once these reserves are exhausted they cannot be replenished again. 2. a. Differentiate between various types of Forests? Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the earth like a green blanket these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but also provide several environmental services which are essential for life. About 1/3rd of the worlds land area is forested which includes closed as well as open forests. Former USSR accounts for about a 5th of the worlds forests. Brazil accounts for about 7th and Canada & USA account for each 6-7%. But it is a matter of concern that almost everywhere the cover of natural forests has declined over the years. The greatest loss occurred in tropical Asia. TYPES OF FORESTS: The vegetation of India has been classified differently but the classification made by H.G.Champion is the most popular and widely accepted one. He developed a classification system of forests for Greater India in 1936. It was redone for present India by Champion and Seth in 1968. This classification is based on structure, physiognomy and floristic nature of the plant. They recognized 16 major forest types, which have been sub divided into 221 minor types. The sixteen types have been regrouped into following six types: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Tropical Evergreen Forests Tropical Dry forests Semi-desert forests and desert vegetation Wetlands, Littoral and Swamp forests Montane Vegetation Grasses

These types are discussed in detail below: I. TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS: These are typical rain forests which grow in those areas where the annual rain fall exceeds 250 cm, the annual temperature is about 25-27oC, the average annual humidity exceeds 77% and the dry season distinctly short. Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not shed their leaves annually, at least not

together, and are hence termed as Evergreen Forests. The Tropical Evergreen forests are of three types, viz. a) Wet Evergreen, b) Semi Evergreen and c) Moist Deciduous Forests. A) TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS: Description: Also called as Rain Forests. These are very dense forests with huge trees. They appear green in all seasons due to its thickness. They are located at core of biosphere reserves. These are lofty, very dense, multilayered forests with mesophytic evergreens. Climatic Conditions: Found in areas of heavy rainfall (>250 cm) and temperature between 22-27 oC. Type of Trees: The hard wood trees like Mahogany, Rosewood are more in such forests. The trees often reach 45 m. in height, individual trees exceed 60 m. Importance: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and durable as a result of which it has high commercial value. Although these forests contain valuable commercial species, they have not been properly exploited due to dense undergrowth, absence of pure stands and lack of transport facilities. These forests are with rugged terrain and it is difficult to use these for commercial purposes. Locations in India: The main areas of the tropical ever green forests are the Western Ghats, the Arabian Sea coastline of peninsular India, the north eastern region of India and Andaman Nicobar Islands. Small remnants of these forests are also found in Orissa. B) TROPICAL SEMI-EVERGREEN FORESTS: Description: Bordering the areas of tropical wet evergreen forests, are comparatively drier areas of tropical semi-ever green forests. Semi-evergreen forest is more extensive than the wet evergreen formation partly because of human interference. These are less dense but more gregarious than the wet evergreen forests. At places, these forests represent a transition from wet evergreen to deciduous forests. Climatic Conditions: The annual rainfall is 200-250 cm, the mean annual temperature varies from 24o to 27oC and the relative humidity is about 75%. Type of Trees: These forests are characterized by many species, frequently buttressed trunks, rougher and thicker bark, heavy climbers, less bamboos and abundant epiphytes. Important species of these forests are aini, semul, gutel, mundane, hopea, benteak, kadam, rosewood, kanju, kusum, thorny bamboo etc. on Western Ghats and bonsum, white cedar, chestnut, champa, mango etc. in the Himalayan Region. Importance: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and durable and has high commercial value. Human interference is possible as they are less dense than wet evergreen forests. Locations in India: These are found on the Western coast, Assam, lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Orissa and Andamans. C) TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS: Description: These forests occupy a much larger area than evergreen forests but large tracts under these forests have been cleared for cultivation. The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during spring and summer when sufficient moisture for leaves is not available. Hence they are called as Deciduous Forests. Climatic Conditions: These forests are found in areas of moderate rainfall of 100200 cm per annum, mean annual temperature of about 27 oC and average rainfall humidity of 60 to 75%.

Type of Trees: Tropical Moist Deciduous forests present irregular top storey of different species, 25 to 60 m high, heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete shrubby undergrowth with patches of bamboos, climbers and canes. The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, bhadam, dhup, kokko, rosewood, amla, kusum, tendu, paula, jamun, bamboo etc. Importance: These are very useful forests because they yield valuable timber and several other forest products. It is comparatively easy to exploit these forests due to high degree of their gregariousness. Locations in India: These areas include a belt running under Western Ghats, a strip along Shiwalik range including Terai and Bhabar from 77o E to 88o E, Manipur and Mizoram, hills of eastern M.P. and Chattisgarh, Chota Nagpur Plateau, most of Orissa, parts of West Bengal and in A&N islands. II. TROPICAL DRY FORESTS: Tropical Dry Forests are classified as a) Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests and b) Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests. A) TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS: Description: These forests are observed in low rainfall areas. The growth of evergreen forests in areas of low rainfall arouses great botanical interest and the reason is due seasonal distribution of rain fall. Forest density is less. Climatic Conditions: The mean annual temperature needed is 28 oC and the mean humidity is about 75%. An amount 100 cm. of annual rainfall mostly from North-East Monsoon in months of Oct-Dec makes these kinds of forests. Most of the rainfall will be in Winter Season at places of this kind of forests. Type of Trees: The chief characteristics of these forests are short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy, mostly of coriaceous leaved trees of short boles, no canopy layer differentiation, bamboos are rare or absent and grasses are not conspicuous. The dominant tree species are teak, tamarind, cassia khair, Semal etc. Importance: Most of land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture and casuarinas plantations. The important species are Khirni, jamun, kokko, ritha, tamarind, neem, machkund, toddy palm, gamari canes etc. Locations in India: They are found in much of the Ganga plain, central part of peninsula and Coimbatore plateau in Tamilnadu. B) TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS: Description: These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season. The major difference is that the species of dry deciduous can grow in areas of comparatively less rain fall. They represent a transitional type; on the wetter side they gave way to moist deciduous and on the drier side they degenerate into thorn forests. Climatic Conditions: The annual rainfall is 100-150 cm, the mean annual temperature widely varies from 18o to 40oC. Summers can be extremely hot with 48 o C. Type of Trees: These forests are characterized by closed and rather uneven canopy, composed of a mixture of few species of deciduous trees, rising up to a height of 20 m or so. Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass and climbers. Bamboos also grow, but they are not luxuriant. The trees grow height of 13-20m. Teak, Axle wood, tendu, rose wood, papra, satin wood, achar, sal, khair, red sanders, common bamboo, laurel are some major trees.

Importance: Forest density is less. They are not huge and have moderate stature. Commercial timber is produced from these forests in large quantities. Large tracts of these forests have been cleared for agricultural purposes and these forests suffered from severe biotic factors such as over cutting, over grazing and fire etc. Locations in India: They are widely distributed over a large area. They occur in irregular wide strip running from north-south from the foot of Himalayas to Kanyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal. III. SEMI DESERT & DESERT VEGETATION:

A) SEMI DESERT FORESTS: Description: These forests are a mixture of grass land and shrubs. Climatic Conditions: They are found in areas of rainfall ranging from 30 to 60 cm and the number of dry months from 8 to 11. Type of Trees: Shrubs, wild grass varieties are found here. Importance: The relief is gentle and the soil is generally fertile. Hence man has made inroads in these forests and cleared them from crop cultivation. Locations in India: Eastern Rajasthan, S-W Punjab, Western Haryana, Bundhelkand Region of M.P. and U.P, southern Karnataka and adjoining A.P. has this type of vegetation. B) DESERT VEGETATION: Description: These are identified in drought prone and desert areas. Climatic Conditions: Areas of low rainfall, low humidity and high temperature causes thick and thorn forests and desert type of vegetation. Type of Trees: The trees have only tap roots and grow only 15 m high with short branches. The trunks have thick barks and a contorted form. These trees reduce their transpiration by becoming leafless in dry season. Along rivers and in the sand dunes grow the khair, sisso, papal and babul. In Aravalli Ranges, Kardhai, ber and dhak are common trees. Importance: Not much recognizable uses can be obtained from desert vegetations. Locations in India: Eastern Rajasthan, S-W Punjab, Western Haryana, Bundhelkand Region of M.P. and U.P, southern Karnataka and adjoining A.P. has this type of vegetation. IV. WET LANDS, LITTORAL & SWAMP FORESTS: A) WET LANDS: Description: India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70% of these comprise areas under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet land is 39,04,543 hectares. Of this 572 sites are natural. Two sites- Chilka Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected water flown habitats under the Convention of Wet lands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention). Mangrove forests also come under these categories. Type of Trees: Number of salt-tolerant species grows in these places. Importance: Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, they give shelter to a wide variety of birds. Locations in India: The countrys wetlands have been grouped into eight categories, viz. i) ii) reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in south together with the lagoons and the other wetlands of the southern west coast, the vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kacch,

iii)

fresh water lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Pradesh, iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons of Indias east Coast (Chilka Lake), v) the fresh water marshes of the Gangetic Plain, vi) the floodplain of the Bramhaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of north east India and the Himalayan foot hills, vii) the lakes and rivers of the Montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and viii) the mangroves and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mangrove forests also partially fall under this category. B) LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS: Description: Littoral and Swamp forests occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences and as such are known as Delta or Tidal forests. Climatic Conditions: The most peculiar feature of these forests is that they can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water. Type of Trees: Number of salt-tolerant species grows in these places. Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats covering a total area of 6740 sq km which is about 7% of worlds total mangrove area. The important species found in these forests are Sundri, burguiera, sonneraita, agar, bhendi, keora, rhizopora, screw pines, canes and palms etc. Importance: They provide useful fuel wood. Mangrove forests provide hard and durable timber which is used for construction and building purposes as well as making boats. Mangroves have great significance. They are unique. They cause coastal line stabilization. They prevent coastal erosion and breaks tidal waves. They offer protection to agriculture and human settlement. They stand against saline water encroachment. They protect from tidal attacks and reduce the effects of cyclones and Tsunamis. They provide wide ranging bio-diversity species which are endemic in nature. They ate used in commercial timber production and adds Aesthetic value, scenic beauty to the areas. Locations in India: While littoral forests occur at several places along the coast, swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. They are mainly found at tidal inlets, coastal creeks, lagoons etc. The most pronounced and the densest is the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where the predominant specie Sundri (Heriteera) grows abundantly. V. MONTANE VEGETATION: Montane vegetation is found in the mountainous regions. They are of two main types: a) The Himalayan and b) The Peninsular. A) HIMALAYAN VEGETATION: The Himalayan Vegetation is classified as tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine mainly on basis of altitude and rainfall. Local differences in relief and climate as well as exposure to sunlight and wind cause considerable variation in the composition of the vegetation within each zone. Climatic Conditions: This type of vegetation survives in extreme cold temperatures. Type of Trees: Growing up to a height of 1500 m this forests consists of a group of timber and resin producing trees of different species. Main trees are sal, ber, gular, jhingal, dhak, mahua, semal, amla, jamun etc.

Importance: They provide useful fuel wood which is used for construction and building purposes. Locations in India: The tropical evergreen montane rain forest is confined to the humid foothills of the eastern and central Himalayas. B) PENINSULAR MONTANE VEGETATION: Description: Three distinct areas of the peninsula contain montane vegetation: the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikala ranges. Climatic Conditions: They are closer to the tropics and only at 1500 m above sea level. Type of Trees: Growing up to a height of 1500 m this forests consists of a group of timber and resin producing trees of different species. Main trees are sal, ber, gular, jhingal, dhak, mahua, semal, amla, jamun etc. Importance: Other trees of this forest namely, magnolia, laurel, eucalyptus, cinchona and wattle are important sources of oil. They have medicinal value too. Locations in India: Vegetation is temperate in the higher regions and sub tropical on the lower regions of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats) especially in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anamalai and Palani hills. VI. GRASSES: Description: There are 60 species of perennial grasses, which make up the fragile ecosystem that supports our cattle. Pastures and grasslands are spread over an area of about 12.04 million hectares in India. Other grazing lands are found under tree crops and groves, on wastelands and follow lands which cover 3.7 million ha, 1.5 million ha and 2.33 million ha respectively. Pastures and grasslands are products of dry semi-deserts but they have often resulted from degradation and destruction of forests into savannas. The grass cover in India is of three distinct types: The tropical, which is found in the plains, and the sub-tropical and the temperate which are found mainly in the Himalaya Mountains. 2. b. What are uses/advantages of Forests? Forests cover about 1/4th of land mass on the earth. However in India, they cover only about 1/5th of area. Forests are one of the most predominant geographic features of this planet. They are worlds air conditioners and earths blankets. Forests are most valuable natural renewable resources of the earth. Forests help the human beings in several ways: a) Productive Uses, b) Protective Uses, c) Recreational Uses, d) Developmental Uses and e) Ecological Benefits. a) PRODUCTIVE USES OF FORESTS:

Forests have great economic significance: They provide basic and commercial products. Some of the main products are given below: MAJOR FOREST PRODUCE: (i) WOOD & TIMBER: Wood is the major forest produce which is used for construction of houses, agricultural implements, bridges, sleepers etc. In India about 12.5 million cubic meters of timber is used for above purposes. Wood is a universal fuel and it is the major source of domestic fuel in India. About 175 million cubic meters of wood is used as fuel in the country. Forests provides raw material to

number of industries such as paper and pulp, plywood and other boards, saw mills, furniture making, packing cases, match boxes and toys etc. A large number of non-wood products which are often called as minor forest products (in small quantities) are harvested from forests. They are discussed below. MINOR FOREST PRODUCE: (i) FIBERS & FLOSSES: Fibers are obtained for making ropes from baste tissues of certain woody plants. Flosses are obtained from Semal (Bombax Ceiba) and Kapok (Ceiba Pentandra). (ii) GRASSES & BAMBOOS: Many varieties of grasses are found in the forests. About 20% of 419 million livestock graze in the forests. (iii) ESSENTIAL OILS: Approximately 1500 tonnes of essential oils are obtained from Indian forests during 1980s. They are used for making soaps, perfumes, detergents and chemicals. Eucalyptus, Bursera, Cymbopogan, Santalum album etc. produce these oils. (iv) OIL SEEDS: Many tree species, e.g. Madhuca Indica, Pongamina Pinnata, Shorea Robusta and Azadirachta etc. produce oil bearing seeds which are commercially important in soap industry. Tribals use these oils for various purposes. There is a potential production of about 1 million tonnes of oil every year from forest tree seeds. (v) TANS & DYES: The important myrobolan nuts and bark of wattles etc. provides Tans and Dyes. (vi) GUMS & RESINS: Gums and Resins are exuded by trees as a result of wound of injury to the bark of wood. Gums are collected from several tree species viz. Stercuila Urens, Anogeissus latifolia, Acacia Nilotica etc. Resin is obtained from Pinus Roxburghii. (vii) DRUGS, SPICES & INSECTICIDES: Out of 2000 items of drugs mentioned in Indian Materia and Medica over 1800 are of vegetable origin. All plants parts e.g., roots, shoots, leaves, fruits, seeds, barks etc. are used for drugs. Important species which are used as drugs are Rauvalfia Serpentina, Hemidermus, Dioscorea, Jatropha etc. Datura, Cardamaom, Neem etc. are used in insecticides. (viii) TENDU LEAVES & OTHERS: Tendu leaves (Bidi leaves) are collected from forests and other waste lands. Leaves of trees such as Bauhinia, Bulea etc. are used in making plates etc. (ix) EDIBLE PRODUCTS: Fruits, Flowers, Seeds, Tubers etc. of several forest species are eaten. (x) LAC & OTHER PRODUCTS: Lac is a resinous secretion of lac insects which feed on forest trees particularly on Butea Monosperma. (xi) FODDER & GRAZING: Forests provide fodder leaves and grazing facility to live stock. Approximately 20% live stock population depends up on forest grazing leaf fodder supply.

b)

PROTECTIVE USES OF FORESTS: Forests provide many protective and ameliorative uses. They play significant role in maintaining CO2 balance in the atmosphere by absorbing for photosynthesis. In the absence of forests, CO2 released in the atmosphere would result in warming of worlds temperature, melting of polar ice caps and increasing sea levels. The CO2 percent in the atmosphere has already reached 0.042% against the normal 0.030%. Forests reduce temperature evaporation losses and increase the humidity.

Temperature in the forests is 3 to 8 oC less than the adjoining area. Forests add large quantity of organic matter through fallen leaves and recycle the plant nutrients. Forests check floods and regulate the water flow as they intercept about 20 to 30% of the rainfall. Forests serve as store house for genetic diversity of plants, animals, birds etc. Forests protect from physical, chemical and noise pollution. They also protect us from dust and gaseous pollutions. Forests and trees provide shelter belt.

c)

RECREATIONAL USES OF FORESTS: The Forests are rich in varieties of trees and shrubs, animals and birds which serve as recreational place by attracting large number of people. Forests provide large varieties of trees for ecological studies. Forests provide a natural healing effect for a number of diseases.

d)

DEVELOPMENTAL USES OF FORESTS: Forests provide employment directly as well as indirectly to large number of people. Forests and various forest activities help Tribals to improve their socioeconomic condition through collection, processing and marketing of various forest products and by providing gainful employment. Government earns a large sum of revenue through forests which can be diverted for other developmental works. e) ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS: Forests possess rich bio-diversity. They provide habitat for wild life. They provide shelter for flora & fauna. They play an important role in climate control, carbon cycle, global warming control, maintaining soil fertility (humus) and ground water recharge. 2. c. Give a brief account of Forest Resources in India & discuss various problems/threats of forests and government measures in protection of forests. FOREST RESOURCES IN INDIA: About 5000 wood species are available in India of which 450 are of commercial value. Hard wood, Soft wood and grasses like Bamboo, Sabai etc. exist in huge quantities in India. Also wide varieties of minor forest products are prevalent in India. Sal, Teak, Ebony, Mahogany, Shisham, Haldu etc. are major wood species. Walnuts, Chir, Silverfur, Pine and Deodar etc. are wood obtained from Himalayan forests. About 70% of wood produced is used in Industries and about 30% is used in agricultural implements and houses. About 9 million cubic meters of wood is produced per year in India. Half of the wood is obtained from Moist deciduous forests of central and eastern Indian states like M.P., Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa. In N-E India, Assam is good in wood production, but its commercial value is low. Western Ghats are not exploited due to ecological reasons. At present the demand for wood in India is 15 million cubic meters where as demand for fuel wood is about 20 million cubic meters Hence some amounts of commercial wood is being imported from Thailand, and Myanmar. Various hot spots of forest resources are listed below. Tropical Dry/Thorny Forests: These exist in rain shadow region of Sahyadris, Rayalaseema, Vidharbha, Telangana, Kutch and Kathiawar of Gujarat.

Bamboo: Used in constructions and paper manufacturing. Bamboo is at present grown in area of about 1 lakh sq.km in India. About 5 million tonnes of bamboo production occurs in India. They are obtained mostly from N-E and Central Indian states like Assam (25%), Mizoram, M.P. (20%), Karnataka (12%) and Orissa (10%). Sabai/Salai Grasses: Used in paper manufacturing. Total production of these grasses is of 1 lakh tonnes per annum. They are found in Terai region, in foot hills of Shiwalik Region, Chotanagpur plateau etc. Sandalwood: These are used in Aromatic/Cosmetic Industries. This is grown in area of about 15,000 sq.km. 85% of sandal wood is obtained from Karnataka alone. Tendu Leaves: About 2 lakh tonnes of Tendu leaves is obtained per annum in India. 35% of this is from M.P., 25% is from Orissa, 20% is from Maharashtra and 10% is from A.P. Lac (Ceiling Wax): About 50000 tonnes of lac are produced in India. 35% of it is obtained from Jharkhand. M.P. and W.B. is other important Lac producing states. Medicinal Herbs: Alpine region of Himalayas are rich with Medicinal Herbs. Aconite, Jalap, Belladonna, Serpasila etc. are some of the herbal plants with high medicinal value. Flowers of Saffron and Ironwood, Bark of Quinine, Ebony and Cinchona, Leaves of Vaska tree etc. also have great medicinal value. Gums: Gum Arabic, Kaleer, Mesquite are various forest products used in production of Gums. Resins: Pine Trees in Himalayas are valuable Resin producers. Tannins & Dyes: Rhizopora plantations and other 150 species of dye yielding plants/Trees are present in India. Fruits: Jamun, Jack Fruit, Mango etc. are some major forest products. PROBLEMS/THREATS OF FORESTS: In India, extent of forest coverage is less than 22% of geographical area. According to National Policy, a minimum of 33% forest cover is targeted. The forest cover in India is unevenly distributed. They are highly concentrated in Central/Eastern and North-Eastern areas. At present the forests are facing many problems and threats. Large scale of deforestation and degradation is happening. Deforestation means physical removal of forests. Degradation means reduction in quality of species, density and replacement by inferior species. After Independence, the deforestation rate has reached alarming proportions. In 1970s and 1980s, the rate of deforestation in India is 1.3 million hectares per year. In central Indian states like MP, Orissa, AP, J&K etc. is 2 million hectares per year. In 2000, environmentalists started protesting against loosing forest cover. Especially, moist deciduous forests became very thin. Though several protection schemes are added, they cannot be substitute for moist deciduous forests. Several reasons for deforestation are encroachment for agriculture, primitive agricultural practices like Jhum cultivation, large scale grazing, illegal commercial timber production, submergence due to multi purpose projects, mining activity etc. One more threat observed in India is low forest productivity. Productivity can be measured as wood per unit area and as revenue per unit area. In France the productivity is 3.9 cubic meter per hectare per year. In USA, it is 1.5 cubic meter per hectare per year and in India Forest Productivity is just 0.5 cubic meter per hectare per year.

There are many reasons for low productivity. Due to large scale grazing bio mass index is reduced. Commercial Exploitation is difficult and hence cost of production is high. The Indian species wood is brittle, oily and resin type. Seasoning, sawing and fashioning of wood is difficult. Hence commercial value comes down. The Indian trees due to tropical climate are more prone to pests and insects. Stem bores will reduce wood production and its commercial value. No proper scientific management practices also cause difficulties in commercial exploitation of Indian forests. Mature forests should be exploited, but in India Tend/Immature forests are mercilessly exploited as they are easily accessible. Due to this certain forests have become over aged. Using out dated methods, technologies and implements, lack of proper scientific method for regeneration practices also cause low productivity. It is left for the nature to replenishment and inferior quality species are grown. For example, in coniferous forests chir have come in place of pine/spruce. In secondary forests productivity will be far more less. FOREST RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: Indian perspective of Forest Resource Management focuses on three aspects. They are a) Conservation, b) Afforestation and c) Commercial Exploitation on Scientific lines. All the three aspects are integrated into government programmes. LEGISLATIVE MEASURES: Forest Conservation Act was passed in 1980 and it is again amended in 1992. It aims at conservation of forest resources. Illegal exploitation or illegal encroachment is made an offence. Wild Life Protection Act of 1972 was passed to protect wild animals from encroachments. Environment Protection Act of 1986 also has provisions focusing on Forest Resources. ADMINISTRATIVE MEASURES: Forest Departments are set up at state government level. Ministry of Environment & Forests is the nodal agency for management of forest resources. Establishment of National Parks, Wild life sanctuaries, biosphere reserves etc. were established. Certain areas are declared as protected areas. COMMUNITY SCHEMES: Government machinery is small in comparison to take the task of protecting forests. Need for community participation was felt and schemes including ordinary people were introduced for protection of forests. a) VanaMahotsava: It is a voluntary programme started by the then Forest Minister K.M.Munshi. Local communities visit near by green areas for recreation and the programme ends with planting more trees. Tree seeds are provided by forest department. b) Vana Samrakshana Samiti (VSRS): It is a quasi-judicial body. Community elders will be members along with the officers of revenue, forest and police department. Representation is by elected representatives and educational institutions. It is presided by Revenue officials. Cases of illegal encroachment/ commercial exploitation/ poaching are tried by the VSRS. Authority is given to levy fines and the money obtained is spent on local communities. c) Joint Forest Management Scheme (JFM): A group of villagers are brought together for Afforestation activities. Active involvement of local communities is

observed. Forest nursery is done to regenerate the forests. They are provided with good wages. Survival rate will be high with nursing techniques. Generating awareness about need to conserve forest are other activities of JFM Scheme. d) Social Forestry Schemes: Conservation and Afforestation by involvement of local communities is done for achieving Rural Development, Economic/Commercial Benefits and Eco Stability. Certain benefits are provided to local communities for helping. Rural Infrastructure Development, utilization of vacant government lands, regenerating degraded forests, sharing benefits, livelihood security etc. are targets of Social Forestry Scheme. e) Commercial Farm Forestry: It is a component of Social Forestry Scheme. The farmers in the marginal agricultural land are encouraged to take up forestry as an alternative agriculture. Promoting forestry as an alternative to agriculture and creating awareness to farmers is main activities. f) Agro Forestry Schemes: Farmers are encouraged to grow forests along with agriculture besides in free lands and canal lines. g) Urban Forestry: Its activities are raising tree cover in urban vacant lands along with the roads, growing trees along the industrial zones etc. h) Industrial Shelter Belts: It is for raising tree cover in between industrial zones and residential houses. i) Social Land Allocation Programme: This is implemented in N-E parts of India. Degraded land areas due to Jhum or shifting cultivation are given to tribal people. Farmers expected to raise the forest cover with support of government. j) VrikshaMitra Award: This award is given to promote community leadership in protection of forests and trees. Adoption of degraded forest lands was now thought as Corporate Social Responsibility every where. SCIENTIFIC REGENERATION PRACTICES: Network of Forest Nurseries are established. Forest Research Institutes were established. Arid Forest Research Institute is setup at Jodhpur. Coniferous Forest Research Institute is setup at Shimla. Tropical Forest Research Institute is setup at Jabalpur. Also large number of educational and management institutes are performing research for safe regeneration practices. Indian Institute of Forest Management at Bhopal, Indian Forest Academy etc. are providing education in forestry courses at high standards. 3. a. Describe about importance water as a natural resource. How is it used? Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97% of the earths surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65% water in their body. Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvelous resource. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER: Water exists in all the three forms i.e., solid, liquid and gaseous forms. Water exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature i.e., from 0 Oc TO 100OC. Water

has highest specific heat due to which it warms up and cool down very slowly with out causing shocks of temperature jerks to the aquatic life. It has a high latent heat of vaporization. Hence it takes a huge amount of energy for getting vaporized. Thats why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates. Water is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus it can serve as a very good carrier of nutrients, including oxygen, which is essential for life. But it can also easily dissolve various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic micro organisms. Due to high surface tension and cohesion it can easily rise through great heights through the trunk even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia. It has an anomalous expansion behavior i.e., as it freezes, it expands instead of contracting and thus becomes lighter. It is because of this property that even in extreme cold, the lakes freeze only on the surface. Being lighter the ice keeps floating where as the bottom water remains at a higher temperature and therefore, can sustain aquatic organisms even in extreme cold. The water we use keeps on cycling endlessly through the environment, which is called as HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE. We have enormous resources of water on the earth amounting to about 1404 million km3. The water from various moist surfaces evaporates and falls again on earth in the form of rain or snow and passes through living organisms and ultimately returns to the oceans. Plants too play a very important role by absorbing the ground water from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration. WATER USAGE & OVER EXPLOITATION: Water is absolutely essential for life. Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body. Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature and removal of wastes are all mediated through water. Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity. Water is used for drinking, irrigation, washing, transportation and waste disposal for industries and used as a coolant for thermal power plants. Water shapes the earths surface and regulates our climate. Water is used by human for two types: Water Withdrawal taking water from ground water or surface water and Water Consumption water which is taken up but not returned for reuse. Globally, only about 60% of the water withdrawn is consumed due to loss through evaporation. On a global average, 70% of water is withdrawn is used for agriculture. In India, we use 93% of water in agricultural sector while in a country like Kuwait, which is water-poor, only 4% is used for watering the crops. About 25% of water on global average is used in industry, which again varies from a high of 70% in European countries to as low as 5% in less developed countries. Per capita use of water shows wide variations. In USA, an average family of 4 members consumes more than 1000 m3 of water per year, which is many times more than that in developing countries. 3. b. Discuss about various types of water resources? What are the issues involved in Water Resource Management? Although water is very abundant on this earth, yet it is very precious. In India, due to tropical humid climate receives huge rainfall with an annual average rainfall of 100 cm. Amount of precipitation is 4000 cubic km. In S-W monsoon it is 3000 cubic km. Huge rainfall is received only during the monsoons of S-W. Net water available on surface is 1953 cubic km and utilizable surface water resources is 690 cubic km. Utilizable ground water resources is 432 cubic km. Total available water is 1122 cubic km.

Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97% is salty water (marine) and only 3% is fresh water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us, as most of it is locked up in polar ice caps and just 0.003% is readily available to us in the form of Ground Water and Surface Water. GROUND WATER: About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of ground water and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplies. Till some time back ground water is considered to be very pure. However, of late even ground water aquifers have been found to be contaminated by sanitary land fills, leeches etc. A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable contains water called as Aquifers. Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers, while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not, since they have low permeability. Aquifers may be of two types. UNCONFINED AQUIFERS which are over laid by permeable earth materials and they are recharged by water seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melting. CONFINED AQUIFERS which are sandwiched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments and are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface. Sometimes the recharged area is hundreds of kilometers away from the location of the well. Ground water is not static, it moves though at a very slow rate of about a meter or so in a year. In India, total utilizable ground water resources are 432 cubic km per year. The distribution is Ganga Basin - 170 cubic km/year, Godavari Basin - 40 cubic km/year Bramhaputra River Basin -26 cubic km/year and Krishna - 26 cubic km/year. High ground water areas are Ganga Alluvial Soil, Godavari Basin, Narmada Alluvial soil and Coastal plain etc. where low ground water areas are Deccan Trap, Western Rajasthan and Dharwarian etc. Hence it can be observed that ground water distribution is very uneven. SURFACE WATER: The water coming through precipitation (rainfall, snow) when does not percolate down into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere as evaporation or transpiration loss assumes the form of streams, lakes, ponds, wet lands or artificial reservoirs known as surface water. The surface water is largely used for irrigation, industrial use, public water supply, navigation etc. A countrys economy largely depends on its surface water resources especially rivers. In India, Net water available on surface is 1953 cubic km. The distribution is Bramhaputra River Basin -585 cubic km/year, Ganga Basin - 525 cubic km/year, Godavari Basin - 110 cubic km/year, Krishna - 75 cubic km/year, West coastal plains 113 cubic km/year and Mahanadi 75 cubic km/year. ISSUES IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: Most of water resources are during S-W Monsoons only. Due to scarcity of managing resources, seasonal distribution of precipitation is difficult to handle. Water Resources are concentrated only on some places like Ganga-Bramhaputra Turf, Godavari Basin. In interior of peninsular India, like Deccan Plateau, Bundhelkand, Kutch and Western Rajasthan areas rocks are very hard and impermeable and rainfall is low. Hence protection of water in these areas is comparatively less. Resource utilization is not uniform. In Bramhaputra only 20% of water is used. In Ganga, Godavari, Mahanadi 40% is used and in Krishna, Kaveri basins high

utilization of 80% is used. Inability to impound/store water is less. Storage capacity is less to store flood water. Problems in construction of dams add to this. Capital investment is less, public investment has decreased and investment is diverted to subsidies. Problem with water resources in India is not the unavailability of water but, inability in storing and using water. Misplaced priorities cause the issues. In 1970s, funds are more diverted to welfare measures rather than capital creation. Problems in execution of projects due to protests of environmentalist groups, unable to provide rehabilitations and land acquisition are obstructions to construction of dams. The gestation period in dam construction increase, as investment distribution is over a large number of projects. Natural problems like being a seismic zone (e.g. Bramhaputra Region) also come against construction of dam in suitable sites. Inter-Water state disputes over many rivers are major hurdles for utilization of water resources in India. Disputes are even intense on rivers of Krishna and Kaveri rivers. Availability of surface water is less where the disputes are acrimonious in India. Due to lack of repairs/maintenance of the projects, the existing resources are also coming down. Very slow pace of canal network constructions is another issue. Gap between irrigation potential created and irrigation potential utilized is 10 Million ha. Huge wastage/loss of water resources in particular in irrigation sector is observed. Seepage/Evaporation in unlined canal systems, improper drain delivery methods, uneven regulation of distribution of water in command areas, low water pricing rates are some more issues involved in water resource management. 3. c. Discuss the effects of over water usage. What is the government strategy to handle the issues? EFFECTS OF OVER WATER USAGE: Water is absolutely essential for life. Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body. Uptake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature and removal of wastes are all mediated through water. Human beings depend on water for almost every developmental activity. Water is used for drinking, irrigation, washing, transportation and waste disposal for industries and used as a coolant for thermal power plants. Water shapes the earths surface and regulates our climate. Water is used by human for two types: Water Withdrawal taking water from ground water or surface water and Water Consumption water which is taken up but not returned for reuse. Indiscriminate exploitation of ground water resources has adverse effects. Ground water should be complemented by Surface Water. When ground water aquifers are exhausted ground water table goes down. In India, withdrawal rates are higher than recharge rates. South Punjab, Haryana, East Rajasthan, N-E Gujarat, West Maharashtra and even in Deccan Plateau exploitation with out any proper control and regulation is being carried out. When ground water withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer gets compacted, a phenomenon called Ground Subsidence happens.

Huge economic losses may occur due to this phenomenon because it results in the sinking of overlying land surface. The common problems associated with it include structural damage in buildings, fractures in pipes, reversing the flow of sewers and canals and tidal flooding. Mining of groundwater done extensively in arid and semiarid regions for irrigation purposes is pushing ground table to become very low. When excessive irrigation is done with brackish water, it raises the water table gradually leading to water logging and salinity problems. To both Ground and Surface water, there is a problem of water pollution due to sewerages, industrial wastes and agricultural run off. GOVERNMENT STRATEGY: Optimum utilization of resources is the main target of Ministry of Water Resources. Integrated planning is initiated for utilization of surface & ground water is complemented by Water Policies. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP): This programme is started for completion of all on-going projects as early as possible. No new projects is given clearance until on going projects are completed. Command Area Development (CAD): Development of the farm infrastructure is the target of this programme. Water-shed Management: Optimum utilization of water resources is the target of this scheme. Shedding water is managed by constructing bunds and pits. Cardinal principle is to use every drop of rain water. Along with protection of rain water, soil conservation also can be achieved through this practice. Interlinking of Water Basins: In our country, floods and droughts occur at the same time in various places. Surplus basins with deficient basins are linked, so that a water grid with evenly distribution of water resources can be created. Linking of all rivers and regulating the flow is taken care. Also schemes like Rain Water Harvesting, Waste Water Treatment and Drip Irrigation are being encouraged heavily in the country, for optimum usage of water resources. 3. d. What is a dam? Discuss about various types of dams and issues involved in constructing the dams. * Definition * Benefits * Purpose of Dam * Issues involved * Types of Dams

DEFINITION & PURPOSE: Dam is a barrier constructed across a steam or river to impound water and raise its level. The most common reasons for building dams are to concentrate the natural fall of a river at a given site, thus making it possible to generate electricity;

to direct water from rivers into canals and irrigation and water-supply systems; to increase river depths for navigational purposes; to control water flow during times of flood and drought; and to create artificial lakes for recreational use. The first dam of which record exists was built about 4000 BC to divert the Nile in Egypt in order to provide a site for the city of Memphis. Because of ravages of periodic floods, very few dams more than a century old are still standing. The construction of virtually indestructible dams of appreciable height and storage capacity became possible after the development of Portland cement, concrete and the introduction of earth-moving machines and materials-handling equipment. Controlling and using water by means of dams profoundly affects the economic prospects of vast areas of a nation. One of the first stages in the progress of developing countries usually involves gaining the ability to use dams for power generation, agriculture and flood protection. BENEFITS: Dams are constructed for Water Harvesting and Flood Control. Dams are very important structures for development of irrigation. They play a key role in surface water resource utilization. They are vital assets for agriculture. They prevent or reduce detrimental effects of floods. Although dams have been used for many centuries, their primary purposes were to build up water reservoirs for irrigation and other domestic uses and to create power. Only recently have they been constructed specifically for flood control. An effective method of controlling flood waters and water supply generally, is to construct coordinated groups of dams and reservoirs on the headwaters of the streams that lead into the main rivers, so that water can be stored during periods of heavy run-off and released gradually during dry seasons. During time of high water the dams operate to slow down the flow. The dams closest to origin of the tributaries restrain the floodwaters while the dams farther down slowly release their normal reservoirs and are drained. Then the floodwaters are released to each succeeding dam and are finally emptied into the main river, the capacity of which has been increased by straightening and deepening. A method far less burden some than lifting water was that of building permanent dams further upstream, whereby water could be raised to the desired level. The water was then allowed to flow by gravity through canals to low-lying areas, where it was let out gently sloping fields. This method had been practiced on a large scale by early civilizations, using simple earthwork structures. It is essentially the same principle as that of modern irrigation, using masonry dams or such enormous concrete structures should be constructed. In India, 180 cubic km of water is stored using dams. This is 26% of total available water (690 cubic km). Level of utilization of water resources is low even though it has huge potential. TYPES: Dams can be classified on basis of structural form, construction material, utilization and command area. a) Based on Structural form: Based on structural form dams are classified into four basic types. They are:

GRAVITY DAMS: These are solid concrete structures with triangular cross sections; the dam is thick at its base and thinner towards its top. These dams depend primarily on their own weight for stability.

ARCH DAMS: This dam employs the same structural principles as the arch bridge. The arch curves towards the flow of water, and the main water load is distributed along the dam to the side walls of the narrow valley or canyon in which such dams are built. These dams contain less concrete than gravity dams.

BUTTRESS DAMS: A buttress dam has an upstream face or deck to support the impounded water, and a series of buttresses or triangular walls built to support the deck and transmit the water load to the foundation. EMBANKMENT DAMS: Earth and rock fill dams, levees and dykes are the structures most commonly used to impound water. Everything from clay to large stones is used in their construction. Earth and Rock dams use natural materials with a minimum of processing.

b) Based on Construction Material: Based on construction material dams are classified into four basic types. They are:

EARTHERN DAMS: It is a simple earth embankment type dam.

CONCRETE DAMS: All modern dams are built using concrete mix. Gives high strength and with stands pressure from flooded water. BRICK DAMS: Used in small scale dam constructions.

SYNTHETIC RUBBER DAMS: These are very new to India. First Rubber dam was built over River Jhanjavati of Andhra Pradesh. Rubber dams can be easily raised to their levels just like a rubber tube of cycle. c) Based on Utilization: Based on utilization, dams are classified into three basic types. They are: HYDEL DAMS: Dams are across the heights of rivers. Purpose is production of Hydro electricity.

IRRIGATION DAMS: To serve agricultural purposes

MULTI-PURPOSE DAMS: These dams provide power generation, irrigation facilities, controlling floods, improving navigation etc. Most of the dams are multipurpose only. Damodar Valley Project (DVP) is an example. d) Based on Command Area: Based on command area, dams are classified into three basic types. They are: MAJOR DAMS: Dams that has control over greater than 20000 hectares of land.

MINOR DAMS: Dams that has control over less than 10000 hectares of land.

MEDIUM DAMS: Dam control is over 10000-20000 hectares of land.

ISSUES INVOLVED IN DAM CONSTRUCTION: Stiff resistance is being shown by various groups of society opposing construction of big dams. They are opposing on various economic, ecological and ethical grounds. a) ECONOMIC GROUNDS: These major dams require huge investment of 1000-1500 crores, which is not easily available. Long gestation period, a minimum of 10 years is needed. This locks up the capital for long periods. In this period, cost escalation happens due to inflation and project delays. According Cost-Benefit Analysis, cost-benefit ratios become adverse and expected benefit are not met. Hence dams become unviable. b) ECOLOGICAL DIMENSION: The environmental impacts of big-dams are also too many due to which very often the big dams become a subject of controversy. Dam construction invariably leads to submergence of forests, settlements and agriculture lands. Submergence of forests leads to loss of bio-diversity and causes serious ecological problems. Environmentalists led by Medha Patkar are protesting to save Narmada valley with Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA). The impacts of Dam construction can be at the up stream as well as down stream. Upstream Problems are displacement of tribal people; loss of forests, flora and fauna; changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds; siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs; loss of non-forest land; stagnation and water logging near reservoirs; breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases; reservoir induced seismicity causing earth quakes; growth of aquatic weeds and microclimatic changes. Downstream impacts include water logging and salinity due to over irrigation; micro-climatic changes; reduced water flow and silt deposition in river; flash floods; salt water intrusion at river mouth; loss of land fertility along the river since the sediments carrying nutrients get deposited in the reservoir; outbreak of vector borne diseases like Malaria. Thus, although dams are built to serve the society with multiple uses, it has several serious side effects too. That is why there is shift towards construction of small dams instead of big dams. c) ETHICAL GROUNDS: Dams are constructed on higher reaches, due to this upstream areas are sub merged and down stream areas are benefited. It is not ethical to sacrifice the lands of people in upstream (generally tribals) for the benefit of people in the down stream. Upstream areas are non-vocal where as down stream people are vocal/Affluent. d) OTHER REASONS: Providing Compensation, Rehabilitation, Resettlement is difficult. Compensations are less / inadequate and hence there is large scale of denials and

delays in dam construction. Compensation is based on assets held. Most of the people who have to sacrifice land are laborers and tribals who are mere food gatherers. e) BIG DAMS Vs SMALL DAMS: Small dams is suggested by majority of the nation. Because by constructing small dams investment commitments are low; gestation period is short; no capital locking; benefits on-line with the investments; less environmental problems and displacement & resettlement can go hand in hand simultaneously. Big Dams are advocated by certain groups. Points that support big dams are: Food Security: In a populous nation like India, the role of big dams cannot be neglected, especially in wake of Green Revolution. Food baskets needs are huge. Multipurpose projects are the only answer for food crisis. Development-Environment Relation: Development-Environment conflict is perennial. No developmental project is possible with zero environmental cost. On the name of environment protection, development should not be retarded. Chinas 3Gorges dam is a single huge project that is satisfying many needs of that nation and contributing in its progress. Rehabilitation & Resettlement: The whole issue is of administration and that of the construction of the dam. Rehabilitation & Resettlement cannot be shown as an excuse for opposing the dams. Finally it can be concluded that big dams should be complemented with small dams, where ever they are possible. There should be balanced strategy and check should be done for environmental protection. And a more generous approach should be followed in Rehabilitation & Resettlement activities. 3. e. What is a drought? Discuss about different types of drought? Suggest measures taken and preferred to control droughts. Drought is one of the extreme situations associated with hydrological system. Drought refers to scarcity of water. It is a condition of water scarcity and moisture deficiency in soil as well as air. Depending on genesis, drought can be classified into three types. They are a) Meteorological Drought, b) Hydrological Drought and c) Anthropological Drought. a) METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT: Drought is caused due to meteorological factors like low rainfall received in area. This may be due to late onset of monsoons or early withdrawal of monsoon or long breaks in the monsoons. Inactive phase in terms of rain fall for a long period causes drought. Lower rain fall in India is more due to coefficient of variance in rainfall in some drought prone areas. North Gujarat, West Rajasthan it is less than 30 cm. (Variability >60%). In rain shadow regions of Western Ghats rain fall is of 40-50 cm with variability 50-60%. N.Karnataka, C.Tamilnadu, Telangana, Bundhelkand of UP etc. are other rain shadow regions. b) HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT: In this case, though rain fall exists water gets drained off due to steeply sloping areas. This happens with non availability of natural storage structures like

depressions, rocks may be hard and impermeable, ground water aquifers are not recharges etc. The moderate drought prone areas in eastern side of the country experience this type of drought. Hydrological drought is also experienced in Western, central-Orissa, parts of northern Chattisgarh, Chotanagpur plateau etc.

Chronic Drought Prone Areas

Moderately Drought Prone

Severely Drought Prone

c)

ANTHROPOLOGICAL DROUGHT: Man made factors are cause for drought in this scenario. Large scale deforestation is changing clouds & rainfall pattern and causes slow percolation and thus ground water recharge is also low. Neglecting the maintenance of storage structures, silting of tanks and lakes, reduction in surface water storage etc. are some major anthropological causes. Also, agricultural practices that farm water intensive crops aggravate the drought. Due to specific cropping patterns demands on soil moisture gets increased. Also changes in global climate by human beings cause Global Warming, which intensifies Drought conditions. In general, drought is caused by meteorological and hydrological factors and it is aggravated by anthropological factors. Human beings are main culprit for kind of droughts observed in India. Frequency/Intensity of droughts in India is increasing along with geographical factors/area. CONSEQUENCES: The consequences of drought can be economical, ecological or social. a) Economic Consequences:

It cripples the economy. Drought is an economic disaster. It has political implications too. Adverse impact on agriculture will directly affect the economy. Between years 2000-2004 country has experienced serious drought for almost four years. Shrinkage in net sown rain fall causes serious crop failures and losses. Water available at crucial stages is very important. In India, in Kharif season most of crops is sown and needs timely inputs. Due to less water, alternatively for high production amount of fertilizers and pesticides also will increase. It proves to be very costly for an average farmer. General decline in crop yields, decline production as a whole and surplus agriculture income will come down. Purchasing Power will also come down and thus livelihood is threatened. Drought has huge impacts on agro-based industries and thus consumer demand becomes less. Thus drought has an all round impact on economy. b) Ecological Impact: Continuous prolonging of drought condition cause ground water table to become low. Natural water resources may go dry. The availability of eco system to support vegetation will come down, and loss of green cover will lead to desertification. Drought is an ecological disaster. In areas like Anantapur (Rayalaseema); Parbani, Sholapur (Maharashtra); Gulbarga, Raichur (Karnataka) desertification process have already started. c) Social Consequences: Scarcity of water for man and cattle threatens the life security. Agriculture starts declining and thus 60% of nation who depends on agriculture for employment faces tough time. Both land less and land owned farmers will thus get affected. There will be scarcity of fodder and domestic water too. This results in migration. This will start deserting the village by even small and marginal farmers. This turns into a social issue. STEPS/MEASURES: Two methods can be used to control drought. They are Drought Proofing and Drought Fighting. Drought Proofing means prevention of drought by making areas immune to drought. It can be done by increase rain fall by cloud seeding techniques. Cloud seeding has mixed results. Water Shed Management is another drought proofing technique. Micro and Mini projects of water shed development should be implemented in large number. This conserves shedding water along with soil. River Interlinking and diverting flood water from water surplus to drought areas is a good drought proofing technique. Proper agronomic practices also help in drought proofing. Farmers should be discouraged in laying water intensive crops. Drought resistant crops, horticultural crops, fodder crops should be encouraged. Dry land agricultural techniques should be used. Crops with short gestation period and drought resistance should be farmed. Regular maintenance to irrigation facilities, ponds, tanks etc. are also drought proofing methods. Drought Fighting is performed after the occurrence of a drought where as drought proofing is preventive measure. Depending on amount of rainfall received in past three years compared to average rain fall and crop yield is observed and an area is declared as drought area. Drought and Prosperity go hand in hand. Various programmes are being implemented to handle drought. They are: 1) Food and Work Programme (FWP)

2) Rural Employment Guarantee Programme Works meant for drought proofing are taken up and the rural people are employed in it. 3) Public Distribution System supplies subsidized food at low prices and provides food security. 4) Improving fodder to the animals 5) Drinking Water-Rural Water Supply Schemes 6) Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) is an area specific programme. Our strategies are so far successful to control droughts from becoming famines. But still much has to be done to create a drought less green India. 3. f. What is a Flood? Discuss about different types of floods? Suggest measures taken and preferred to control floods. Flood is an extreme condition of hydrological process. It refers to excess of water. Floods occur when excess water present in rivers, streams, channels inundates the low lying areas on either side of the banks. It is a major economic disaster. It causes great loss to life and property. India is bound to have floods due to its tropical climate and high average rain fall. Flood intensity and frequency is increasing and thus flood prone areas are expanding continuously in India. In 1947, flood prone area in India is 40 Million Hectares. By 2000 it has reached to 80 Million Hectares. Flood is thus a serious case of concern for nation these days. Flood can be classified into three types. They are: Riverine Flooding, Flash Flooding and Coastal/Cyclonic Flooding. a) RIVERINE FLOODING: Riverine Flooding is due to overflow of water from river basins. In India, this is confined mostly to Ganga & Brahmaputra regions. The causes for Riverine Flooding are discussed below: Heavy Downpour/Incessant Rains: Heavy rains in the catchment areas, especially during S-W monsoons causes floods. Shifting of River Channels: Due to this, new areas get inundated. Floods are observed when rivers like Kosi, Teestha, Sutlej and Bhagmati shifted their course. Channel Clogging: Channels become narrower in this case. Indiscriminate disposal of waste causes this. Urban Flooding: Encroachment into channel and river beds cuts down the natural hydrological channels. Reservoir Siltation: Dams some times become counter productive. After few years of construction, depending on quality of dam, reservoir siltation and decreased storage capacity causes floods. b) FLASH FLOODING: It is observed in high altitude areas like in Himachal Pradesh. Land slides in Tibet causes floods in H.P. In this type, loss of life is more. c) COASTAL/CYCLONIC FLOODING: Tropical cyclone across the coast, due to heavy rain falls causes severe floods. CONSEQUENCES:

Loss of life and property is caused. Loss of standing crops, silt and sand accumulation in crop lands making land unsuitable for farming, public health problems like spreading epidemic diseases etc. STRATEGY: Flood Control Board was specially administered to tackle problem of Floods in India. Central Water Commission (CWC) is responsible for flood management in India. Floods are managed by Flood Proofing; Flood forecasting, Flood Warning, Evacuation and Rescue, Rehabilitation and Resettlement and Post Flood Measures. Flood Proofing is the prevention of occurrence of Floods. Construction of series of flood embankments, interlinking the rivers, construction of flood flow channels, desiltation of tanks, ponds, reservoirs, utilizing the remote sensing technology to mark flood zone maps, using GIS to identify flood prone areas etc. are some more flood proofing techniques. Flood Forecasting is linked to level of water in rivers and reservoirs and amount of rain fall in catchment areas. It is very important to estimate the flood and its severity. CWC monitors water levels of main rivers and reservoirs and issues warning when storage reached critical point. Disseminate information is supplied to local civilian administration. Communication and Transport facilities are affected by floods. Hence rescue and relief gets delayed in case of untimely forecasting. Post Flood Measures include providing minimum needs to effected people, protecting people from outbreaks of diseases like cholera and any other epidemics, massive clean up process should be carried to remove silt deposited, removing salt from crop land etc. Crop Insurance Scheme should be enforced and if possible waiver of crop loans or post payment of loans should be carried out. 4. a. What are land resources? Differentiate between various types of soils. Land is a precious resource. Land is a finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our food, fiber and fuel wood, the basic amenities of life. Soil especially in top layers is a renewable resource because it is continuously regenerated by natural process though at a very slow rate. About 200-1000 years are needed for the formation of one inch or 2.5 cm of soil, depending upon the climate and soil type. But when erosion rate is faster than renewal, soil becomes a non renewable source. Land resources serve not only supports cropping and vegetation purposes but also supports many other economic activities. Total geographical area in India is 329 Million Hectares. This is 2.42% of world geographical area. In this gross cultivatable area is 184 million hectares and net sown area is 46% of total geographical area. In India land available for agriculture is huge and very good by any standards. In China it is less than 20% of geographical area, in Russia & Brazil it is less than 10% of their respective geographical areas and in USA 42% of geographical area can be utilized for agriculture. This shows that only in India and USA has vast land resources, but India is far behind USA in development and even in agricultural production. In the land available to India, besides 46% of cultivatable land, 23% is occupied by forests, 13% for settlements, 7% is utilized for agriculture follow lands, 4.7% is uncultivatable waste land and 1.4% is cultivatable waste lands. Remaining is

covered with pastures, grazing land and plantations etc. After independence, net sown area increased and became stagnant by 1970. The share of pastures and grazing is going down and share of waste lands is increasing. The follow lands are reducing and areas under forests is coming down, the settlement area is increasing and land using pattern is becoming unsustainable. The demand for net sown area is increasing due to population explosion. There are two ways to increase production. They are using High Yield Variety (HYV) miracle seeds and bringing more area under agriculture. Increasing net sown area is not feasible and hence high yield methods should be practiced. Land Resource Management: Increasing land productivity is main aim of LRM. Land productivity can be improved by proper utilization of soil resources, controlling soil erosion etc. Reclamation of wastelands also will enhance land productivity and social forestry. By performing dry land agriculture and bringing cultivatable waste lands under farming production can be increased. Using mini and micro water shed projects conserve the top most layers of fertile soil along with rain water. Emphasis should be maintained on cultivation of fodder and horticulture crops. Certain areas like Western Rajasthan etc. are induced with high salinity. Due to this the land productivity gets decreased. Crop diversification and Crop rotation should be adopted effectively in saline rich areas as part of Green Revolution. Flushing saline crust with irrigation water is another technique. The salinity can also be neutralized with help of chemicals like lime and gypsum. Soil reclamation of land resources due to mining activities should be taken care. Mining acts should be made more rigid for better land resources management. SOIL & TYPES OF SOIL: Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic nutrients covering the land resource. Soil supports the agriculture and cropping pattern of the land resource. It can be renewable only when it is properly managed. Soil formation is called as Pedogenesis. It is a long and complex process. About 200-1000 years are needed for the formation of one inch or 2.5 cm of soil, depending upon the climate and soil type. Soil Erosion is bound to occur by exogenic agents of degradation. Natural rate of erosion is balanced with process of Pedogenesis. But because of human intervention the rate of erosion became very high and this soil is becoming nonrenewable. Deforestation in catchment areas cause stream flow during floods with high velocity and this rips of the fertile layer of soil. Intensive agricultural practices, dispensing the fallow system, industrial, agricultural and domestic waste disposal etc. are other man made activities responsible for Soil Erosion. Control/Soil Management: Contour bounding, Terrace cultivation, Mulching practices, Crop rotation techniques which provides timely nutrients to soil, alternative crops, controlling indiscriminate disposal of waste are soil erosion control techniques. TYPES OF SOILS: The productivity and the types of crops grown always depend on the physical properties of soil such as texture, structure, density, pore space, plasticity and

cohesion, soil temperature, soil air and soil water and chemical properties like mineral composition, organic content and soil PH.

Alluvial Soil Arid/desert Soil Black Soil Mountainous Soil Laterite Soil

a.

Coastal Sands: These soils are very deep (180 cm to 5 m). These are coarse textured with sandy sub soils. The water table is close to the surface and ground water is strongly saline. These soils are present all along the eastern coast. Generally nurseries of rice and tobacco are raised and vegetables are also grown in small areas. Casuarina and Cashew Nut plantations can be taken up. Alluvial Soils: These are most productive and very deep over 180 cms. Fertile clay minerals are varying due to to deposition of silts in varying composition. These are identified in river basins, coastal plains, deltas etc. Indo-Gangetic plain, Brahmaputra plain, Narmada-Tapti region, coastal east & west deltaic regions, Krishna and Cauvery river basins etc. are with rich alluvial soils. Wide variety of macro and micro nutrients exist in this type of soils. Due to its high nutrient range, different types of crops like rice, turmeric, sugarcane, banana, Chillies, vegetables, maize, cotton and ground nut can be cultivated on this soils. These soils have high moisture adoption, higher tillability index and these respond very well to irrigation manure and fertilizers.

b.

c.

Black Soils: These soils are medium deep from 45-90 cms. These soils are low in nitrogen, very low in phosphorus and medium in potassium. These exist in the vicinity of Vindhyas and Satpuras, N.Karnataka region, Telangana, Deccan Trap Region etc. These contain basaltic type of lava rocks; hence they are called as Lava soils also. These also have high moisture retaining capacity. These soils are less suitable for irrigation farming and become sticky. These are best suitable for production of Cotton. Hence they are called Black Cotton Soils also. Also rain fed crops like jowar, bajra, gingelly, cotton, tobacco, ground nut etc. and irrigation crops like rice, sugar cane etc, can be grown. Laterite Soils: These are deep to very deep (90-180 cms) and poor in fertility. They are low in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. These are found in summits of hills and high plateaus. They can be identified in summits of Sahyadris, Maikala, Nilgiris, Mahadeo hills; in W&E Ghats and central high lands etc. These are not suitable for general cultivation as they are highly leached and only leaching resistant nutrients exist on the soil. Crops like potato, turmeric, ginger, tobacco and plantation crops like tea, pine apple, jack fruit etc, are cultivated on this surface. Red Soils: Red Sandy Soils and Red Loamy Soils exist. The depth of soil varies from very shallow to moderately deep. They are low in nitrogen and phosphorous content. Hence productivity and yield levels are very low. Fertilizers and irrigation facilities increase their productivity. Crops like jowar, bajra, castor, ground nut under rain fed conditions and rice and sugarcane with irrigation can be grown.

d.

e.

4.

b. Discuss about cropping patterns observed in India. CROPPING PATTERNS: Cropping Pattern refers to the distribution of different crops in a agro climate zone with reference to the area under their cultivation and there places in the hierarchy and productivities of these crops in relation. Based on the ranking cropping pattern, there are I ranking crop and II ranking crop to the national average. Cropping area is considered in terms of area and status of rank. Productivity is considered by yield level of crops with respect to national or regional average. FACTORS DETERMINING CROP PATTERN: The factors determining the crop patterns can be studied under several heads viz., physical, historical, social, economic and government policies. 1) Physical Factors: Natural environmental conditions of a country are the most important physical factors affecting the crop pattern. The physical factors that determine the crop pattern are soil, climate, rain fall etc. For example the soil and other conditions are suitable to the growth of wheat, are conducive to growth of rice. Similarly jowar and bajra are grown in places with low rainfall. 2) Historical Factors: The crop pattern of a country is governed by history. The needs and capacity of population through time have governed the types of crops grown and the lands are earmarked for different crops. The small farmers having 1-2 acre of land gives priority for the crops of his daily consumption. The farmers with more land may have a different crop pattern. 3) Social Factors: Social Factors such as density of population, customs, traditions, attitudes towards material things, willingness and capacity for change etc. have

played an important role in determining the crop pattern. After independence there has been some change in agriculture by taking the advantages of modern inputs, new knowledge and new facilities of agricultural operation. 4) Economic Factors: The economic factors which determine the crop pattern are the prices, income, size of land holdings, availability of agricultural resources etc. The prices of agricultural products of manufactured goods will have tremendous effect in the types of crops that are grown by the farmers. It also determines the size of land that the farmer devotes for a particular crop. The different prices i.e., sale price of products, purchase price of inputs and consumer goods and the terms of trade between agricultural and non-agricultural goods determine the real income of a farmer. 5) Government Policies: The policies of Government affect crop pattern in a very important way. Policies regarding the priorities given to various crops, exports, taxes, supply of credit, development of backward regions etc. determine the nature of crops and area under them. CROPPING SYSTEMS IN INDIA: The cropping intensification techniques include intercropping, cropping, relay cropping, sequential cropping and crop rotation. multiple

1) Intercropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in alternate rows on the same field is called Intercropping. In dry land agriculture, to utilize the scarce rainfall efficiently, cropping pattern should be adjusted in accordance with the available resources. The advantages of intercropping are: a) maximum utilization of resources like sunlight, moisture and nutrients, b) increases in the production per unit time, c) minimization of risks due to diseases, pests and production per unit time, d) building up labour peaks due to the maturity of different times and e) provision of balanced food for the farmer and his domestic needs. 2) Multiple Cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same field in a year is called Multiple Cropping. The main objective of Multiple Cropping is to intensify cropping lies in the choice of crop varieties. Legumes are suitable for any cropping system because of their limited demand on resources like water, nutrients and light. Vegetable crops are also suitable for multiple cropping because of their monetary and nutritional values. 3) Relay Cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously during the part of the life cycle of each crop is called Relay Cropping. The second crop is planted after the first has reached its reproductive stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest is called Relay Cropping. Relay Cropping at ICRISAT Hyd, indicates encouraging potentialities on scope for effective utilization of soil and water and increase yield. The advantages of relay cropping are: a) increase in the efficiency of water and fertilizers; b) control of growth of weeds, c) restoration of nitrogen status of the soil by the inclusion of legume crops, d) adding of considerable amount of organic matter to the soil by foliage drop and left over stubbles, e) effective use of farm labour and cattle, f) no need of preparatory cultivation for second crop. But this system is limited to irrigated areas. 4) Sequential Cropping: Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a farming year is called Sequential Cropping. The succeeding crop is planned after

the preceding crop is harvested. Paddy- Pulses- Groundnut, Green manure Paddy- Pulses- Fallow, Paddy- Groundnut- Paddy are some crop sequences. Certain basic rules are to be observed in identifying the crops in sequential cropping. They are: a) Crops having the same pests and diseases should not be grown in sequence. b) one should be shallow rooted and another with deep roots, c) restoration of soil fertility by including one legume etc. The advantages of sequential cropping are better seasonal distribution of labour, less erosion, better weed control, less insect and disease problem and more yields in rotation. 5) Crop Rotation: Continuous cultivation of crops one after another on the same land is called Crop Rotation. For the completion of one cycle, one or more years are required. The importance of crop rotation was realized long time ago in view of the need for fertility, maintenance, prevention of the spreading of soil-borne disease pests and weeds, control of soil erosion etc. Several advantages with crop rotation are maintenance of soil fertility, prevention of pests, weeds and soil-borne diseases, control of soil erosion, provision of a balanced programme of work through out the year etc. PATTERNS OF VARIOUS AGRICULTURAL CROPS:

Wheat Bajra

Rice

Pulses

Coarse Cereals

Jowar

WHEAT: Wheat is grown in places with moderate temperature and moderate rain fall. It is a Rabi crop and grown in winter season. Alluvial soil and good irrigation facilities are required for high yield of crop. Crop intensities are high in Rabi season. Combination of various crops leads to diversification of wheat variety. Wheat-

Sugarcane combination is practiced in Ganga-Yamuna doab region and Western UP (Sahranpur-Meerut). Wheat Rice combination is mainly found in Punjab (Sutlej doab region), Amritsar region etc. Wheat-Mustard combination is followed in Southern Punjab and Southern Haryana. Problems in producing Wheat are induced salinity, water logging, high production costs, difficulty in maintenance of yield etc. The solution for problems is crop diversification and large scale crop rotations. RICE: It is produced in whole of Eastern India, Bihar, West Bengal, Eastern UP, Brahmaputra plains of Assam, East coastal plains, deltas, Malabar Coast etc. These areas contribute to 2/3rd of total rice produced in the country. Alluvial soils, high temperature and high rain fall is needed to cultivate rice. Rice is generally a Kharif Crop. But in places like Hooghly, Krishna Delta, Godavari and Cauvery, Malabar plains Rice Monoculture is observed i.e., only rice is grown through out the year. Rice Sugarcane combination crop yields are very high. In UP, Bihar and North Bengal, the crop yields are less inspite of having suitable agro-climate. This is mainly due to low cropping intensity and lack of developed irrigation facilities etc. Also most of rice cultivating areas are flood prone areas. Improving productivity of rice is a primary concern now. Emphasis is on to practice tube-well irrigation, increase fertilizer level consumption and increasing HYV coverage. Rice production is must for providing food security to nation. BAJRA: It is grown in Western Rajasthan, Northern Gujarat etc. Arid type of climate and desert type soils are used to produce Bajra, as these crops can survive on low moisture and high temperature conditions. Low rainfall of less than 20 cm is sufficient. About 60% of bajra is produced in this region. Indira Gandhi Canal is introduced in this region, to flush the saline water. Profitable crop patterns are BajraWheat, Bajra-Sugarcane and Bajra-Fodder etc. Bajra has the lowest crop yield in India. JOWAR: It is grown basically in Maharashtra. This zone is connected with black soils. It accounts for 50% of total production. Jowar-Sugarcane, Jowar-Cotton, Jowar-Groundnut are some profitable crop combinations. Irrigation facilities for these crops are not suitable. PULSES: Grown extensively in Western M.P. Dry land agriculture and rain fed agriculture are sufficient to produce pulses. Soils preferred are red and red mixed with black soil. Pulses-Soya bean, Pulses-Wheat, Pulses-Maize etc. are profitable crop patterns. Problems in pulses production are yield levels are low, pest attacks, HYV seed coverage is low, poor irrigation facilities and shifting of farmers towards remunerative crops etc. COARSE CEREALS: These are grown more in peninsular region. Dry land agriculture and rain fed agriculture are sufficient to produce coarse cereals. These are generally sown in higher reaches of plateau irrigation. Coarse types of red sandy soils are suitable for production. The areas that grow coarse cereals are drought prone with low rain fall. CHANGES OBSERVED IN CROPPING PATTERNS: Cropping patterns keeps on changing. This is due to agro-climatic conditions, changes in rainfall patterns, expansion of irrigation facilities, government policies like Green Revolution, changes in income levels of farmers, credit support from government, increased awareness, changes in diet preferences etc. The main changes observed are:

a) General Shift from Coarse Cereals to Fine Cereals: Except for the crop of maize, the area under coarse cereals has come down. This is because fine cereals like Rice and Wheat has good irrigation facilities, market demand, shift in diet preferences, introduction of HYV seeds which gives high yield and thus high returns, also the MSP for wheat and rice is increased by government policies. b) Shift towards Cash Crops: Cash crops like Jute, Cotton, Tobacco, Oil seeds etc. are more preferred. This is due to encouragement of government for cultivating cash crops, Technology missions like Technology Missions on Oil Seeds (TMO), input subsidies; MSP is introduced in 1980 itself, good market conditions and exports. c) Shift towards Horticulture: Cultivation of fruits, vegetables, tree crops, floriculture etc. has good demand. This is due to area expanded after 1980s, urbanization, opportunities in international market etc.

5. a. Discuss about mineral resources available in India, along with


their hotspots? Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties. There are thousands of minerals occurring in different parts of the world. Mineral resources are crucial for modern-industrial revolution. They are obtained from rocks of the earths crust. Rock is an aggregate of minerals and all rocks produce minerals. Extracting minerals from rocks is called as Mining. USES & EXPLOITATION: Minerals find use in a large number of ways in everyday use in domestic, agriculture, industrial and commercial sectors and thus form a very important part of nations economy. The main uses of minerals are: i) Development of industrial parts and machinery ii) Generation of energy, e.g. coal, lignite, uranium iii) Construction, housing and settlements iv) Defence equipments, weapons, armaments v) Transportation means vi) communication-telephone wires, cables, electronic devices vii) Medicinal system, particularly in ayurveda viii) Formation of alloys for various purposes (e.g. phosphorite) ix) Agriculture - as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides X) Jewellery gold, silver, platinum etc. AVAILABILITY: Mineral resources in India are highly concentrated in peninsular plateau. These are obtained from pre-Cambrian / archian rocks which are 2500 million years old. These rocks are old and hard but richly mineralized. Northern plains are poor in mineral resources and are made of tertiary alluvial sediments formed 60 million years ago. The unconsolidated scope of mineralization is less in these places. Himalayan region is again rich in minerals, but it is difficult to exploit them. They are

inaccessible since the terrain is rugged. Also mining in Himalayas is not economically and ecologically viable. Normally Minerals can be classified as Metallic and Non-Metallic minerals. Non Metallic Minerals do not contain metal. Limestone, nitrate, potash, dolomite, mica, gypsum etc. are important examples of non-metallic minerals. Coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals. They are used as fuel and are also known as Mineral Fuels. Metallic Minerals are further classified as Ferrous and Non-ferrous minerals. Ferrous Minerals have iron content. Iron-ore, manganese, Chromite, pyrites, tungsten, nickel, cobalt etc. are important ferrous minerals. Non-Ferrous Minerals do not have iron content. Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Bauxite, Tin, Magnesium etc. are important examples of non-ferrous minerals. TYPES OF MINERALS:
MINERAL RESOURCES

Metallic Minerals

Non-metallic Minerals (Limestone, Dolomite, Asbestos)

Mineral Fuels

Special Category Minerals

Ferrous Metals (Iron, Chromite, Manganese)

Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil)

Nuclear Fuels (Uranium, Thorium, Plutonium)

Non-Ferrous Metals (Copper, Lead, Zinc) (Refractory Minerals, Thermal Tiles, Kyanite, Sillimanite, Magnetite, Fire Clay etc.)

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

MAJOR METALLIC MINERALS: Metallic minerals form an important section of mining activity in India and provide solid base to metallurgical industries in the country. a) IRON ORE: Description: Iron ore is a metal of universal use. It is backbone of modern civilization. It is foundation of our basic industry and is used all over world. The standard of living of people of a countrt is judged by the consumption of Iron. Varieties: There are four varieties of iron ore. They are Magnetite (72% pure iron) which possess magnetic property, Haematite which is 60-70% pure, Limonite which contains 60-40% pure iron and Siderite with 40-50% iron. Use: Iron is used in heavy machinery, steel production, transportation means etc.

Production and Distribution: Major world reserves of Iron are CIS, South America, Canada and USA. In India, Karnataka, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand, M.P. leads in Iron production. These six states account for 95% of iron reserves in India. Jharkhand has the largest reserves where as Karnataka leads in production. India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Annually 50-60 million tonnes of iron is being exported. Japan is the biggest buyer of iron ore. b) MANGANESE: Description: It is an important mineral which is used in making iron and steel and it acts as a basic raw material for manufacturing high strength, heat resistant alloys. Nearly 6 kg of manganese is required for manufacturing one tonne of steel. It is also used for the manufacture of bleaching powder, insecticides, paints, batteries and china-clay. Production and Distribution: India has the second largest manganese ore reserves in the world after Zimbabwe. India is the fifth largest produce of Manganese ore after Brazil, Gabon, South Africa and Australia. In India, the main reserves are found in Karnataka, Orissa, MP, Maharashtra and Goa. In production Orissa tops the chart and Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka and AP follows it. Over 4/5 th of total production is consumed within country and less than 1/5th is exported. This is due to manganese obtained in India is being a low grade ore. Japan is the largest buyer of Indian manganese. c) CHROMITE: Description: It is an oxide of iron and chromium. It is widely used in metallurgical, refractories and chemical industries. Total recoverable reserves of Chromite are estimated at 90 million tonnes. Most of the reserves of this ore are concentrated in Orissa, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, AP and Manipur. Production and Distribution: Orissa is the largest producer. Karnataka is the second largest producer but lags far behind Orissa. The main production comes from Mysore and Hassan districts, Krishna district of AP etc. In world major Chromite reserves are CIS and South Africa. d) COPPER: Description: As a metal copper came in use of man much earlier than iron. Copper has been used for making utensils and coins since long. Being a good conductor of electricity and ductile, it is extensively used in a vast variety of electrical machinery, wires and cables. It is also an important metal used by automobile and defence industries. Further it is alloyed with iron and nickel to make stainless steel, with nickel to make morel metal and with aluminium to make duralumin. When alloyed with zinc it is known as brass and with tin bronze. Mining for copper is a costly and a tedious affair because most of the copper ores contain a small percentage of the metal. Production and Distribution: India is not very rich regarding reserves and production of copper. Major copper producing sates are MP, Rajasthan and Jharkhand etc. Reserves are more in Singhbum district of Jharkhand and Balghat district of MP. India imports copper from USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan and Mexico. e) NICKEL: Description: Nickel does not occur free in nature and is found in association with copper, uranium and other metals. It is used as an important alloying material. When alloyed with iron, rust proof stainless steel of superior quality is obtained, from which utensils are made. Because of its greater hardness and tensile strength nickel

steel is used for manufacturing armoured plates, motor cars, bullet jackets and in naval construction. When alloyed with copper or silver, it is used for making coins. Nickel- aluminium alloys are used for manufacturing aero planes and internal combustion engines. Metallic nickel is used for making storage batteries and as a catalyst for hydrogenation or hardening of fats and oils intended for use in soap and foodstuffs and in making vanaspati ghee. Production and Distribution: A total reserve of 188.7 million tonnes of ore containing 0.2 to 0.9% nickel has so far been estimated in India. Most of the reserves are found in Orissa, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Nagaland, J& K and Kerala. f) LEAD: Description: Lead is a widely used metal due to its malleability, softness, heaviness and bad conductivity of heat. The most important industrial use of leas is as a constituent of alloys such as type metal, bronzes and anti-friction metal. Lead Oxide is used in lead sheeting, cable covers, ammunition, paints, glass making and rubber industry. It is also made into sheets, tubes and pipes which are used in buildings, especially as sanitary fittings. It is now increasingly used in automobiles, aeroplanes, typewriters and calculating machines. Lead nitrate is used in dyeing and printing. Lead does not occur free in nature; rather it occurs as a cubic sulphide known as Galena. Galena is found in veins in lime stones, calcareous slates and sandstones and occasionally in metamorphic rocks or in association with volcanic rocks. Production and Distribution: Ores of lead occur at a number of places in Himalayas, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, AP and Jharkhand. Rajasthan is the leading producer of Lead in India. Indias lead production is not sufficient and hence 75% of needs are met through imports from Australia, Canada and Myannmar. g) ZINC: Description: Zinc is a mixed ore containing lead and zinc and found in veins in association with galena, chalcopyrites, iron pyrites and other sulphide ores. It is mainly used for alloying and for manufacturing galvanized sheets. It is also used for dry batteries, white pigments, electrodes, textiles, die-casting and rubber industry and for making collapsible tubes containing drugs, pastes and the like. Production and Distribution: Zinc reserves in India are rather limited. More than 99% of total zinc produced in India is from Zawar area in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. The production of zinc in India is too small compared to her needs. About 75% of requirements are met by imports, mainly from Zaire, Canada, Australia and Russia. h) TUNGSTEN: Description: It is a valuable metal of which the chief ore is wolfram. This metal possesses some special properties as a result of which it is almost indispensable in several industries. Its most important property is that of self hardening which it imparts to steel. Over 95% of the Wolfram is used by steel industry. Steel containing the requisite proportion of tungsten is mainly used in manufacturing ammunitions, armour plates, heavy guns, hard cutting tools etc. Tungsten is easily alloyed with chromium, nickel, molybdenum, titanium etc. to yield a number of hard facing, heat and corrosion resistant alloys. It is also used for various other purposes such as electric bulb filaments, paints, ceramics, textiles etc. Production and Distribution: Deposits of Wolfram are found in Rajasthan and West Bengal mainly. The yearly production is 45 to 50 thousand kg of ore. This is not

sufficient to meet our requirements and part of the domestic requirements is met by imports. i) BAUXITE: Description: Bauxite is an important ore which is used for making aluminium. It is an oxide of aluminium. It is not a specific mineral but a rock consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides; It is a clay like substance which is pinkish, whitish, or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content. Production and Distribution: Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state. It is followed by Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chattisgarh, TN and MP. As much as 80% of bauxite is used for producing aluminium. Indias exports of bauxite have been considerably due to increasing demand in the home market. Still India manages to export small quantities of bauxite. The main buyers of Indian bauxite are Italy, UK, Germany and Japan. j) PYRITE: Description: Pyrite is a sulphide of iron. Its economic value lies in its being the chief source of sulphur and not as an ore of iron because the high proportion of sulphur in it is injurious to iron. Sulphur is very useful for making sulphuric acid which in turn is used in several industries such as fertilizer, chemicals, rayon, petroleum, steel etc. Elemental sulphur is useful for manufacturing explosives, matches, insecticides, fungicides and for vulcanizing rubber. Production and Distribution: The main deposits are found in Bihar, Karnataka and Assam. k) GOLD: Description: It is a valuable metal which occurs in auriferous lodes and some of it is found in sands of several rivers. It is used for making ornaments and is known as international currency due to its universal use. Production and Distribution: Karnataka is the largest producer of gold in India. AP is the second largest, but lags far behind the Karnataka. Kolar mines in Karnataka are famous for gold production. l) SILVER: Description: Silver is another precious metal produced in India. It is valued next only to gold for making ornaments due to its softness and attractive white colour. It had been an important currency metal in several parts of the world. It is also used in the manufacture of chemicals, electroplating, photography and for colouring glass etc. Production and Distribution: India is not major producer of Silver. Major production is from Rajasthan and Jharkhand. MAJOR NON-METALLIC MINERALS: India also produces large number of non-metallic minerals although only a few of them have assumed as much industrial and economic importance as is done by the metallic minerals. However, they are used in a large variety of industries like cement, fertilizers, electricals etc. a) MICA: Description: Mica is used in India since ancient times as a medicinal item in Ayurveda and is known as Abhrak. With development of electrical industry, mica found new vistas of use. Its insulating properties have made it a valuable mineral in

electrical and electronic industries. It can withstand high voltage and has low power loss factor. Varieties: Three major types of mica are found in India. They are muscovite, phlogopite and biotite. Production and Distribution: India has near monopoly in production of mica, producing about 60% of worlds total production. About 95% of Indias mica is in just three states of AP, Rajasthan and Jharkhand. AP is the largest Mica producing state. Most of the mica exports are to nations like Japan, USA, UK, Norway etc. b) LIMESTONE: Description: Lime stone is associated with rocks composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. Limestone also contains small quantities of silica, alumina, iron oxides, phosphorous and sulphur. 75% of limestone is used in cement industry, 16% in iron and steel industry and 4% in chemical industries. Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar, fertilizers, glass, rubber and ferromanganese industries. Production and Distribution: Almost all the states of India produce some quantity of lime stone. MP, Rajasthan, AP are leading limestone producing states. c) DOLOMITE: Description: Lime stone with more than 10% of magnesium is called dolomite; when the percentage rises to 45, it is true dolomite. The economic uses of dolomite are chiefly metallurgical; as refractories, as blast furnace flux as a source of magnesium salts and in fertilizer and glass industries. Iron and Steel industry is the chief consumer of dolomite accounting for over 90% consumption followed by fertilizers (4%), ferro-alloys and glass (2% each), alloy steel (1%) and others (1%). Production and Distribution: Dolomite is widely distributed in all parts if the country. Orissa is the leading dolomite producer and accounts for about 30% of dolomite production in India. Chattisgarh, AP, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka follow it. d) ASBESTOS: Description: Asbestos has found great commercial value due to its fibrous structure, its capability to be readily separated into filaments of high tensile strength and its great resistance to fire. It is widely used for making fire-proof cloth, rope, paper, millboard, sheeting, belt, paint etc. and for manufacturing fire proof safes, insulators, felts etc. It is also used in making aprons, gloves, curtains, brake-linings in automobiles and insulating mats. Asbestos cement products like sheets, slates, pipes and tiles are used for building purposes. Production and Distribution: Rajasthan and AP produce almost whole of asbestos in India. e) MAGNESITE: Description: It is an alteration product of dunites and other basic magnesian rocks. It is primarily used for manufacturing refractory bricks. It is also used as a bond in abrasives and in the manufacture of special type of cement for artificial stone, tiles, fire-proof floorings and for extraction of metal magnesium. Steel industry also uses Magnesite. Production and Distribution: Major producers of magnesite are Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Karnataka and Rajasthan. f) KYANITE:

Description: It occurs in metamorphic aluminous rocks and is primarily used in metallurgical, ceramic, refractory, electrical, glass, cement and a number of other industries due to its ability to stand high temperatures. It is also used in making sparking plugs in automobiles. Production and Distribution: India has the largest deposits of Kyanite in the world. Major producers of magnesite are Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Karnataka. g) SILLIMANITE: Description: The occurrence and uses of Sillimanite are almost the same as those of Kyanite. Production and Distribution: Orissa, Kerala, Maharashtra and Rajasthan produce practically the whole of Sillimanite of the country. h) GYPSUM: Description: Gypsum is a hydrated Sulphate of calcium which occurs as white opaque or transparent mineral in beds or bands in sedimentary formations such as lime stones, sand stones and shales. It is mainly used in making Ammonia Sulphate fertilizer and in Cement Industry. It is an essential constituent of cement. It is also used in making plaster of Paris, moulds in ceramic industry, nitrogen chalk, partition blocks, sheets, tiles, plastics etc. It is conventionally applied as surface plaster in agriculture for conserving moisture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen absorption. Production and Distribution: Rajasthan is the largest producer of gypsum in India. It is followed by T.N, J&K and Gujarat. i) DIAMONDS: Description: Diamonds have been highly valued and cherished through out the ages because of their brilliance, adamantine, luster, transparency and hardness. They are widely used for ornaments and for polishing the surface metals, minerals and gem cutting. The most important industrial use of diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used for exploration and mining of minerals. Production and Distribution: The main diamond bearing areas are MP, AP and Karnataka. Indian diamonds are in great demand in the international market, especially for Jewellery. Cutting and Polishing is done at centres like Surat, Jaipur etc. j) ATOMIC MINERALS: Description: Uranium and Thorium are main atomic minerals. Beryillium, Lithium and Zirconium are other minor atomic minerals. Production and Distribution: URANIUM: This is obtained from Singhbum and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar and in sedimentary rocks in Sahranpur district of UP. But the largest source if uranium comprise the monazite sands, both beach and alluvial. India produces about 2 per cent of worlds uranium. The total reserves of Uranium estimated by DAE are 30,480 tonnes. THORIUM: It is also derived from monazite which contains 10% thoria and 0.3% urania. About 5 lakh tonnes of thorium reserves are estimated in India. Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, TN and Rajasthan are major producers of Thorium. BERYLLIUM: Beryllium oxide is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors for atomic power generation. India has sufficient reserves of beryllium to meet her requirement of atomic power generation. LITHIUM: It is a light metal which is found in lepidolite and spodumene. It is widely distributed in the mica belts of Jharkhand, MP, Chattisgarh and Rajasthan. ZIRCONIUM: it is found along the Kerala coast and in alluvial rocks of Jharkhand.

k) SALT: Description: It is an important mineral which is used in chemical industry. Sodium Chloride, known as common salt is used as food item. Salt is obtained from sea water, brine springs, wells and salt pans in lakes and from rocks. Production and Distribution: Gujarat coast produces nearly half our salt. Sea brine is the source of salt in Gujarat, Maharashtra and TN. Rock Salt is taken out in HP and Gujarat.

5. b. What are environmental impacts involved in mineral extraction?


What are remedial measures? How to conserve minerals? India is the producer of 84 minerals, the annual value of which is about Rs.50, 000 crores. Mining is done to extract minerals (or fossil fuels) from deep deposits in soil by sub-surface mining or from shallow deposits by surface mining. The former method is more destructive, dangerous and expensive including risks of occupational hazards and accidents. Surface Mining is preferred with methods like open pit mining in which machines dig holes and remove the ores; Dredging in which chained buckets and draglines are used which scrap up minerals from under water mineral deposits; and Strip Mining in which ore is stripped off by using bull dozers, power shovels and stripping wheels etc. Environmental damage caused by mining activities is as follows: Devegetation and Defacing of landscape: The top soil as well as the vegetation is removed from the mining area to access the mineral deposits. Subsidence of Land: This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipelines leading to serious disasters. Groundwater Contamination: Some heavy metals also get leached into the groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards. Surface Water Pollution: The acid mine drainage often contaminates the near by streams and lakes. Air pollution: The suspended particle matter, soot, arsenic particles, cardmium, lead etc. shoot up in atmosphere near the smelters and public suffers from severe health problems. Occupational Health Hazards: Miners working in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc. REMEDIAL MEASURES: Safety of mine workers is usually not a priority subject of industry. Statistical data show that, on average there are 30 non-fatal disabling accidents per ton mineral produced and one death per 2.5 tons of minerals produced. This should be corrected. The low grade ores can be better utilized by using microbial-leaching technique. The bacterium Thiobacillus Ferroxidans has been successfully and

economically used for extracting gold embedded in iron sulphide ore. The biological method is helpful from economic as well as environmental point of view. Restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating the with appropriate plant species, stabilization of the mined lands, gradual restoration of flora, prevention of toxic drainage and conforming to the standards of air emissions are essential for minimizing environmental impacts of mining. CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES: Conserving the mineral resources is the most serious problem because they are exhaustible resources. Once taken out of the mines, minerals are used for ever. This is the reason that mining is often called as Robber Industry. The mineral resources are being exploited at an accelerated rate due to advancement in mining technology. India exports a large number of minerals to earn the much needed foreign exchange. But it will be much better to export goods manufactured from minerals instead of exporting minerals in their raw form. Minerals can be conserved by bringing in efficiency in mining technology as well as the technology of benefaction. There are many cyclic minerals such as iron, aluminium, copper, brass, tin etc. Recycling of these minerals can help in reducing the waste. Britain, Japan, Italy etc, are some of the countries which are using scrap iron on large scale for iron and steel industry. Scarce minerals may be saved by substituting them by those minerals which are cheaper and are found in abundance. The best example is that of aluminium which is now extensively used in electrical industry in place of copper.

x---- END OF UNIT 2 ---x

U N I T iiI
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Ecology - Terminology & Basic Concepts POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. What is Ecology? Define important terms of Ecology. some b. Briefly discuss about various structural and functional concepts of Ecology. 2. Eco System Concept, Types & Food Chains a. What is Ecosystem? Explain the concepts of Ecosystem in detail? b. Differentiate between various types of Ecosystem? c. Describe Biosphere as an ecosystem. With what ecosystems it is related to? d. What are various food chains present in the Ecosystem? Discuss. 3. Bio Diversity Conservation, Types, Hot Spots & Threats a. What is Bio diversity? Discuss the levels and parameters of Bio diversity. b. Estimate the bio diversity in world and India. What are hot spots of Bio Diversity near India? c. What is significance of Bio Diversity? What are posing threats to Bio Diversity? d. How can biodiversity be conserved? Why it is needed? QUESTIONS 10

TOTAL

TOPICS 3

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. What is Ecology? Define some important terms of Ecology.
Ecology is the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological environment. The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil, water and atmosphere. The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and animals.

The term Ecology was first used by REITER in 1885 followed by ERNST HAECKEL in 1886. It was initially meant for animals only and was defined as investigations of the total relations of the animal to its inorganic and organic environment. Warming (1895, 1905) considered ecology to mean the study of organisms in relation to environment. The definition was later enlarged and scope of ecology is extended the study of reciprocal relationship between living organisms and their environment. Misra (1967) has defined ecology as the study of interactions of form, function and factors. According to Krebs (1978) ecology is the scientific study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms. Presently it is also considered to be the structure and function of ecosystems. Ecology is often divided into two, plant ecology and animal ecology. The modern ecology studies inter-relations and interdependence of all organisms. Scope of Ecological studies is very wide. The human race is faced with the problems of providing population. For this cities and towns have grown both vertically and horizontally. The horizontal growth requires the clearing of forest areas for building residential and industrial complexes. The increasing demand for food has resulted in bringing more forest areas under the plough. The domesticated animals, which are reared for meat, wool and milk, also require grazing lands. Trees are felled for obtaining wood for burning and timber. The combination of all-above mentioned factors has caused shrinkage of natural biotic communities and production of large areas denuded of plant cover. The deserts have been created and spread. Flash floods inundating large fertile tracts and populated areas have become an annual feature. Weeds and pests have multiplied. Several million hectares of land have become water logged or saline and thus unfit for cultivation. Different branches of ecology like Production Ecology, Marine Ecology, Conservation Ecology, Radiation Ecology and Space Ecology etc. studies these different kinds of issues and helps in reaching solutions and preventive measures. SOME IMPORTANT TERMS IN ECOLOGY: ABIOTIC It means physical environment. It consists of soil, air, water and energy. It provides both habitation and raw materials for synthesis of organic food. Life processes like pollination, germination of seeds, reparation, hibernation etc. depends upon abiotic environment. The living autotrophic bacteria and green plants are capable of trapping solar radiations to form organic matter by combining carbon dioxide, hydrogen and minerals. These organisms provide food directly and indirectly to all heterotrophic organisms like fungi, many bacteria, animals and man. Some animals depend on plants for shelter as well. Conversely many green plants depend upon animals for pollination and dispersal. Some heterotrophs also help in recycling of minerals and other inorganic nutrients. It is the assemblage of plants growing under the same climate over a wide range. Communities are the discrete units of vegetation. The branch of ecology that deals with study of plant communities, including their composition, organization and development in relation to environment is called SYNECOLOGY. It is a segment of nature consisting of living organisms and the physical environment; both interact and exchange materials between them. A parallel term for ecosystem is Biogeocoensis.

BIOTIC

VEGETATION

ECOSYSTEM

BIOSPHERE SPECIES POPULATION ECO TYPE ECAD COMMUNITY FLORA FAUNA BIOME BIO MASS HABITAT ECOTONE CLIMAX &

FOOD CHAIN ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS SMOG

The biologically inhabited area of the earth consisting of all the ecosystems of the world is called Biosphere or Ecosphere. A uniform interbreeding population spread over time and space. A group of interbreeding individuals found in an area. A population of individuals of a species which genetically adapted to its particular environment. A population of individuals of a species having the same genetic make up, but having different morphological characters in response to a particular environment. A community or biotic community is assemblage of all the population in area. The different populations do not remain secluded but show interactions and interdependence. The species content of the region irrespective of the numerical strength of each species. Flora refers to plant species and Fauna refers to animal species. The complex of several communities growing in a particular area and sharing a common climate is called a Biome. The amount of living material present in different food levels can be expressed as gm per unit area and this is known as Bio mass. The place, where an organism lives, is known as the habitat of that organism. It is also called as Niche. The sharp line of demarcation between two different types of communities is known as Ecotone. The final community of plant succession that can maintain equilibrium with the prevailing environment. Mono-climax theory says that at a time, there is only one climax community which is chiefly controlled by the climate. According to Poly-climax theory, a complex of several communities grows together in a particular area, sharing a common climate. A series of organisms through which food energy flows in a ecosystem. The graphic representation of the tropic structure and function at successive tropic levels of an ecosystem. It may be shown in terms of their number, bio mass or energy content. A fog made heavier and darker by smoke and chemical fumes.

1. b. Briefly discuss about various structural and functional concepts of Ecology. They are categorized into three. They are a) Structural Concepts (Descriptive Ecology), b) Functional Concepts (Functional Ecology) and c) Evolutionary Concepts (Evolutionary Ecology). a) STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS DESCRIPTIVE ECOLOGY: (i) Environment is a complex of several inter-related and dynamic (varying with time and space) factors. It therefore acts as sieve and selects organisms that can flourish well in it. Environment chooses the organisms that fit into it. For example, animals with fur or those which can go into hibernation survive in tundra region.

(ii) All living organisms and their environment are interdependent and mutually reactive, affecting each other in various ways. (iii) The organisms of species put effort to maintain its uniformity in structure, function, growth and development by preserving its genetic pool. However, modifications in somatic characters (ecads) or genetic characters (eco types) happen. Under similar climatic condition, different organisms/species called communities can survive and grow. (iv) It is not only the environment which influences organisms, but organisms too modify their environment as a result of their activities. Organisms seek to modify the environment. They change the topography, rock, climate etc. to make environment more congenial for their living. (v) Clements and Shelford (1939) however, put forth the concept of Biome. This complex of several communities growing in a particular area and sharing common climate is called a Biome. Organisms seek to multiply themselves not only in number but for geographical areas. But this modification becomes unsuitable for other species. So other organisms start to become extinct, thus resulting in Succession. Change in the organic species in a particular area is called Succession. (vi) Organisms that strive in environment are temporal in nature. Climax Species is the species than can survive the change in environment. Ecosystem becomes stable with advent of climax species. Evolution of climax species indicates the equilibrium state. b) FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY: (i) All organisms in the biosphere have specific functions to perform. Biosphere is divided into specific segments called as Ecosystem based on these functions. The basic structural and functional units of nature are ecosystems. An ecosystem is a segment of nature consisting of a community of living organisms and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them. (ii) The biological community consists of populations. Each population occupies a specific functional position (trophic level) with respect to other organisms with which it interacts. It is called ecological niche. Organisms are divided into communities and they occupy a particular geographical area called as HABITAT. (iii) The degree of success of a particular population in an area is determined by the parameters of abiotic factors as well as interaction with other types of populations. The interactions amongst the populations can be positive, negative or even neutral at both inter and intra specific levels. (iv) The source of energy for any ecosystem is Sun. Radiant energy is trapped by autotrophic organisms (producers) and is transferred as organic molecules to the heterotrophic organisms (consumers). Between different organisms of different parts of habitats, there is a continuous flow of energy. The energy flow is unidirectional or non cyclic. As it moves from one species to another, there is loss of energy. The energy level is called as TROPHIC LEVEL. (v) In organic matter available in physical environment is consumed by the organisms in ecosystem. It is consumed for metabolism or for their physical growth

(body building). These are called Biogenetic nutrients. These nutrients keep on circulating between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. Biogenetic nutrients keep on circulating with in the biosphere. This phenomenon is called biogeochemical cycling. Cyclic flow of inorganic matter results in nutrient/sediment/gaseous cycle. (vi) Human beings exploit the environment for economic benefits. Human beings also resort to species selection. Only species that gives economic benefits are encourages and hence Species Diversity is declining. c) EVOLUTIOARY CONCEPTS EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY: (i) All the present organisms are product of evolution of past organisms. Charles Darwin is the father of evolution. The biological changes in species are through process of evolution according to his theory. (ii) Historical causes for present day adaptations by change in food habits etc. (iii) Future ecology can be predicted by evaluating past history and present day adaptation. 2. a. What is Ecosystem? Explain the concepts of Ecosystem in detail? The concept of Eco-System was first put forth by A.G.Transley (1935). He defined it as the system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the environment. According to Odum (1965), the ecosystem is the basic functional unit of organisms and their environment interacting with each other and with the own components defined as the structural or functional unit of nature. Finally it can be defined as Any spatial or functional unit of biosphere where in interactions between biotic and abiotic substances result in flow and exchange of matter and energy happens. An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of pond water. Such a small eco system is called micro system. It may be as large as ocean. All the eco systems are inter-related and exchange materials among themselves. Therefore some workers consider the whole earth as a single giant ecosystem the Biosphere ecosystem. Ecosystem is a functional tool of ecological studies. Ecosystem can be defined depending on the objective of study. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM: There are two major aspects in an eco system. They are the structure and function. The structure includes: 1) The composition of the biological community including species, numbers, biomass, life history and distribution in space etc. 2) The quality and distribution of the non-living materials such as nutrients, water etc. 3) The range of environmental factors such as light, temperature etc,

The function includes: 1) The rate of biological flow i.e., the production and respiratory rates of the community 2) Rate of nutrient cycling or bio-geochemical cycling 3) Ecological or biological regulation of organisms by environment and vice versa. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM: The ecosystem comprises two major components. i) Abiotic components and ii) Biotic components. Abiotic (non living) components: All non living factors (organic, inorganic and climatic) of an ecosystem is called abiotic component. They are as follows: Inorganic substances: These include elements like C, H, O, N, P, S etc. They are absorbed by the plants through root hairs. Organic Substances: These are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc. Climatic Factors: They include physical factors like light, temperature, atmospheric pressure, rainfall etc. Abiotic components support the biotic components and no ecosystem can occur without abiotic compounds. Biotic (living) components: All living organisms of an ecosystem constitute the biotic component. The amount of living matter present in an ecosystem is called standing crop. If standing crop is expressed as weight, it is called Biomass. The biotic component is further classified depending on their nutritional (trophic) relationships. Producers: These are green plants (autotrophs) having chlorophyll. They manufacture energy rich food materials by photosynthesis e.g. green plants, photosynthetic bacteria etc. Consumers: All living organisms which have no chlorophyll must obtain their energy from green plants directly or indirectly. These are called consumers; they utilize the matter built up by the producers. Consumers can be Macro or Micro. Large sized animals which depend on plants for their food are Macro consumers. They occur in a food chain in the order of primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. Micro consumers are also known as Decomposers or Saprotrophs or Osmotrophs. They include chiefly bacteria, acitinomycetes and fungi. The transformers constitute another set of bacteria and fungi. They act upon decomposed products and convert them into organic and inorganic substances. 2. b. Differentiate between various types of Ecosystem? TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS: All ecosystems of the world can be divided into two major groups based on human intervention/ utility. They are a) Artificial and b) Natural Ecosystem. a) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM: These are maintained artificially by man. The natural balance is regularly disturbed by addition of energy in the form of nutrients. E.g. Croplands like maize, wheat, rice etc. Orchards and aquaria are also examples of artificial eco systems. b) NATURAL ECOSYSTEM: These operate by themselves under natural conditions without human interference.

ECO SYSTEM

NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM

TERRESTRIAL

AQUATIC

FOREST GRASS LAND DESERT TUNDRA

LIMNIC (FRESH WATER) MARINE LITTORAL

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

The natural eco system is again classified as Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems. TERRESTRIAL ECO SYSTEMS: Forest, Grass land, Deserts and Tundra are the four main terrestrial eco systems. They are discussed in detail below:

FOREST ECO SYSTEM: Forests are divided into again Rain Water Forest Ecosystem (Amazon Basin, Congo Basin in Africa, Western Ghats in Kerala of India etc.), Deciduous Forest Ecosystem (South Asia, S-E Asian countries especially Chotanagpur plateau in India, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myannmar), Temperate Forest Ecosystem (Countries of Mediterranean region like France, Portugal, Italy, Greece etc.) and Coniferous Forest Ecosystem (Siberian Region, Himalayas etc.). GRASS LANDS: Grass lands can be classified as Tropical Grassland ecosystem (E.g. Brazilian High land) and Temperate Grassland ecosystems (E.g. Russian Steppes, Georgia, Poland South American Pampas, African Velds, North American Prairies, and Australia Downs etc.). DESERTS: Desert can be classified as Tropical Desert Ecosystem (Thar, Sahara, Arabian, Mexican, Atacama Desert of Chile and Western Australian Desert) and Temperate Desert Ecosystem (Gobi deserts, Patagonia deserts in South America etc.). TUNDRA: Tundra type of ecosystem is found in polar and sub polar regions. Found in Alaska region, North Canada, Ice Land, Green Land, Norwegian Coast, Margins of Antarctica and Northern Siberian Region.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS: Limnic, Marine and Littoral Ecosystems are main types of Aquatic Ecosystems.

LIMNIC ECOSYSTEM: It is the eco system observed in fresh water. It is also called as Fresh Water Ecosystem. It can be again categorized into Lentic and Lothic. Lentic deals with ecosystem in standing water like water in ponds, lakes, reservoirs etc. Lothic deals with ecosystem in flowing or running water of streams, rivers, springs, canals etc. MARINE ECOSYSTEM: Ecosystem based in waters of seas and oceans is called Marine Ecosystem. It can be categorized into Nerdic, Pelagic, Benthic and Abyssal.

COAST

MSL

NERDIC

PELAGIC

BENTHIC MARINE ECOSYSTEM DIVISION

ABYSSAL

LITTORAL ECOSYSTEM: Coastal based ecosystem is called as Littoral. It is the junction between continent and oceans. Mangroves, Estuaries, Deltas, Lagoons etc. are example s of Littoral ecosystems. ARTIFICIAL/MAN-MADE ECOSYSTEM: These are products of modern human civilization. Crop lands, Industries, Laboratories, clinics, aquaria forms, space stations etc. are all different types of manmade ecosystems. FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM: Productivity: Synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic compounds. Energy Flow: Producers & Consumers: Organisms that produce food are called producers and those that cannot produce food are consumers. Consumers feed on producers and in turn build up their tissues. Consumers are Primary or Secondary. Primary

refers to Herbivores who feed directly on autotrophic producers. Secondary refers to Carnivorous which feed on Herbivores. Tertiary Consumers are those which feed on Secondary Consumers.

OMNIVOROUS AUTOTROPHS HERBIVOROUS CARNIVOROUS-I FEEDS ON DEPENDS ON CARNIVOROUS-II

CARNIVOROUS-III

DECOMPOSERS: These are important parts of biotic component. They can be saprophytes/parasites or scavengers/detrivores. They involve in secretion of digestive enzymes. They absorb parts of organic matter, utilizing it for their own nourishment and remaining they pass on to food chain and abiotic components. Thus they help in recycling of dead tissues of organic matter. Through this, they also clean up the surroundings from decomposed and dead organic matter. Hence they are called as Scavengers also. They are very important for sustenance of an ecosystem. 2. c. Describe Biosphere as an ecosystem. With what ecosystems it is related to? BIOSPHERE: Edward Suess (1875) was the first to use the term Biosphere for the earth along with the living organisms and environment (temperature, humidity, air, water etc.) According to Odum (1959) the total physical environment (Land, Water, Air) of any living organism is the Biosphere. Biosphere is an open ecosystem on which astrophysical, geo chemical, geological and meteorological forces act upon. Different components of the Biosphere interact in an orderly manner with the living organisms. The interaction of components of biosphere with the living organisms assures the survival and gradual evolution of the organisms. HIERARCHY OF ECOSYSTEMS: BIOSPHERE | MEGA ECOSYSTEMS (Terrestrial, Marine, Littoral) | MACRO ECOSYSTEMS (Forests)

| MESO ECOSYSTEMS (Rain-Forest Ecosystems) | MICRO ECOSYSTEMS (many are there).

BIOSPHERE AS AN ECO SYSETM THE EARTH GIANT ECO SYSTEM SUN

PRODUCERS

FOREST

GRA SS LAN D

DESERT

ARTIFICIAL

NUTRIENT POOL

FRESH WATER

MARINE

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

DECOMPOSERS MATERIALS ENERGY

CONSUMERS

Components of Biosphere: Biosphere can be divided into three parts. They are a) Lithosphere (Land), b) Hydrosphere (Water) and c) Atmosphere (Air). a) ECOSYSTEM OF LITHOSPHERE: All the solid and semi solid parts of the earth constitute the Lithosphere. The Lithosphere consists of several layers which are crust, mantle and cores of the earth. The surface portion of crust is the major habitat for living organisms. It is known as the soil. Soil holds water and mineral ions that form important inorganic nutrients of the plants. It also acts as their growth and aeration. The lithosphere (or) the rocky substance of the earths surface has been moving in a gigantic global mineral cycle. Such a cycle is measured in thousands and millions of years. This cycle involves two important stages: (i) DIASTROPHISM: The elevation of the land mass in vertical direction. It is exceedingly a slow process and many occur in parts of continents or even the whole continent may be involved. During diastrophic changes the land mass is pushed upward, from below or is subjected to huge lateral pressure generated by adjacent parts of the earths crust. This result sin the formation of huge mountains. The Himalayas, the Alps etc. are the youngest mountain ranges that were thrown up about 75 million years ago. Thus the formation of Himalayas has resulted in fertile India on the ocean side and a belt of desert on the other side.

(ii) GRADATION: This is the second major cycle operating in the lithosphere. It involves the leveling of mountains and high land. This is brought by natural phenomena, like geological sinking of land, erosion and dissolution of rocks. These natural actions convert mountains into small hills, hills into plains and plain lands into a sea. (b) ECOSYSTEM OF HYDROSPHERE: HYDROSPHERE is made up of water, essentially in form of oceans. Ocean can be considered as basins between continents that store huge water bodies. They occupy 71% of the earths surface. Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean are major oceans. Pacific Ocean is the largest and occupies 1/3rd of earths surface. Also there are large numbers of inland and offshore seas. Life began on earth in oceans as unicellular organisms. Biodiversity in oceans is much greater than on land. Land near Oceans is categorized as shown in above figure. Continental Shelf has gentle slope with less than angle of 1 o. It is a part of continent but latter on submerged in oceans. Continental slope is steep at angle of 5 o or more. Continental Rise is moderately raising slope angle between 1o and 3o. Abyssal Plain is wide and huge. It consists of ridges, hills and low land basins and deep narrow trenches. 80% of total ocean basin is occupied by Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

CONTINENTAL SHELF WATER

B CONTINENTAL SLOPE

CONTINENTAL RISE

C D LITHOSPHERE LAND CATEGORY NEAR WATER BODIES

ABYSSAL PLAIN

Hydrosphere is the source of water for sustenance of Biosphere. It plays an important role with hydrological water cycle. There is also close link between Atmosphere and Hydrosphere. Water moves from Hydrosphere to Atmosphere by Evaporation. Water is returned to the Hydrosphere by process of Condensation. This continuous flow of water from hydrosphere to atmosphere and atmosphere to lithosphere is crucial for sustenance of Biosphere. Hence it can be said that Hydrosphere has control on the global climate. Any small change in the temperature

of oceanic water results in cascading effect on the global climate. The phenomenon of EL NINO/ LA NINO represents oceanic control on temperature. EL NINO is the abnormal rise in sea surface temperature in the Pacific Ocean. It results in change of oceanic current. Warm waters along the Peruvian and Central American coast replace the Hambolde (Peruvian) cold current. It raises 2-3o in 5 years. Role of evaporation increases humidity of pacific air masses. This change in humidity is transmitted to global areas. It is called GLOBAL TELE CONNECTIONS. It results in on time rains, droughts and it has impact on Asian Monsoons. LA NINO is due to decrease in surface temperature of oceans. EL NINO and LA NINO are good examples to show control of hydrosphere over global climate.

CLOUD SUN VAPOUR EVAPORATION CONDENSATION RAIN

WATER

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Hydrosphere is a huge reservoir of various resources for human beings. Marine food, wide variety of organisms, mineral resources (like hydro carbons, fossil fuel that is extracted from continental shelf), poly-metallic modules (like chromium, magnesium etc. are extracted from Abyssal Plain which is rich in metallic elements) are found in Oceans. Many other minerals are available in dissolved forms in Ocean. Hydrosphere is also source of Energy. Energy can be obtained from water resources in many ways. Some of them are: Ocean Thermal Energy, Wave Energy, Tidal Energy, Salinity Gradient Energy, Ocean Currents Energy, Ocean Winds Energy, Hydro Power etc. Also Navigation, Shipping is crucial for global economic trade and transportation as well as in bonding cultural contacts. It has rich bio diversity. It is closely connected to lithosphere through sedimentation cycle. Through the process of erosion the rocks are eroded and converted into sediments and transported and dumped into the sea floor. This is responsible for bio diversity of the oceans as they

supply nutrients which are crucial for survival of various organisms. Hence Hydrosphere is vital for mankind. c) ECOSYSTEM OF ATMOSPHERE: ATMOSPHERE is a thin layer of air, aerosols and gases surrounding earth surface and held towards it by gravity. The deep blanket of gases that envelope the earth extends to several thousands of kilometers above its surface. It is a mixture of many gases. It contains huge numbers of solid and liquid particles collectively called as Aerosols. Nitrogen and Oxygen comprise of nearly 99% of clean, dry air. Remaining gases are mostly inert and constituted about 1% of atmosphere. The atmospheric composition is Nitrogen (78.09%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon (0.93%), CO2 (0.03%), Hydrogen (0.00005%) and other gases (0.00006%). Atmosphere is classified into various layers. They are TROPOSPHERE, STRATOSPHERE, MESOSPHERE, IONOSPHERE and EXOSPHERE.

EXOSPHERE IONOSPHERE MESOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE TROPOSPHERE

EARTH

LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric layer between earths surface and an altitude of 8km at poles and 18km at equator is called TROPOSPHERE. Troposphere is the most important layer of atmosphere. It is densest of all the layers. This accounts for more than 2/3 rd of the total matter of atmosphere. More than 99% of water vapor moisture is located in this layer. Troposphere has average thickness of 12 km. The thickness is greater at equator, so gets more heated. When heated air raises to great heights centrifugal force acts more at equator, hence velocity is maximum at equator. Troposphere ends with Tropopause. Temperature falls at the rate of 6.5o C per Km in Troposphere.

Temperature is -45o C at Poles and -80o C at equator. It has almost 75% of the air. Therefore, weather, cyclones, anti cyclones etc. all occurs in troposphere. Also this layer causes surface run off or drainage. This causes pattern of flora in different areas. For example, in tropical areas evergreen forests exist and in temperate and arid zones flora like bushes, thorny jungles and shrubs exist. Process of erosion by strong winds and drainage system erodes lithosphere. This tropospheric part of atmosphere plays important role in the global climate. STRATOSPHERE lies above Troposphere up to altitude of 50 km. from earths surface. In this layer temperature rises from -60oC to 0oc. It is free from dust particles and also from atmospheric turbulences. Hence this layer is ideal for flying of jet aircraft. At 25 km. height the ozone layer is concentrated with in stratosphere. This ozone layer is called as OZONOSPHERE. Above this ozonosphere negligible amount of moisture is found. Ozonosphere is also called as CHROMOSPHERE, as chemical activity takes place here. It is the protective sheet to earth from UV radiations, thus saving earths surface. In this layer temperature rises rapidly due to absorption of Ultra Violet rays. MESOSPHERE is chemically active layer. Meteors mainly burn here hence it is layer of meteoric activity. Temperature decreases with height like in Troposphere. It is considered as coldest layer of atmosphere. IONOSPHERE is the layer of atmosphere that is in ionic state. It is electrically charged layer. Temperature increases due to absorption of solar radiation by ionized particles. Radio waves are reflected by ionized layers. Due to electric charge radio waves gets reflected and long distance terrestrial radio communication system on earth came to exist. Reflected radio waves are received on earth by receivers. Hence it is also called as Communication layer. EXOSPHERE is uppermost layer beyond height of 400 km. Temperature gradually increase here. Inter-Intra molecular forces are very weak. Gases are in kinematic state/rarified. Density is very less in this layer.

-100 C 10 C 0 C -60 C
o o o

EXOSPHERE IONOSPHERE MESOSPHERE OZONOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE 8KM


E AUS POP TRO TROPOSPHERE

400 80 60 50 -80 C 18
o

-45 C Pole

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

Equator

The entire ecosystem on the earth are controlled and sustained by the atmosphere. It is a part of physical environment. Global climate is controlled by atmosphere. The flora, fauna and drainage on earth which is vital for biotic life is controlled and regulated by Climate. Climate is the outcome of atmospheric life. Climate is made up of two components. They are temperature and rain fall. Average global surface temperature is 13oC. Temperature is crucial factor of climate. Green house gases (GHG) are responsible for this warm temperature. GHG are transparent to short wave insulation but they are opaque to long wave terrestrial radiations. This temporal storage of long wave terrestrial radiation by GHG in atmosphere causes and controls surface temperature. This climate is controlling eco system on earth. Biodiversity on earth is possible because of warm temperature. Precipitation is controlled by clouds in the atmosphere by evaporation and condensation process. 2. d. What are various food chains present in the Ecosystem? Discuss. FOOD CHAIN: Food and energy is passed through series of populations in an ecosystem. Food chains form essentially due to food habits of different organic species. Populations of a different species of organisms are connected in an ecosystem through a chain of food relation ships or habits. These sequential connections in chain are generally called as FOOD CHAIN.

Distance from Surface (KM)

OMNIVOROUS AUTOTROPHS HERBIVOROUS CARNIVOROUS-I FEEDS ON DEPENDS ON CARNIVOROUS-II

CARNIVOROUS-III

The different levels in the chains are called TROPHIC LEVEL. Different species of organisms in ecosystem at different trophic levels are connected through a food chain. Food and Energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. The loss in the energy release as heat into environment or is used in respiration process. At the maximum, there can be 4-5 trophic levels. TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS: 1. PREDATOR/GRAZING FOOD CHAIN 2. DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN 3. SUBSIDIARY/AUXILLARY FOOD CHAIN PREDATOR/GRAZING FOOD CHAIN: Prey-predator relationships are very strong. This food chain starts with autotrophs. From autotrophs food energy is transferred through herbivorous to carnivorous. Terrestrial/grazing food chain: I. Vegetation (Grasses) Rabbit Fox Wolf Tiger II. Grasses Grass hopper shrew hawk III. Grass Grasshopper - Frog | | Birds Snake | | Hawk Peacock | Falcon IV. Plant Butterfly Frog Snake Hawk Aquatic Ecosystem Food Chain: MARINE AQUATIC: I. Phytoplankton Zooplankton Perch Fish Bass Fish Man II. Phytoplankton Zooplankton Small Fish Big Fish Shark

TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC: Phytoplankton Zooplankton Fish | | Crustaneous Crane | | Predator Insects Hawk | Small Fish Big Fish Crocodiles DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN: It always starts with dead organic matter. MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS: Rhizopore Magle (Dead Leaves) Detrivores (Fungi, Bacteria, Protozoans, Phytoplankton algae) | Crabs, Insects, Larvae | Nematodes, Mysids, Gross Shrimps | Game Fish (Minnowus) FOOD WEB: Food Chains are not isolated. They are interconnected and are very complex in nature. The network of interconnected food chains in the ecosystem is called as FOODWEB. Several alternate paths for the flow of energy/food exist in food web. Food Web provides several alternative paths of flow and energy in the ecosystem. It provides environmental/ecological stability by giving alternative source of food for populations of organisms at a given trophic level. The species chances of sustenance and growth at that trophic level is high. If a species become extinct then in a food chain the species which are dependent on it are endangered but not in the case of food web. The species have been extinct mainly due to anthropogenic, climatic reasons or due to human intervention. The more complex the food web, the more stable is the ecosystem.

GRASS HOPPER

LIZARD S

PLANT S

RABBI T

HAW K

MOUS E

SNAK E

EXAMPLE OF A FOOD WEB

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID: Graphic representation of ecological parameters like population, bio mass and energy present at different trophic levels in the food chain in the form of a pyramid with the producers at the base and the top carnivorous at the tip.

TOP CARNIVOROUS

PRDODUCERS

The pyramids can be developed on basis of population, bio mass or energy. It was first devised by Charles Elton. Hence these are called as Eltonian Pyramids.

PYRAMID OF NUMBER: Population of individual organisms of the species per unit area at different trophic levels in the food chain are represented in the form of pyramid. PYRAMID OF BIO-MASS: The bio-mass present/stored at different trophic levels in the food chain. PYRAMID OF ENERGY: Graphic representation of amount of energy trapped per unit area and time at different levels in a food chain, in which producer is at base and carnivorous at the top.

3. a. What is Bio diversity? Discuss the levels and parameters of Bio diversity. INTRODUCTION: Bio Diversity is the short form of Biological Diversity. It is the sum total of all life on earth, the variety and variability among living organisms and ecological environment. Bio Diversity makes the world more beautiful and exciting place to live. LEVELS OF BIO DIVERSITY: Biodiversity can be studied normally at three levels. They are: i. GENETIC DIVERSITY: It is a measure of the variety of different versions of the same genes within individual species. The variation with in a species increases its ability to adapt to the diverse environmental conditions. When the varieties within a species are destroyed, the genetic diversity diminishes which ultimately leads to ecosystem instability. In other words, greater the variability of the species, the more is the ecosystem stability. ii. SPECIES DIVERSITY: It describes the number of different kinds of organisms within individual communities or ecosystems. The origination and extinction of species are the prime factors which influence bio diversity. Hence most of the studies on biodiversity focus on species diversity. Species Diversity is often used to mean species richness or the number of species present in specific habitat. However, it can also be studied in terms of Species Abundance the relative population sizes among various species or Taxonomic Diversity the genetic linkages between different groups of species. iii. ECOLOGICAL or ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY: It is more difficult to define than the other two levels of biodiversity. Ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological community, including the number of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes that capture energy, sustains food webs and recycle materials within this system. BIODIVERSITY PARAMETERS: i. Alpha Diversity: It refers to a group of organisms interacting and competing for the same resources or sharing the same environment. It is measured as the number of species within a given area. Alpha Diversity increases with the increase in the total number of individuals encompassed and with the increase in the area sampled for productivity per unit area. This diversity declines in the most productive systems, as the ecosystems are dominated by one or two species. ii. Beta Diversity: It refers to the response of organisms to spatial heterogeneity and depends on the distribution of the species in a habitat. High beta diversity implies similarity between the species composition of different habitats. Beta Diversity is usually expressed in terms of similarity index between communities (species turn over rate) or between different habitats in the same geographical area. iii. Gamma Diversity: It is a sort of ecological diversity estimated in terms of ecological gradient. 3. b. Estimate the bio diversity in world and India. What are hot spots of Bio Diversity near India? DIVERSITY ESTIMATION STATISTICS:

Total number of organisms/species known to us on earth is expected to be approximately of 4.4-80 millions. This is lies between 0.1% - 2% of total species respectively. This shows that our knowledge of biodiversity is still minimal. Information about Abyssal region of ocean floor is very less. Still many species are being discovered. In Indonesia, a new species of mammals called Verna are found recently. Various categories and number of species identified are approximately tabled as given below: CATEGORY Mammals Reptiles - Amphibians Birds Fish Plants Invertebrates Micro Organisms TOTAL SPECIES 4000 12000 9100 19100 322500 1021000 5800 1.4 Millions PERCENTAGE IDENTIFIED 95% 95% 85% 80% 66% 5-10% 5-10%

Biodiversity is not evenly distributed among the worlds countries. Barely a dozen countries lying partly or entirely in the tropics account for 60-70% of bio diversity. They are preferred to be called as Mega Biodiversity nations. Species richness is high in tropics and in depths of oceans as both these regions are protected from disturbances due to inaccessibility. The tropical rain forests are regarded as the richest in biodiversity. More than half of the species on the earth live in moist tropical forests which are only 7% of the total land surface. The countries on Mega Diversity list include Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Zaire, Madagascar, Australia, China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia. In India: India has a rich and varied heritage of bio diversity, encompassing a wide spectrum of habitats from tropical rain forests to alpine vegetation and from temperate forests to coastal wetlands. India figured with two hotspots, the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas, which are included amongst the top eight most important hot spots. In addition, India has 26 recognized endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all flowering plants identified till date. With 2.4% of worlds area, India comprises of 7% of flora and 6.5% of the fauna of the world. There are 47000 species of plants and 81000 species of animals in the country. 60 % of this wealth is contained in the Western Ghats. Various categories and number of species identified in India are approximately tabled as given below: PLANT SPECIES Category Number of Species (Approx.) Flowering Plants 15000 Crop Species 167 Wild Plant Species 329 Endemic Species (Unique to India) 5000-7000 Others 24504 TOTAL FLORAL SPECIES 47000

Category Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Insects Mollusks Invertebrates Others

ANIMAL SPECIES Number of Species (Approx.) 370 1230 430 200 2500 57245 5042 10000 3000 81000

TOTAL FAUNAL SPECIES

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY: Hotspots are the regions that harbor a great variety of endemic species and at the same time have been significantly impacted and altered by human activities. Hot spot concept was first described by British ecologist Norman Myers in 1988. To qualify as a hotspot, a region must support 1500 endemic plant species or 0.5 % of its original habitat due to human intervention. There are 25 biodiversity hotspots which contain 44% of all plant species and 35% of all terrestrial vertebrate species. These hot spots account for only 1.4% of the plants land area. Some hot spots in India and its boundaries: Indo-Burma: It covers about 2 million sq.km. of tropical Asia to the east of the Indian sub continent. It includes all of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam and almost the entire territory of Thailand, Myannmar and Bhutan. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: This hot spot comprise of Montana forests in the south Western part of India and neighboring island of Sri Lanka. Owing to population pressure the forests of Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have been severely affected by the demands for timber and agriculture land. This region is home to a diverse and endemic collection of plants, reptiles and amphibians. It supports large populations of Asian elephants, Indian Tigers and Endangered Lions. 3. c. What is significance of Bio Diversity? What are posing threats to Bio Diversity? Biodiversity significance can be reviewed in terms of economy, ecology and moral. a) ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE: Human beings are more concerned to economic significance of Bio diversity. SOURCE OF FOOD: 85% of the worlds food needs are provided by 20 plant species and the rest is made through animal species. 66% of worlds food is provided by just three crops viz. Wheat, Rice and Corn. Bio Technology we use today for food production is a product of genetic diversity only. MEDICINAL VALUE: Drugs/Pharmaceuticals use various floral segments in preparation of medicines. Morphine obtained from plant species is used as analgesic, Quinine is a Malarial Drug and Taxoid obtained from Yew tree bark is used as Anti Cancer Drug. 25% of all the drugs are provided by 120 plant species. Also synthetic drugs manufactured have their roots in plants only.

LIVELIHOOD: These provide livelihood and security for rural people and tribes living in forests. RESOURCES: Bio diversity species are resource providers for future generations. BIO-TECHNOLOGY: Bio Technology has exciting prospects and it is being promoted more in hot spots of Bio Diversity. b) ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The ecological reasons gain importance due to threat of global ecological imbalance. Conservation of Bio Diversity gains importance in the wake of looming threat to global ecological problems. NORMAL ECOLOGICAL CYCLES: Nutrients sedimentation cycles, gaseous cycles, hydrological cycles etc. are important and have significant role in environment. Bio Diversity has important role in sustenance of these cycles. STRENGTHENING FOOD WEB: Bio Diversity results in maintaining complex food web. A complex food web is required for the sustenance and stability of ecosystem. ECOLOGICAL SERVICES: Bio Diversity maintains gaseous composition of atmosphere. It exercises climate control, particularly in virgin forests. It has role in maintenance of soil fertility. Natural pest control, fallen leaves and dead organisms adding humus to soil etc. are very important ecological processes. Conservation and purification of water on earth, nutrient cycles etc. are must for smooth running of ecosystems. The value of services provided by forests is 16-50 Trillion US $ per year. c) MORAL SIGNIFICANCE: AESTHETIC PLEASURE: Bio Diversity adds scenic beauty, whose value cant be estimated. Eco Tourism also derives commercial benefits in the name of aesthetic value. Tourism is well promoted in areas of rich bio diversity. Delhi, Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Kerala has high international tourist traffic too. Also adventurous tourism is gaining significance these days. India has lot of scope in tourism. SPIRITUAL TOURISM: Bio diversity species are regarded as sacred symbols of spirituality. Bio Diversity has guided value system for the society. Nature Worship is the common thread for all ancient civilizations. It provides moral perspective and spiritual sense to eastern countries. In the last century there is large scale degradation of environment due to dilution of these values and morals. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND THEIR CAUSES: Large scale extinction of species is happening in world. Some are becoming endangered and other vulnerable. It directly affects the benefits and economic services. In 18000 species accessed, 11000 are threatened. In that 5600 species are plant species and remaining are animal species. 1000 plant species and 925 animal species are critically endangered. Some species like Dodo, Passenger Pigeon etc. already became extinct. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) also known as world conservation union determines the category of endangered species and populations. Extinct, Extinct in Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare are several categories. The IUCN has set up the Threatened Plants Committee (TPC) in 1974 to provide focus for information on threatened plants and to ensure that appropriate botanical data reach the decision makers. The Botanical Survey of India has reported that more than 20 wild plants having potential medical qualities are believed to have become extinct or facing extinction from India. The zoological survey of India has been documenting the

animal diversity of country. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened by IUCN, or 2.9% of the worlds total number of threatened species. These include 53 species of mammals, 69 birds, 23 reptiles and 3 amphibians. India contains globally important populations of some of Asias rarest animals, such as Bengal Fox, Asiatic Cheetah, Marbled Cat, Asiatic Lion, Indian Elephant, Asiatic Wild Ass, Indian Rhinoceros, Markhor, Gaur, Wild Asiatic Water Buffalo etc. As many as 3000-4000 higher plants are under various degrees of threat in India. There are 396 known endemic higher vertebrate species identified in India. Endemism among mammals and birds is relatively low. CAUSES: There are different reasons for loss of bio diversity. They are (i) Natural causes: Natural extinction during process of evolution is the cause. Natural extinction is slow. (ii) Catastrophes: Wild fire, volcanoes, floods, earth quakes etc. lead to mass extinction. It is sudden and rare. (iii) Anthropogenic causes: It is due to human action. The man made causes extinct biodiversity at a rapid pace in short period of time. Destruction of species habitats (forests), forest degradation, deforestation, submergence due to dams, mining and industrial activity, settlements and expansion of agricultural land etc. are the major causes. Due to competition of food and space increases, survival of organisms become difficult and reproductive capacities are effected. Habitat Fragmentation is another cause. Habitat is divided into parts/fragments due to construction of roads, railways and canals etc. cause wild life to be exposed. Pollution due to waste disposal into ecosystem is affecting biodiversity. (iv) Invasion: Invading the eco system and exploiting the species foe their valuable products also causes extinction. Elephants are trapped for ivory, tigers and deers for their skin, antelopes for their horns etc. are hunted. 3. d. How can biodiversity be conserved? Why it is needed? Breaking of food chain and disrupting the nutrient cycle will destabilize the ecosystem. It leads to depletion of species and weakens bio diversity. When ecosystem is unstable survival of human beings itself may be at stake. Hence Biodiversity must be conserved. Many susceptible and threatened species can be conserved. Wide or large bodied species; species with small population, low reproductive rates like Blue Whale and Red Panda; Organisms located at higher trophic levels like carnivores, as the availability of food and energy is very less at higher trophic levels (e.g. Tiger, Lion, Eagle, Hawk, Game Fish, Shark etc.); Organisms having fixed migratory routes and fixed habitats, since their tolerate limits are less. (E.g. Siberian crane); Animals localized in a narrow range of distribution etc. are susceptible to extinct and should be protected as high priority. There are two main categories of conservation. They are In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation. IN-SITU CONSERVATION: This is the conservation of genetic resources through their maintenance within natural or even man made ecosystems in which they occur. This is an ideal system for genetic resources conservation. This is done mainly through legal administrative measures. This included establishment of protected areas like National Parks and

Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, Nature Reserves, Reserved and Protected Forests. The designated area of land and water dedicated to the maintenance and protection of Bio Diversity is called as Protected Area. According to World Conservation Monitoring Centre, there are 37000 protected areas all over the world. In India about 600 protected areas exist. Today India has 75 national parks, 421 wild life sanctuaries covering an area of 1.4 lakh km, constituting more than 4% of total geographic area of the country and one-fifth of the forest area. The protected areas include 27 tiger reserves as well as 14 biosphere reserves. How ever the conservation efforts towards plant species have not been given adequate attention particularly of those which have potential economic and scientific value. Details of some major types of protected places are given below: National Parks: A national park is a designated area of natural habitat which is strictly reserved for the conservation of wild life. In these areas forestry, grazing and cultivation are strictly barred. Specific efforts are made for in-situ breeding of the species. The reproductive rate is enhanced by maintaining natural condition during breeding. Any kind of habitat manipulation is strictly prohibited. Wild Life Sanctuary: This is an area, in which certain activities like timber production, collection of minor forest products and even private ownership of the land is allowed as long as they dont indulge in modification of habitat. If particular species is endangered then species specific conservation measures like Project Tiger, Project Elephant etc. Bio Sphere Reserves: It was introduced by UNESCO under Man and Biosphere Programme (MBP) in 1971. It is a special category of protected area of land, sea or littoral region where in people are regarded as an integral component of the system. About 425 biospheres are formed in 95 countries. It is a comprehensive programme. It concerns on species, genetic and ecosystem diversities. It focuses in Conservation. Development and R&D. There are 14 biosphere reserves in the country. They are BIOSPHERE RESERVE Achankmar Amarkantak Agasthyamalai Dihang-Dibang Dibru-Saikhowa Great Nicobar Gulf of Mannar (Marine) Kanchenganga Manas Nanda Devi Nilgiris Nokrek Pachmarhi Simlipal-Mayurbhanj Sunderbans LOCATION Between MP-Chattisgarh Western Ghats of Kerala Arunachal Pradesh Assam Andaman & Nicobar Between India & Srilanka (largest marine 10500 km2) Sikkim Assam Uttar Pradesh (largest aquatic 5860 km2) Between TN, Karnataka, Kerala Meghalaya (smallest 82 km2) Mahadeo Hills (M.P.) Orissa Mouth of River Hooghly

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Among these four biospheres are identified by UNESCO. They are: Nanda Devi, Gulf of Mannar, Sunderbans and Nilgiris.

EX-SITU CONSERVATION: This conservation is done outside their habitats by perpetuating sample populations in resource gene centres, zoos, botanical gardens etc. or in the form of gene pools and genetic storage for fishes, germ plasm banks for seeds, pollen, semen, ova, cells etc. Plants are more readily maintained than animals. In this type of conservation, seed banks, botanical gardens, pollen storage, tissue culture and genetic engineering have been playing an important role. There are 1500 botanical gardens in the world and they conserve 80000 species.

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U N I T - iV
S.No. 1. SYLLABUS TOPICS Environment Pollution Air, Water, Soil & Noise POSSIBLE QUESTIONS a. What is Environment Pollution? Describe the measures to control it. b. What is Air Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. c. What is Water Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. d. What is Soil Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. e. What is Noise Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. a. Discuss about different types of solid waste and various factors affecting generating the solid waste. b. Explain the process of Recycling and Reuse of Solid Wastes. Also discuss the importance of it in present days world. QUESTIONS 7

2.

Solid Waste Management Types, Factors affecting its generation, Impact of Solid Waste, Recycling and Reuse

TOTAL

TOPICS 2

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS


1. a. What is Environment Pollution? Describe the measures to control it.
Pollution is a contamination of the environment by man-made substances or energy that has adverse effects on living or non-living matter. Environmental Pollution can, therefore, be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property. Contamination of air, water, or soil materials interferes with human health, the quality of life, or the natural functioning of eco systems. A pollutant is a substance (e.g., dust, smoke), chemical (SO2) or factor (noise, heat) that on release into environment tends to slow down the potential growth of an eco system. From an ecosystem view point, there are two basic types of pollutants. They are: (i) Non-biodegradable Pollutants: The substances which are normally not acted upon by microbes. They are of further two sub types: (a) Wastes- e.g.: glass, plastics, phenolics, aluminium cans etc. (b) Poisons e.g.: radio active substances, pesticides, smog, gases, heavy metals like mercury, lead etc. (ii) Biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants capable of being removed by biological or microbial action. E.g. sewage

Pollution can be categorized according to the medium in which it occurs; atmospheric pollution, fresh water & sea pollution, or land pollution. The most familiar forms of pollution result from the chemical properties of substances concerned, but the physical properties may also be important, for example ionizing radiation, noise pollution and excessive heat. Air pollution can result in adverse effects on health, crops, natural ecosystems, materials and visibility. On a global scale air pollution probably represents the greatest problem of all, with green house gases resulting in global warming and CFCs depleting stratospheric ozone layer. Nuclear waste is a further modern environmental concern, which poses a problem not just for present generation, but for future generation as waste remains radio active for thousands of years. Water pollution arises from discharge of industrial, agricultural and human wastes into fresh waters, estuaries and seas. This may result in poisoning of aquatic organisms or depletion of oxygen owing to excessive growth of microorganisms, which makes less of water habitable for fish. Metal pollution and toxic organic compounds are of concern for human and environmental health as a result of discharges to water, air and the terrestrial environment. Trends in pollution are difficult to determine accurately, on an average there is global increase in CO2 at a rate of about 0.5% per year. Over all there is a trend for decreasing levels of pollutants in the developed world, but the opposite in many developing countries as they rapidly industrialize. The reductions in developed world result largely from environment legislation, which has led to introduction of control measures and cleaner technology. Examples are introduction of more advanced waste water treatment processes, shifts to cleaner fuels and the recycling of potential contaminants. 1. b. What is Air Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. The atmosphere has a distinct layered structure and can be divided on basis of temperature and altitude from earths surface. These are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere and Exosphere. Atmosphere contains various gases. They are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), CO2 (0.03%) and other gases like helium, neon, krypton, xenon etc. Atmospheric Pollution is the contamination of the atmosphere with the harmful bi-products of human activity. Air Pollution is the contamination of the atmosphere by gaseous, liquid or solid wastes or by-products that can endanger human health, attack materials, reduce visibility or produce undesirable odour. CAUSES & SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION: Each year industrially developed countries generate billions of tonnes of pollutants. Some of the sources are given below: POLLUTANT Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Carbon Monoxide (CO) SOURCES Combustion of Oil, Coal, Petrol and Diesel Limited combustion of oil, coal, petrol and diesel fuels EFFECTS Green House Effect Leads to photo chemical smog; deprives body of oxygen by combining with Haemoglobin causing

Lead Compounds Oxides of Nitrogen (NO, NO2) Sulphur (SO2) Dioxide

From leaded petrol used by cars High temperature combustion in cars and to some extent from power stations Oil, Coal, combustion in power station Nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons test, wars

head aches, drowsiness and can be fatal at high concentrations. Creates neural issues in children, Acid Rain, increases Asthma, causes irritation of lung tissue, increases susceptibility to viral attacks Acid Rain, damages plants, trees, buildings & lakes, exacerbates Asthma and cause irritation to eyes, nose and throat Radio activity, contamination of locality, cancers, mutations & death

Nuclear Waste

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS: A normal human being breathes about 25,000 times a day at a rate of 30 to 60 kg of air per day. A person can survive for 5 weeks with out food and five days without water but not more than 5 minutes with out air. Hence air that we breathe must be of good quality. Air pollution damages the quality and quantity of air. Pollutants have direct and indirect effect on climate, vegetation, man and materials. On Vegetation: Most obvious damage caused by air pollution to vegetation occurs in leaf structure. NO2, SO2, Acid Rains, Ozone etc. are major pollutants that effect natural vegetation. On Health: CO is poisonous as it combines with haemoglobin forms Carboxy Haemoglobin and thus prevents oxygen in body. Continued inhalation leads to death. This condition is known as Asphyxia. SO2 effects respiratory system, NO2 effects lungs and Hydrocarbons can cause cancer. CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION: Air pollution can be minimized by following methods: a) Citing of industries only after proper Environmental Impact Assessment Studies (EIA); b) Using low sulphur coal in industries; c) Using mass transport system like trains etc; d) Encouraging pollution less vehicles like Bicycles; e) Shifting to less polluting fuels like Hydrogen Gas; f) Using non-conventional and renewable sources of energy; g) Using biological filters and bio scrubbers; h) Chemical procedures like adsorption and absorption can be used to control small quantities of pollutants present in large volume of air; i) Using combustion equipments that release less polluted air; j) Condensation of vapour from effluent gases as a method of recovery; k) Automobile emission control in metropolitan cities. Air pollution is a major threat. Every man must fight against it on a war front, instead of wringing his hands in despair or joining the carping crowds demanding a halt to technological advances. Man should participate actively in the environment

quality improvement programmes. Moreover, government acts effectively and efficiently. 1. c. What is Water Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. Definition: Water pollution is the contamination of water by foreign matter such as micro organisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes or sewage. Such matter deteriorates the quality of the water and renders it unfit for its intended uses. Water is an essential commodity for survival. We need it for drinking, cooking, bathing, irrigation and many industrial purposes. Water pollution means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water either directly or indirectly. CAUSES & TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. Non-point Source Water Pollution: Non point source water pollution, once

known as diffuse source pollution, arises from a broad group of human activities for which the pollutants have no obvious point of entry into receiving water courses. Surface run off from agricultural fields, overflowing small drains, rain water sweeping roads and fields, atmospheric deposition etc. are the non-point sources of water pollution.

2. Point Source Pollution: It represents those activities where waste water is

routed directly into receiving water bodies by, for example, discharge pipes, where they can be easily measured and controlled. Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants, underground coal mines, offshore oil wells etc. POLLUTION OF VARIOUS WATER RESOURCES: 1. Ground Water Pollution: Ground water forms about 6.2% of total water available on planet earth and is about 30 times more than surface water (streams, lakes and estuaries). There are a number of potential sources of ground water pollution. Septic tanks, industry (textile, chemicals and tanneries), deep well injection, mining etc. are mainly responsible for ground water pollution, which is irreversible. Ground Water Pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate are posing serious health hazards. 2. Surface Water Pollution: The major sources of surface water pollution are: a. Sewage: Pouring the drains and sewers in fresh water bodies causes water pollution. This problem is severe in cities. b. Industrial Effluents: Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides, ammonia, radio active substances etc. are sources of water pollution. They also cause thermal (heat) pollution of water. c. Synthetic Detergents: Synthetic detergents used in washing and cleaning produce foam and pollute water. d. Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides washed by rain water and surface run off pollute water. e. Oil: Oil spillage into sea water, during drilling & shipment pollute it.

f. Waste heat: Waste heat from industrial discharges increases the


temperature of water bodies and affects distribution and survival of sensitive species. EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION: Notable effects of water pollution include those involved in human health. Nitrates (the salts of Nitric Acid) in drinking water can cause a disease in infants that some times result in death. Cadmium mixed with water can cause an acute diarrhoeal disorder and liver and kidney damage. Aquatic life is also affected largely due to water pollution. Pollutants become fatal for fish and other aquatic organisms by causing Eutrophication. The pollution of water supplies is probably responsible for more human illness than any other environmental influence. The diseases are transmitted chiefly due to micro organisms and parasites. Excess of fluorine present in drinking water causes deformation of bones. Case study by Defence Laboratory in Jodhpur says that around 3.5 lakh inhabitants are crippled in Rajasthan due to Fluorosis. Lead mixed with water is a poisoning agent. Lead pollution causes liver and kidney damage, reduction in haemoglobin formation, mental retardation and abnormalities in fertility and pregnancy. Further various types of bacteria, protozoans etc. cause various skin diseases, cholera etc. It should be recognized that water is an important factor in transmission of many diseases. Cholera, an illness caused by ingestion of the bacterium Vibrio Cholerae, is characterized by intense diarrhoea, which results rapidly in massive fluid depletion and death in a very large percentage of untreated patients. Polluted water also causes Typhoid. CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION: It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. The following points help in reducing water pollution from non-point sources: a) Judicious use of agro chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their surface run off and leaching. Avoid use of these on sloped lands; b) Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the fertilizers; c) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides; d) Prevent run off manure. Divert such run off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields. e) Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided to prevent over flow of sewage with rain water; f) Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also prevent soil erosion. g) Waste waters should be properly treated by primary and secondary treatments to reduce BOD, COD levels up to permissible levels of discharge. h) Proper chlorination should be done to prevent formation of chlorinated hydro carbons or disinfection should be done by Ozone or UV radiations; i) Septic tanks, Trickling filters can be treated biologically by using anaerobic and purifying bacteria. j) Stabilization of eco system, reutilization and recycling of waste, removal of pollutants. 1. d. What is Soil Pollution? Suggest measures to control it.

Soil is a superficial covering that overlie the bedrock of most of the land area of the earth. The primary components of soil are inorganic materials that are mostly produced by the weathering of bed rock; soluble nutrients or chemical elements and compounds used by plants for growth; various forms of organic matter and gases (notably O2, N2, and CO2) and water required by plants and organisms. Most of air pollutants ultimately settle on the soil. They include mercury from thermal plants, lead from the automobile exhausts, as from coal based industries, water soluble gases etc. The other sources of soil pollution are paper, card board, plastics, rubber, clothes, leathers, construction materials like brick, cement etc. Many pesticides and herbicides applied by aerosol spray also enter into the soil causing pollution. Some of the important pollutants and their influence are described below:

1. Agricultural Wastes: Modern Agriculture is mainly responsible for pollution of

2.

3. 4. 5.

the soil, through the non-judicious use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides and fumigants. Most of them are persistent chemicals. The chlorinated hydrocarbon like DDT, DDE, Aldrin, Endrin, BHC are fat soluble. They are, there fore tend to accumulate inside the living organisms. Industrial Wastes: Both solid and liquid wastes of the industry are dumped over the soil. These wastes contain a number of toxic chemicals like mercury, copper, zinc, lead, cadmium, cyanides, thiocyanates, acids, alkalies, organic solvents etc. Zinc along with cadmium is released in to the environment during the use of break down of lubricating oils, vehicle tyres, galvanized metals and fertilizers. All these chemicals reach the deeper layer of the soil, polluting the ground water. Mine Dust: Mine Dust is the major source of pollution in mining areas. The deposition of this particular matter over the foliage destroys the vegetation in areas. Desertification: Desertification, over grazing, unplanned irrigation practices, soil erosion are some of causes for formation of deserts. Because of this, the arable fertile land is gradually reducing in arid and semi-arid zones. Domestic Rubbish: With the progressive industrialization, the rubbish from dwellings and working areas is increasing to such an extent, that immediate action is required for its disposal. The chief components of the rubbish are food wastes (garbage) paper, card board, plastics, metal containers, glass etc. Street sweepings, refuge of business establishment and hospitals add to the rubbish. The hospital refuse is generally infested with numerous pathogens. The same should be burnt separately and is not allowed to mix up with the general rubbish.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION: Soil Degradation: It is the decline in quality and quantity of osil. The excessive use of Nitrogen fertilizers has rekindled the debate on the acidifying effects of N fertilizers added to soils. Increase of phosphorous also adds to rate of soil acidification. CONTROL MEASURES: a) Proper management of solid waste is essential for eco friendly environment planning.

b) Emphasis on biological systems to supply fertility and pest control rather than chemical inputs. c) Organic Farming: Rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation etc. d) Biological Farming: Nature farming e) Regenerative agriculture: In regenerative agriculture, bunds on natures own inherent capacity to cope with pests, enhance soil fertility and increase productivity f) Mixed farming g) Integrated Intensive Farming System (IIFS): This methodology involves intensive use of farm resources. To be ecologically sustainable, such intensification should be based on techniques which are knowledge intensive rather than capital intensive. h) Remediation of chemically degraded soil, by biological activity. 1. e. What is Noise Pollution? Suggest measures to control it. Sound is a physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing. We hear various types of sounds everyday. Sound is mechanical energy from a vibrating source. A type of sound may be pleasant to some one and unpleasant to others. The unpleasant and unwanted sound is called as NOISE. WHO defines it as: Noise must be recognized as a major threat to human well being. Sound is a form of energy and requires a medium, which may be a gas, solid or liquid for its propagation. It cannot travel through vacuum. Sound wave is a pressure perturbation in the medium through which sound travels. Sound pressure alternatively causes compression and rare fraction. Sound is measured in decibels (dB). Human ear is known to be sensitive to an extremely wide intensity from 0 to 180 dB. Here 0 dB is the threshold of hearing while 140 dB is the threshold of pain. There is a wide range of sound pressures, which encounter human car. A meaningful logarithmic scale has been devised by Central Pollution Control Board is as given below: NOISE STANDARDS RECOMMENDED BY CPCB COMMITTEE Noise level in Decibels Area Code A B C D Category of Area Industrial Commercial Residential Silence Zone Day 75 65 55 50 Night 70 55 45 40

The main sources of noise pollution in the community are transport sources such as aircraft, road traffic and railways; fixed industrial and commercial installations; construction activities; and (increasingly) leisure activities. Electric home appliances, stereo type music systems, noise from arrangements of celebrations (social/religious functions elections etc.) Sources include domestic equipment, stereo and TV, animals and children, lawn movers etc. Noise from military sources is generally limited to noise from military aircraft and practice firing ranges.

High levels of noise have been recorded in some of the cities of the world. In Nanjing (China) noise level of 105 dB has been recorded, while in some other cities of the world these levels are: Rome (90 dB), New York (88 dB), Calcutta 88 Db, Mumbai 82 Db, Delhi 80 Db, Katmandu 75 Db. On day of Diwali festival, noise generated by various fire crackers is beyond the permissible noise levels of 125 Db as per Environmental (Protection) (Second Amendment) Rules, 1999. EFFECTS: Hearing loss is one of the most obvious and easily quantified effects of excessive exposure to noise. Sleep disturbance is a critical component of noise related annoyance. Noise Pollution effects on fetal development, reduction in birth weight or an increase in premature births. The effects of noise on documented mental health disorders or like wise inconclusive it increases psychoneurotic and psychosomatic effects. Field studies prove noise has significant roles in causing cardio vascular effect. Noise can interact with drugs and industrial agents to produce additive or even synergetic effects on hearing. CONTROL: 1. Reduction in sources of noise: Sources of noise pollution like heavy vehicles and old vehicles must not be allowed to ply in populated areas. 2. Noise making machines should be kept in containers with sound absorbing media. The noise path will be interrupted and will not reach the workers. 3. Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machinery. 4. Use of sound absorbing silencers. Silencers can reduce noise by absorbing sound. For this purpose various types of fibrous material could be used. 5. Planting more trees having broad leaves. 6. Through law: Legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at various social functions. Unnecessary horn blowing should be restricted especially in vehicle congested areas. 2. a. Discuss about different types of solid waste and various factors affecting generating the solid waste. Wastes are the rubbish or materials that are not needed and are economically unsuitable with out further processing. It may be in liquid, gas or solid form and originate from wide range of human operations, such as industry, commerce, transport, agriculture, medicine and domestic activities. Waste may be classified in many different ways, such as according to its origin. (For example: domestic, industrial, commercial, clinical, construction, nuclear, agricultural) or its properties (For example: inert, toxic, inflammable) Solid Waste may be solid or semi-solid materials, resulting from human and animal activities that are use less, unwanted or hazardous. Solid Wastes typically may be classified as follows: TYPE Agricultural Wastes Ashes Dead Animals Garbage Industrial Wastes Large Wastes Mining Wastes CAUSED BY Farm animal manure and Crop residues Residues of combustion of solid fuels Decomposable wastes from food Such materials as chemicals, plants and sand Demolition and construction debris and trees Slag heaps and Coal refuse piles

Rubbish Sewage treatment solids Plastics Hazardous Wastes

Non decomposable wastes, either combustible or non combustible Material retained on sewage treatment screens, settled solids and bio mass sludge Organic polymeric materials Include toxic chemicals and flammable, radio active or biological substances

TYPES OF SOLID WASTES: DOMESTIC WASTE: Kitchen wastes, wide variety of textile, wood, paper, plastic products, Municipal wastes like electronic wastes (chips, circuit boards etc.), Biomedical wastes etc. MINING & INDUSTRIAL WASTE: Slag, flux, clinker generated in huge quantities. Fly ash, metal scrap, powders etc. are obtained from chemical industries. Ore processing done by drill cuttings, chips, mill tailing, sludge/slurry etc. cause debris. IMPACT OF SOLID WASTE: Public Health: Foul smell, spread of diseases, maintenance of sanitation, prevention of overflowing drains and garbage dumps are breeding grounds for oil diseases. Burning is ecologically unacceptable. Burning of solid waste leads to air pollution. 2. b. Explain the process of Recycling and Reuse of Solid Wastes. Also discuss the importance of it in present days world. Solid waste can be disposed to land or oceans. Solid wastes can also be recovered and reprocessed, a procedure popularly known as Recycling. Before disposal or recovery, however the waste must be collected. This process of collection-disposal or collection-disposal-recovery forms a part of SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT. Proper management of solid waste is an important factor for maintenance of environmental hygiene and eco friendly environment planning. The present management practice is only limited to collection and disposal in low lying areas, or on vacant lands. With this, these places are becoming breeding places for mosquitoes and other insects, rats etc. The indiscriminate dumping of solid waste containing of rotten vegetation, dead animals and other matters generates an objectionable and unpleasant odour. The run off from dump site during rain causes surface and ground water pollution. PROCESS: STAGE 1 COLLECTION: Collection of Waste Material is starting stage in solid waste management. The following methods are used in collection: (a) General: Waste collected by a covered truck. Much time is spent in loading and its transport to dumping or recovery site. Many new devices and methods have been proposed to cut collection cost. (b) Garbage Grinders: A garbage grinder reduces the amount of garbage in refuse. If such grinders are used, this cuts the frequency of collection in communities. (c) Pneumatic Pipes: These have been installed in small communities, mostly in Japan and Sweden. The refuse is ground at home and sucked through underground lines. One system in USA is in the Walt Disney World in Florida.

(d) Compactors: In kitchen compactors are used. This reduces cost collection. Stationary compactors have also been in installed in commercial establishments. (e) Transfer Stations: These are applicable to larger communities. A typical system involves several stations scattered around a city to which collection trucks bring the waste. STAGE 2 DISPOSAL: (a) DUMP: Dump is the most inexpensive and most popular means of solid waste disposal. (b) SANITARY LANDFILLS: These are engineered operations, designed and operated according to acceptable standards. The basic principle of a land fill operation is to deposit the refuse, compact it with bulldozers and cover the material. (c) INCINERATORS: Refuse is burned on moving grates in refractory lined chambers. (d) COMPOSTING: Composting operations of solid wastes include preparing refuse and degrading organic matter by aerobic microorganisms. STAGE 3 RECOVERY: RESOURCE RECOVERY: Also known as Recycling, this is theoretically very appealing. After the material has been collected from consumes, it must be cleaned, sold to an industry, transported, remanufactured and sold once again to consumers. The two basic reasons for recycling is Conservation of Resources and Reduction in volume of refuse to be disposed. Some of the common materials, suggested as recyclable are paper, metals, glass and organics. Paper is available in plenty. Recycling it would save our forests. Metals can be easily recycled from industrial scrap, which is the largest source of secondary metals. Glass is the perfect product for recycling. Many solid wastes are hazardous and toxic. Bio medical wastes contain disease causing pathogens. Getting space for disposal, transportation to disposal site is a challenge. Recyclable elements are disposed separately and collected and recycled. Thus Recycling is integral to Solid Waste Management.

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Modern Technology has made it possible for every person to obtain information on almost any topic. This easy access to information has generated common belief that society is now in the information age Information Technology has tremendous potential in the field of environmental education and health as in any other field like business, economics, politics or culture. Development of internet facilities, worldwide web, geographical information system (GIS) and information through satellites has generated a wealth of up-to-date information on various aspects of environment and health. A number of softwares have been developed for environment and health studies which are user friendly and can help any learner to store the received relevant information in form of knowledge. Database is he collection of inter related date on various subjects. It is usually in computerized form and can be retrieved quickly whenever required. MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS, GoI has taken up the task of compiling database on various biotic communities including wildlife database, conservation database, forest cover database etc. Database is also available for diseases like HIV/NDS, Malaria, and Fluorosis etc. NATIONAL MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (NMIS) of the DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY has compiled database on R&D

projects along with info about research scientists and personnel involved. MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS further created an information system called ENVIRONMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (ENV IS), with headquarters in Delhi. ENVIS centres work for generating a network of data base in areas like pollution control clean technologies, remote sensing, coastal ecology, biodiversity, environmental management, mining etc. The NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCCUPATIONAL WEALTH provides computerized information on health aspects of people working in various hazardous and non-hazardous industries, safety measures etc. Applications of IT are now extensively used in environment some of them are REMOTE SENSING, ENVIRONMENTAL REMOTE SNSING, GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS), of the above application are given below:Remote Sensing: It is the science of acquiring, processing and interpreting images that record the interaction between electromagnetic energy and matter. Reports obtained such, can be very helpful for policy decisions of local and State Governments. Environmental Remote Sensing: It is the study of Earth and inter actions between its natural systems through the use of remote sensing technologies. Now, larger portions of earth are easily investigated through the sensors of detailed instruments. It is now being used to determine effects of pollution on global climatic and to develop policy that will attempt to control such pollution in the future. Geographic Information System (GIS): It is system of capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes which are specially referenced to the earth. It can be used for scientific investigators, resource management, asset management, cartography, criminology, sales, marketing and logistics. GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times in event of a natural disasters, it might be used to find wetlands that need protection from pollution etc. Global Positioning System (GSP): It is a constellation of 24 well- spaced satellites that orbit the earth and make it possible for people with ground receivers to pinpoint their geographic location. The location accuracy is anywhere from 100 to 10 m for most of equipments GPS has applications beyond navigation and location determination. GPS can be used for cartography, forestry mineral exploration, wild life habitations management etc. Meteorology: It is a science that especially deals with weather and weather forecasting. Study of meteorology helps to give prior info of weather forecasting which saves

lives of thousands of people from cyclones quite in advance. This could not have been achieved without use of IT. Dates generated is processed, analyzed and projected using computers, directly connected to satellites, giving a chance for forewarning of probable calamities Computers Revolution and it have transformed modern health care systems in areas of communication, teaching, storage and retrieval of medical information. These developments have positively impacted patient management and the training of health case providers. It has varied application in health management eg., diagnosis with latest tools like CT Scans, Ultrasound sonagraphy etc which use IT as their basis for diagnosis of ailments. ICUs (Intensive care Units) care of the patient is dependent on computers to monitor the progress and condition of the patient and undergoing treatments. IT helps to obtain expert opinions from doctors away from place through video conferencing to analyze and research on various potential medicines/ drugs to be used in medical treatments. Health IT allows comprehensive management of medical information and its secure exchange between health care consumers and providers. It also useful for early detection of infectious disease outbreaks around country, improved tacking of chronic disease management etc. IT also extremely used in fields like Bio-informatics, computational Biology, Molecular Biology etc. Online Health Care like medicare and Medicaid and related websites guides are available, for clinical practice guidelines, consumer brochures, health care policy etc. WHO maintains websites with information on international health issues. Information Technology is expanding rapidly with increasing applications and new avenues are been opened with effective role in education, management and planning in the field of environment and health. 2. a. What is Climate Change? What are its effects? Suggest preventive measures. CLIMATE is the word used to describe the average weather condition, which have been measured over many years. The state of atmosphere and weather conditions keeps changing from time to time. This is due to increase in pollution of air, water and sound. The extensive usage of hazardous materials such as nuclear materials, uncontrolled release of dangerous gases like CO2, CO and other green house gases, smoke released in unlimited amounts from factories, vehicles etc. caused the damage to Ozone Layer (O3) of atmosphere. This made a

hole in the ozone layer, exposing ourselves to UV rays and other dangerous radiations from sun. Due to excessive radiations received the average temperature of earth has been increased. This is termed technically as, Global Warming. Due to Global warming, the threat has been posed to existence of glaciers and melting of ice caps, thus merging land areas near by oceans and seas. The increased temperature has also been fatal to existence to some marine animals. The effluent chemical wastage that is being released into seas also cause for death of marine animals. Hundreds of Olive Ridley Turtles that were found dead near shores of Vizag Sea is an example. The Inter governmental Panel on climate change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992 published best available evidence about climate change, green house effect and changes in global temperature. It is observed that earths temperature has changed considerably, during geological times. It has experienced several glacial and interglacial periods. However, during the past 10,000 years at current interglacial period the mean average temperature has been fluctuated by 0.5 1o centigrade over 100 to 200 years period. We have relatively stable atmosphere due to which we have practiced agriculture and increased in population. Even small changed in climate conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals including humans. Anthropogenic (man-made) activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has established between various components of environment and ecosystem. Green house gases are increasing in the atmosphere resulting in the average global temperature. This may upset the hydrological cycle; result in floods and drought in different regions of world, cause sea level rise, changes in agricultural productivity, famines and death of human as well as live stock. The temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5 0 C in global hydrological cycle is expected to intensify by 5 to 10% Disturbed rainfall will result in some areas becoming wetter and other drier. Although rainfall may increase, higher temperatures will result in more evapotranspiration leading to annual deficit in crop fields. The four most leading green house gas emitters are US, China, Russia and India. Various nations of the world started implementing their individual and joint projects to curb global warming the thus arresting huge changes in climate. Japan introduced its COOL EARTH 50 project which aims at reduction of green house gas emissions by 50% by end of year 2050. Rich nations such as US and Russia are major contributors of pollution and also are last

to sign the Kyoto Protocol Agreement, which aims at reduction of pollution levels. UN Framework Conventions on Climate Change has conducted a 200 nation meet in Dec 2007, at Bali, Indonesia. The Bali meet was called to agree on a set of principles for launching negotiations for a post 2012 deal on carbon emission cuts. The existing deal Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012. The conference agreed to implement the Climate Change Adaptation Fund, a key aspect of Kyoto Protocol. The fund will assist developing nations to adapt to adverse effects of climate change. To encourage nations in successful control of carbon emissions the system of Carbon Credits was established recently. The nation that successfully curbs the emissions by certain amounts of percentage in pollution levels will earn carbon credits which can be cashed upon in global market. Indian government also took necessary steps to crush the causes of climate change. All the new technologies are using Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) now. The motor vehicles and automobiles are using Compressed Natural Gas (GNG) to ensure a pollution free environment. The environmental security and maintenance of ecological balance is always one of the foremost concern observed by Indian Government in farming five year plans. However, much has to be done in future to protect and sustain the climate without which life may not possible! 2. b. What is Acid Rain? What are its effects? Suggest preventive measures. Acid Rain is a form of air pollution, currently a subject of great controversy because of wide spread environmental damage for which it has been blamed. It forms when oxides of sulphur and nitrogen combine with atmospheric moisture to yield sulphuric and nitric acids, which may then be carried to long distances from their source before they are deposited as rain. The pollution may also take the form of snow or fog or be precipitated in dry forms. Acid Deposition is the more accurate scientific term for Acid Rain. The dry form of such precipitation is just as damaging to environment as the liquid form. The problem of Acid Rain originated with the Industrial Revolution, and it has been growing ever since. The wide spread destructiveness of Acid Rain, however, has become evident only in recent decades. In 1984, environmental reports indicated that almost half of the trees in Germanys Black Forest had been damaged by Acid Rain. In China, rapid industrial growth and an

increasing demand for coal in 1990s has led to a dramatic rise in environmental damage from Acid Rain. Industrial emissions have been blamed as the major cause of Acid Rain. Because the chemical reactions involved in the production of Acid Rain in the atmosphere are complex and as yet little understood. CAUSES: Unpolluted rain water is slightly acidic owing to the presence of CO2 in the air. Its pH is at 5.7. CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq) Therefore, rain water with pH values lower than 5.7 is called Acidic Rain. In some parts of world, pH as low as 2.5 in rain water has been recorded. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) is the primary cause of Acidic Rain. It is released from burning of fossil and industrial plants. The sequence of charges from the emitted gas to acid is as follows: 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (Sulphurous Acid) SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid) SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H+ (aq) + HSO3- (aq)

Ozone NO NO2 C o nc en tr at io n of Po llu ta nt s

Distance of air from Industrial Area

The forming of Sulphur Trioxide from Sulphur Dioxide is influenced by prevailing atmospheric conditions: (a) Sun Light, (b) Temperature, (c) Humidity, (d) Presence of Hydrocarbons and (e) Nitrogen Oxides.

Nitrogen Oxides also causes of Acid Rain. Nitrogen Oxides are released from vehicles and power plants. 2NO+O2 2NO2 4NO2+ 2H2O+O2 4HNO3 2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) EFFECTS: It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble i.e., monuments like Taj Mahal etc. Crystals of Calcium and Magnesium Sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by Acid Rain. CaCO3 (s) + 2 H+ (aq) Ca (l)
2+

(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O

Many metals will become oxidized. Iron corrodes with presence of Acid Rain to form rust. Fe (s) + 2 H+ (aq) Fe
2+

(aq) + H2 (g)

It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially dissolved by Acid Rain. It damages metals and car finishes. Aquatic lives, especially fish are badly affected by Lake Acidification. Many lakes of Sweden, Norway and Canada have become fish less due to Acid Rain. It damages foliage and weakens trees. Many insects and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible trees and cause diseases. CONTROL: Emission of NO2 and SO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using pollution control equipments. Lining of lakes and soils should be done to correct adverse effects of Acid Rain. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in interior of water pipes for drinking water. 2. c. What is Global Warming? What are its effects? Suggest preventive measures. Global warming is an increase in the Earths temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and other industrial processes leading to a build-up of Green house gases (CO2, CH4, NO3, CFCs) in the atmosphere. Since 1896, it has been found that CO2 helps stop the suns IR radiation from escaping into space and thus functions to maintain the Earths relatively warm temperature. Troposphere, the lower most layer of atmosphere traps heat by a natural process. This effect is called Green

House Effect, as it is similar to warming effect observed in the horticultural green house made of glass. Heat trapped by green house gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist. Prior to the industrial revolution, the amounts of these gases remained constant over thousands of years. But in present day, their amount is increasing due to increased industry and agriculture. A major factor of green house gases is their longevity in the atmosphere. Once they are emitted into atmosphere, they will persist for several decades. In case of CFCs and nitrous oxides it takes over a century for them to degrade. Deforestation has further resulted in elevated levels of CO2 due to non-removal of CO2 by plants through photosynthesis. IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING (GREEN HOUSE EFFECT): a) Global Temperature Increase: It is estimated that earths mean temperature will rise between 1.5- 5.5 by 2050 , if emission of green house gases continues at present rate. b) Rise in Sea Level: With increase in global temperature sea water will expand. Heating will melt the polar ice sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in as level. Current models, increase that an increase in avg. Atmospheric temperature of 3 c would raise the average global sea level by 0.2-1.5m over next 50-100 year. In India, Lakshadweep Islands with max height of 4 m above the level may be vulnerable. c) Effects on Human Health: The global warming will lead changes in the rain fall pattern in many areas, there by effecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like malaria, filariasis, elephantiasis etc. Higher temperature and humidity will increase/aggravate respiratory and skin diseases. d) Effects on Agriculture: There are different views regarding the effect of global warming on agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on various types of crops in different regions of world. Tropical and subtropical regions will be more affected since the average temperature in these regions is already on higher side. e) Climatic Effects: Precipitation patterns, seasonal patterns will be changed. Wind Direction and wind stress over sea surface will be changed, which will alter ocean currents and cause change in nutrient mixing zones and productivity of the oceans. MEASURES: Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel. Use energy more efficiently. Shift to renewable energy sources. Increase nuclear power plants for

electricity production. Shift from using coal to natural gas. Trap and use methane as a fuel. Adopt sustainable agriculture. Stabilize population growth. Efficiently remove CO2 from stacks. Plant more trees. Remove atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photosynthetic algae. WORLD ENVIROMENTAL PROTECTION POLICIES:1. KYOTO PROTOCOL: - A Kyoto protocol to the climate convention was adopted in Dec. 1997. The aim is to stabilize the atmospheric conc. of green house gases at safe level. States has to give periodic reports of their level of emissions and measures adopted to check it. By 2012, developed countries would reduce their collective emissions by 5.2% from 1990 level, with each country being committed to a particular figure. The emissions covered by the protocol are not only CO2, but also Methane, Nitrous Oxide, HFCs, Per Fluoro Carbons and Sulphur Hexa Fluoride. These commitments would be reckoned on a net basis, considering sinks as well as sources and each country must credible measure it contribution and meet its commitment. Countries may fulfill their commitments jointly (such as with regional agreements) and they may improve the efficiency of compliance through flexibility mechanisms. 2. MONTREAL PRETOCOL: The international community has taken unprecedented steps to control and ultimately ban the production of CFCs and other Ozone Depleting substances (ODS) such as halons and Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4) by the year 2000. The Vienna convention of the Ozone layer and subsequent Montreal protocol on substances that depleted the ozone layer was adopted in 1987 and desired strength in 1990. 2. d. What is Wasteland Reclamation? Why is it needed? The wastelands are the degraded lands, which can be brought under vegetative cover with reasonable efforts and which are currently underutilized due to lack of appropriate water and soil management or on account of natural causes. Such lands also termed as derelict, divested, destroyed or poor neglected. The TECHNICAL TASK GOUP REPORT OF NATIONAL WASTELANDS DEVELOPMENT BOARD (1985) defined the wastelands as the land which is presently lying underutilized due to different constraints. It comprises of culturable and unculturable wasteland.

More land is needed for agriculture and forestry due to increasing population. Moreover, our land is shrinking and the latter due to erosion, desertification, water logging, salinity, alkali soils and toxic soils and toxic efforts of agrochemicals and industrial effluents. The only way to raise and resources is by reclamation and developing degraded lands like ravines, gullies, saline and Riverine lands, lateritic soils, land infested with unwanted shrubs and bushes, stony and gravelly land etc. Indiscriminate mining has resulted in considerable degradation of the natural resources and loss of livelihood and agriculture. Most mining work has been unscientific with no environmental protection. Mined areas are to be reclaimed for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and recreation. Ecological problems developed in coal mine areas of Ranchi, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Bina Project (U.P), Singrouli Complex (U.P), Jayant (M.P) etc. There are two successful cases of reclamation of mined areas in India. They are Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. (Tamil Nadu) and stone quarries of soyaji Iron Works in Gujarat. There is a need to have legal protection and to revise mines and minerals (Regulations and Development) Act, 1957 (MMRD Act) to bring in it the environmental concerns. Geographical area of country is 328.73 million hectares and in that only, 265 million hectares (80%) is available for production. Wastelands exist in every state and region. According to estimates, area under wastelands is 1295.82 lakh hectares. There is a total of 114.16 lakh hectares of wasteland available in A.P. National Wastelands development Board (NWDB) was established in 1985 to formulate action plans to arrest land degradation and deforestation. It is presently under Ministry of Rural Development. MEASURES IN WASTELAND RECLAMATION: Development of Forest Areas. Using members of blue green algae to make wastelands fertile. Controlling exploitation and further destruction of productive potential of such lands. Waste Management - fool proof cleaning operations and waste disposal. Top soil conversation as prevention is better than cure. Effective sue of waste production as good media for plant growth. Hydraulic seeding, increasing grass cover containing legume, growing trees and shrubs.

GOVERNMENT/NGOS DEVELOPMENT:

FOR

WASTELAND

On the recommendations of the HANUMANTHA RAO COMMITTEE, three schemes namely DPAP/ DDP/IWDP focus on development of wastelands through community participation following a watershed approach under common guidelines with effect from 1st April, 1995. Voluntary Agencies (VAs) and NGOs are collaborating with NWDB in Wasteland Reclamation and Management for instance, IFFCO (India Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited) is providing funds for schemes of wasteland development in Udaipur and other areas of Rajasthan.

2. e. Discuss about Watershed Management and its purpose? How does it help in sustainable development? A Watershed is a geo hydrological unit, which drains into a common point. It is a project based, ridge to valley approach for in site soil and water conservation, afforestation etc. and it includes: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Focus on village common lands Institutionalized community participation Emphasis on sustainable rural livelihood support systems Capacity building as a vital component Committee systems at the state and district level Decentralized Planning and Decision Making On the recommendations of HANUMANTA RAO committee, three schemes namely DPAP/DDP/IWDP focus on the development of waste lands through community participation following a watershed approach under common guidelines with effect from 1st April 1995. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP): This scheme has been under implementation since 1989-90 and has come to NWDB in July 1992. From 1st April, 1995 it is implemented on watershed basis under common guidelines for Watershed Development. The scheme also helps in generation of employment in rural areas besides enhancing peoples participation in wastelands development programmes of all stages. This leads to equitable sharing of benefits and sustainable development. The major activities taken up under this scheme are:

i.

Soil and Moisture conservation measures like terracing, bunding, trenching etc. ii. Planting and Sowing of multipurpose trees, shrubs, grasses, legumes and pasture land development iii. Encouraging natural regeneration iv. Promotion of agro forestry and horticulture v. Wood substitution and fuel wood conservation measures vi. Measures needed to disseminate technology vii. Training, extension and creation of greater degree of awareness viii. Encouraging peoples participation Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP): It is one of area development programmes launched by government in 1973-74 to tackle special problems faced by those fragile areas which are constantly affected. From 1994, it is being implemented on watershed basis. The responsibility of planning, executing and maintaining the watershed projects is entrusted to local peoples organization specially instituted for the purpose. The watershed project taken up for this purpose has a project period of 5 years. Presently 947 blocks of 155 districts in 13 states are covered under programme. Currently under DPAP, 6515 watershed projects have been targeted for development over a 4-5 year period. The funding pattern has been revised to 75:25 w.e.f 1-4-99. Desert Development Programme (DDP): This programme was started both in hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana and the cold desert areas of J&K and H.P. From 1995-96, the coverage has been extended to few more districts in AP & Karnataka. Since 94-95, over 5.5 lakh hectares of area was treated under the core sectors of land development, water resource development and afforestation/pasture development. Technology Development, Extension and Training Scheme (TDET): The scheme is being implemented through ICAR, State Agricultural Universities etc. Under this, 100% central grant is admissible to implement projects on waste lands owned by government, PSUs, Panchayats etc. Cost is shared on basis of 60:40 in case of projects on waste lands of private farmers/corporate bodies. The projects under DPAP & DDP are sanctioned for 500 ha each, while in IWDP Projects cover an area of 5000-6000 per ha. Under DPAP & DDP, it is shared between centre and state in ratio of 75:25. In case of

IWDP, the cost sharing between centre and states is in ration of 11:1. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT: SUSTAINABLE

Availability of water in a given soil is critical factor and is related to erosion, sitation and loss of cover and productivity. In India, floods bring much havoc causing loss of life and property each year. Due to floods, the plans have become silted with mud and sand, thus affecting cultivatable land areas. Extinction of civilization in some coastal areas is mainly due to natural calamities as flood. The National Commission on floods has calculated that land area prone to floods has doubled from 20 million hectares in 1971 to 40 million hectares in 1980. The most suffering states are Assam, Bihar, Orissa, U.P. and W.B. Through modern technology and scientific knowledge, there is a need of proper understanding of ecosystem and forecasting changes. Thus, management of rainfall and resultant runoff is very important. Such management can be best based on a natural unit called WATER SHED. A watershed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow. Thus it may be drainage basin or steam. It is a project based, ridge to valley approach for water conservation and afforestation. Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the world. The vast hydroelectric power potential can be harnessed from Himalayan watersheds only when proper control measures are taken. These include soil and land use survey, soil conservation in catchments of River Valley Projects and Flood Prone Rivers, Afforestation/Social Forestry Programmes, DPAP, DDP and Control of shifting cultivation.

x---- END OF UNIT 5 ---x x---- END OF SECTION 3 ---x x---- END OF QUESTION BANK ---x

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