Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet Machine Drives
Professor Greg Asher
Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines
Part I Introduction
Part II Brushless DC Drives
Part III Permanent Magnet (PM) AC Drive
Part IV PMAC Drive Equations
Part V Alternative Representations
Part VI Control of PMAC Drive MTPA
Part VII Control of PMAC Drive Field Weakening
Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines
Part I
Introduction
Characteristics of PM machines
6-pole permanent
magnet rotor
PM motors have the fastest
growing market share
Magnetic field from PM affixed on
rotor
No current in rotor
- no rotor losses
- most efficient machine
No magnetising current
- more torque per amp
- converters more efficient
High magnet flux densities
- highest Torque/Power Density
of all machine types
Simple rotor, low inertia
- very high dynamics
Characteristics of PM machines
Relatively simple construction, no brush
gear BRUSHLESS MACHINE
Design flexibility than induction
- high pole number machines
- large radius
- axial flux machines
- transverse flux machines
- concentrated wound machines
Magnets are expensive
- demand for machines pushing up price
- one country dominates market
More difficult to construct than IMs
Magnets lose magnetism at temperatures 150-250C
- not suitable for use in high temperature environments
- higher the temperature, easier to demagnetise magnets
Cannot be operated without a power converter, cannot operate from mains
Application Areas
High Performance servo drives
- high acceleration, positioning applications
High efficiency drives
Automotive applications
- Hybrid and electric cars
- Starter generators
- Power steering
Aerospace Applications
- Undercarriage actuators
- Cabin air compressors, air conditioning
- Future actuators for flight surfaces
Domestic Applications
- Air conditioners
- Washing Machines
Aerospace actuation : tens of kW
Electric & Hybrid Vehicles
Application Areas
Ship Propulsion : up to 18MW
Wind Generation : up to 5MW
High pole number, large radius drives
Low speed applications
Renewable energies
- Directly connected wind generator
- tidal and sea current generators
Direct drive (no gear box) ship motors
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet Machine Drives
Part II
The Brushless DC Drive
BLAC - BrushLess AC PM Machine
- also known as PM synchronous machine
- sinusoidal back-EMF (open cct voltage)
- sinusoidal current excitation
BLDC - BrushLess DC
- also known as Trapezoidal motor
- trapezoidal back-EMF
- square wave current excitation
BLAC BLDC
BLAC
BLDC
Magnet flux density in air gap
BLAC: Sinusoidal back-emf achieved by
120 elec magnet span and windings
giving sinusoidal mmf
BLDC: Trapezoidal back-emf achieved
by 180 elec magnet span and windings
square wave mmf
Types of PM machine Types of PM machine
The principle is simple
The flux lines constant over the 180; flux is maximum at 1, zero at 2 etc
Voltage is rate of change of flux
At 1, current in A-phase as shown; stays like this until field reverses at 3
At 3 current commutates; a hall sensor gives a logic signal
Principle of BLDC machine Principle of BLDC machine
1
2
3 4
A
2 3 4
A
1

V
I
There are 3 phases, A, B, C
Each is switched when the change of
magnet polarity nears the phase
The switching of the current lasts for
120 and is provided by a 3-legged
inverter as shown. It is an electronic
commutator.
2 devices conduct at any time
Q1
Q3 Q5
Q2 Q6
Q4
The electronic commutator The electronic commutator
The Torque developed is T = kBI
To vary the torque, we vary the current; the two conducting devices are
pulse width modulated
The PWM converter voltage is shown below
If I <I*, the 2 devices are turned on, V
conv
> V
m
, I rises etc; else off
Control of BLDC machine current Control of BLDC machine current
1
2
3 4
A
2 3 4
A
1

V
I
2 3 4 1

V
I
I
Inverter (power amplifier)
BLDC
I*
e
r
PI
e
r
*

r
counter
commutator
k
Hall effect devices mounted in the motor detect position.
Crude - if greater resolution required a more expensive encoder can be used.
Position signal pulses can be used to give a speed signal. A speed loop
feeding a current loop is conventional; current loop is hysteresis control
Control of BLDC machine Control of BLDC machine
BLDC machine torque ripple BLDC machine torque ripple
BLDC drive operation has lot of torque ripple.
Price paid for simple control and sensing
Torque ripple has a number of sources, some
machine related others due to the way the drive
is operated.
Sources of torque ripple are:
Back-EMF Harmonics (machine related).
Causes hump in torque waveform
Switching Ripple (inverter related);
proportional to the hf (>5kHz typical) PWM
ripple. Not a problem because the mechanical
load inertia filters out its effect on speed.
Commutation Ripple (inverter related). Serious
due to phase current commutations from off-
going inverter phase to the next on-coming
phase at the end of each /3 interval.
Simulated torque waveform for a BLDC
drive with PWM-regulated six-step
current waveform.
BLDC Drive Requirements BLDC Drive Requirements
BLDC motor drives chosen for simple cheap applications.
Control strategy can easily be implemented using digital circuitry (no
P). But intelligent control processing becoming ever cheaper
BLDC output characteristics are however inferior to BLAC drives in
terms of torque and current smoothness.
Torque density is high, potentially higher than BLAC due to better
utilisation of the magnetic circuit.
Machine needs to be star-connected since one phase needs to be
open-circuited at any one time.
IM vs BLDC vs BLAC
In the rest of this course we will focus on brushless AC machines
Also called Permanent Magnet AC machines.
IM BLDC BLAC
Motor Efficiency + +++ +++
Torque Smoothness +++ + +++
Torque Density + +++ +++
Open Loop Control +++ - -
Closed Loop Simplicity + +++ +
Minimum Control Sensors + +++ +
Machine design flexibility + ++ +++
Extended Speed Range ++ + +++
Motor Robustness +++ + ++
Cost - motor
Cost converter, sensors&
control
(vector
drive)

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet Machine Drives
Part III
The Permanent Magnet AC Drive
Introduction
Magnetic properties
Saliency
d-q rotating reference frame for PMSM
f

d-
axis
q-
axis
f

Flux plot of a 2-Pole PMSM with zero stator

current
Field orientation is in direction of magnet flux.
Unlike IM the magnet flux in PMSM rotates at the same
speed as the rotor
ie. e
sl
= 0; called a synchronous machine since
Thus the direct or d-axis is aligned with the
Permanent Magnet flux vector
This means that the d-axis is fixed to the rotor
The q-axis bisects the section between
the permanent magnets.
e r
e e =
Idealised 3-phase, 2-pole Permanent Magnet Machine
+
M

Field will rotate at e

r
= d/dt (electrical rad/s)
called the flux or rotor angle
With no i
d
, the torque is:
M q
ki T =
If P knows all the time, then:
Inject 3-ph currents which
transforms into i
d
, i
q
i
q
q
d
Currents i
q
setting up mmf in q
direction is called the torque
current
i
d
is field current - Not required since
machine is magnetised by magnets
+ve i
d
will add to magnet flux
- but not much (iron will be near saturation)
- ve i
d
will act against magnet flux (less flux in d-axis)
i
d
I
s
V*
V
Inverter (power amplifier)
PM machine

r
i
q
*
PI
i
d
* = 0
d/dt
i
q
i
d
e
r
PI
Ref [8,9]
r
j
e
u
r
j
e
u
PI
2/3
3/2
e
r
*

r
Basic vector control of PM machine
without i
d
current
Permanent Magnet Excitation
The permeability of a magnet is the
slope of the straight line which
intercepts the axis at the remenance
point (B
r
). The permeability for
ferrite and rare earth magnets is
approximately that of free space
(
r
~1.05 to 1.07)
Once off the linear part of the curve
(knee-point), the magnet is wholly or
partially demagnetised and must be
re-magnetised.
Permanent Magnets are Hard
magnetic materials: retain
magnetisation when the
external field is removed
Br remanent flux density
Hc coercive force
X10
3
06 . 1
10 x 720 x x10 4 / 96 . 0
/
3 7
=
=
=

t

c o r r
H B
Permanent Magnet Properties
}
= NI dl H.
NI l H l H
g g m m
= +
g g
m
m
o
g
g
l
NI
l
l
H
B
H + = =

kNI
l
l
H B
g
m o
m m
+ =

g i m
g g i i m m
B B B
NI l H l H l H
= =
= + +
i r o i
H B =
Consider mmf drops around iron cct:
; H
i
small since
r
large
and
This is the equation of the load line;
For I = 0; it intersects with magnet
characteristic to give operation at P
Presence of I magnetises & demagnetises
Giving:
g
m o
m m
l
l
H B

=
I = 0
I = -ve
P
NI
I = +ve
Permanent Magnet Materials
Example of temperature variation for a particular
grade of NeFeBr magnets
Metal magnets (Alnico)
- Oldest and rarely used
Ceramic magnets (Ferrites Ba, St)
- Cheapest and widely used; Max B around
0.45T
Rear Earth magnets (NdFeB and SmCo)
- Most modern and relatively expensive
- Best performance max B around 1.25T
Magnetism lost at Curie Temperature
- NdFeB is low: 120-180C
Easier to demagnetise as T goes up
- Knee point travels up curve
- B
r
and H
c
also reduce as shown
- Reversible up to Curie T, but still serious
Permanent Magnet Properties
A current near the PM can also
demagnetise it armature reaction
important since best place to put load
current in a PM machine! see diagram
Can thus limit max transient torque
Option - bury PM inside iron; shields
magnet from torque current and gives
good field weakening capability
- but field due to iq now much higher
since it is next to iron and not magnet
- some loss of torque per amp
Load current i
q
near PM
d
q
Concept of Saliency
PM machines can be salient - like traditional wound rotor salient synchronous
machines.
This means that magnetic (iron) path in one direction eg the d-axis, is not the
same as in the q-axis
In a traditional synchronous machine, the q-axis has a lot of air so that the q-axis
coil (red coil below) has low inductance; seen that L
d
>L
q
In a PM machine, the magnets, may be as shown
Permeability of the magnets is low compared to that of magnetic steel.
(permeability of magnets ~ permeability of air)
In PMSM the inductance of the d-axis coil is smaller than the inductance of the q
axis coil Ie. L
d
<L
q
The ratio of L
q
:L
d
is typical 3-4, maybe upto 7
Note that this is opposite to a wound field machine where L
d
>L
q
Concept of Saliency
Different types of PM machine
Salient and non-salient
(a) Surface Mount PM machine; magnets fixed onto rotor; retaining sleeve for
strength
In a SM PM machine L
d
= L
q
since permeability of magnet and air are the same
(b) Inset PM machine (IPM); magnets set into surface; L
q
>L
d
- SALIENT
(c) Interior Magnet (or buried) PM machine: inside iron; L
q
>L
d
- SALIENT
c)
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet Machine Drives
Part IV
The Permanent Magnet AC Drive
Machine Equations
MaximumTorque per Amp
The 3 stator coils A,B,C can be represented by
TWO stationary coils o|
Each stationary coil has resistance and rate of
change of flux:
s s s s
dt
d
R i v + =
o o o s s s s
dt
d
R i v + + =


s s s s
dt
d
R i v + =
There are no rotor coils
Dynamic Equation of PM BLAC machine
+
M
e
r
o
S
|
S
u
r
) cos (
o o o
u
s s r m s s s
i L
dt
d
R i v + + + =
) sin (
o | |
u
s s r m s s s
i L
dt
d
R i v + + + =
) ( i L e
dt
d
R i v
s
j
m s s s
r
+ + + =
u
| |
o o
u
u
s s r m s
s s r m s
i L
i L
+ + = +
+ + = +
sin
cos
The flux in each stator coil is:
|
s
q
u
r
e
e
x
d
x
q
x
d
o
s
r
j
s sdq
e v v
u
o|

=
r
j
s sdq
e i i
u
o|

=
r
j
s sdq
e
u
o|

+ = +
r
j
sdq s
e v v
u
o|
=
r
j
sdq s
e i i
u
o|
=
r
j
sdq s
e
u
o|
+ = +
Now transform into rotating coordinates dq frame rotating at e
r
) (
s s
j
m s s s
i L e
dt
d
R i v
r
+ + + =
u
( )
m r sdq s r
sdq
s s sdq sdq
j
m r
j
sdq s r
j sdq s
s
j
sdq
j
sdq
j
sdq s
j
m s
j
sdq
j
sdq
j i L j
dt
di
L R i v
e j e i L j e
dt
i dL
R e i e v
e i L e
dt
d
R e i e v
r r r r r
r r r r
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
+ + + =
e e
e e
u u u u u
u u u u
Dynamic Equation of PM BLAC machine
e
r
u
r
+
M
sq s r
d
s d d
i L
dt
di
L R i v e + =
m r d r
q
q q
Li
dt
di
L R i v + + + + = e e
Dynamic Equation of PM BLAC machine
q q r
d
d d d
i L
dt
di
L R i v e + =
m r d d r
q
d q q
i L
dt
di
L R i v + + + + = e e
For a salient machine, Ld = Lq, then:
q q q
i L = +
m d d d
i L + + = +
The flux linking the d-axis coil is magnet+ flux due to any i
d
:
The flux linking the q-axis coil is flux due to any i
q
:
Drop suffix s since only stator coils
The back-emf of a PMAC machine
m r d d r
q
d q q
i L
dt
di
L R i v + + + + = e e
Spin the rotor at a speed e
r
with no
current applied to stator
- measure voltage at terminals AA
q q r
d
d d d
i L
dt
di
L R i v e + =
0 =
d
v
m r q
v + = e
m r a
q d V v v + = = + e
~
2 2
m r
I
a
E V + = =
=
e
0
~
+
M
E
e
r
E is called the motor back-emf. It is easy to
measure. Hence +
m
is easy to determine
Torque production in PMSM
Torque is:
3
2
P
k = For the rms convention:
The d and q axis flux linkages are given by :
1
st
term is called the magnet alignment torque
2
nd
term is proportional to (L
d
-L
q
) is called the reluctance torque.
Define angle called the advance angle from q-axis to the current vector.
For a negative i
d
, is positive, for a positive i
d
it is negative
Magnet alignment
component
Reluctance
component

q q q
m d d d
i L
i L
= +
+ + = +
| | ) (
) (
q d q d q m
d q q q m q d d
L L i i i k T
i i L i i i L k T
+ + =
+ + =

d
q
i
q
i
d
i
) (
d q q d
i i k T + + =
Express torque as a function of stator current
Determine the best operating point producing the torque with the minimum stator current
and hence with optimal efficiency.
Now, if we substitute for i
d
and i
q
:
)] ( cos sin cos [
2
q d m
L L i i k T + =
)] ( [
q d q d q m
L L i i i k T + + =
a q d
I i i i
~
2 2
= + =

cos
sin
i i
i i
q
d
=
=
Into the torque expression:
We get:

d
q
i
q
i
d
i
The magnet flux and L
d
, L
q
are constant. Therefore, for a given |i|
there is a value of which will maximize T

In a SMPM machine, L
d
= L
q
. Therefore
and is maximum when
cos i T
m
+ =
0 i.e. 0 = =
d
i
(
(

+ = ) ( 2 sin
2
cos
2
q d m
L L
i
i k T
Torque production in Salient PMSM
For a given current, we plot
Maximum torque/amp occurs in a salient pole PMSM machine for >0
When =0 , | i |= I
a
= i
q
and reluctance torque is zero.
If there is saliency, the required for max torque/amp, varies with current since the
saliency torque increases with | i |
2
while the magnet torque increases with I
a
The relative amplitudes of the magnet and reluctance torque terms are set during the
machine design in order to vary the relative amplitudes of L
d and
L
q
.

(
(

+ = ) ( 2 sin
2
cos
2
q d m
L L
i
i k T
i k
m
+
) (
2
2
q d
L L
i
k

as a function of
Torque production in Salient PMSM

d
q
i
q
i
d
i
The plot below shows torque varies as a function of , for various values of I
a
.

The higher the current, the greater the angle of advance needs to be to operate
at maximum efficiency.
To determine the maximum torque point we can differentiate the torque equation
with respect to and equate to zero.

Torque production in Salient PMSM

d
q
i
q
i
d
i
Maximum Torque per Ampere (MTPA)
Have
(
(

+ = ) ( 2 sin
2
cos
2
q d m
L L
i
i k T
| | 0 ) ( 2 cos sin
2
= + =
q d m
L L i i k
d
dT

0 2 cos sin
2
= A + + L i i
m

0 ) sin 2 1 ( sin
2
2
= A + + L i i
m

0 sin sin 2
2
2
2
= A + + + A L i i i L
m

where ) (
q d
L L L = A

A
A + + +
=

i L
L i
m m
T
4
8
sin
2
2
2
1
max

Which will be used in the vector control of all salient PM machines

The variation can be more complex since Ld, Lq and hence AL vary are
subject to saturation as Ia increases. This can be experimentally obtained .
0
2
= + + c bx ax of form

d
q
i
q
i
d
i
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Advanced AC Drives
Permanent Magnet Machine Drives
Part V
The Permanent Magnet AC Drive
Alternative representations
Phasor representation
PMSM Dynamic model as equivalent circuit
D-axis equivalent circuit
Q-axis equivalent circuit
q q r
d
d s d d
i L
dt
di
L R i v e + =
m r d d r
q
d s q q
i L
dt
di
L R i v + + + + = e e
q mq lq q q sq
i L L i L ) ( + = = +
f md d md ld
m d md ld m d d sd
i L i L L
i L L i L
+ + =
+ + + = + + = +
) (
) ( ) (
sq e
+ e
sd e
+ e
Phasor Representation of PMSM machines
We have introduced the PMSM equations in terms of space vectors
In nearly all text books and most papers, PMSM machines are also
represented in terms of phasors
i.e. steady state sinusoidal voltages and currents applied to Phase A
(and B and C)
This is because PMSM has similarities to wound-rotor synchronous
machines which are the main generator in power systems
Machine designers also analyse their steady state characterisitcs in
terms of phasors
The relationship between the phasor tool (for steady state) and
space vector tool (for dynamic) representation is visually very close;
mathematically it is a little tricky
If we say that A goes through zero at t =0
The rms magnitude becomes the magnitude of the complex number
The phase displacement (degrees or radians) becomes the angle of the
complex number
10
B
80
A
4
B is:
( ) 80 4 t sin Z 80
2
4
t sin 10
Z0
2
10
A is:
Revision of Phasors 1
Ammeter 1
Ammeter 2
Ammeter 3
?
1
I
~
2
I
~
t sin ) t ( i 3
1
=
0
2
3
1
Z = I
~
t cos ) t ( i 4
2
=
90
2
4
2
+ Z = I
~

0
2
3
1
Z = I
~
90
2
4
2
+ Z = I
~
3
4
tan
2
5 ~ ~ ~
1
3 2 1

Z = = + I I I
i
1
(t)
i
2
(t)
53
Revision of Phasors 2
Difference between a vector and a phasor
A phasor relates only to steady state quantities
- phasor magnitude is the rms value of the SS sinusoid
- phasor direction is arbitrary, the angle between the phasors represents the phase
difference between sinusoids
A vector is in direction of mmf
direction of coil
- This defines direction of voltage
across and current through coil
- Magnitude is size of voltage, current
etc
- For single coil, the vectors are in
same direction
C:\ac vector drives\vector ill
Phasor equations from vector equations
For 3-phase coils in a machine, the 2-d space can be represented
as an argand diagram
There is then a direct mapping between the steady state space
vectors and the phasor quantities in the 3-phase coils
A rotating vector in steady state has a dc value
Its value projected onto the A-coil axis (or alpha) axis is sinusoidal
Let rotating vector x (blue) trace/projects sinusoid as shown
XZ0
The vector y (red) traces/projects sine wave 90 ahead
YZ90
The vector z (green) traces/projects sine wave lagging
ZZ-30
e
r
= e
e
o
|
A
A
e
r
u
r
+
M
Building Phasor equations of PM BLAC machine
q q r
d
d d d
i L
dt
di
L R i v e + =
m r d d r
q
d q q
i L
dt
di
L R i v + + + + = e e
Let all be in steady state, with e
r
= e
e
q q e d d
i L R i v e =
m e d d e q q
i L R i v + + + = e e
R i
d
q q e
i L e
sd
v
v
R i
q
d d e
i L e
E
m e
= + e
d
q
q
v
E i L R i v
d d e q q
+ + = e
Dynamic equations of Salient PM machine
- drop suffix s since no other coil
sq q e sd sd
i L R i v e =
d
E i L R i v
sd d e sq sq
+ + = e
ph
X x

2
1
=
As phasors, they are sinusoidal quantities, so we write x them as
The magnitude is the rms phase quantity
X
~
R I
d
~
q q
I X
~
s q
R I
~
d d
I X
~
q
q
V
~
a
V
~
d
V
~
We also use the impedances
d e d
L X e =
q e q
L X e =
q q d d
I X R I V
~ ~ ~
=
E I X R I V
d d q q
~ ~ ~ ~
+ + =
d
I
~
is the I
a
current which produces a field in
parallel with the magnet
is the I
a
current which produces a field
perpendicular to the magnet
q
I
~
q d a
I I I
~ ~ ~
+ =
2 2
~ ~ ~
q d a
I I I
Note:
E
m e
~ ~
= + e
Building Phasor equations of PM BLAC machine
= +
Phasors are always complex quantities:
It is conventional to make the d-axis quantities purely real
And the q-axis quantities imaginary
Hence we multiply appropriate phasors by j to make their
directions consistent with the phasor Argand diagram
) / ( tan
~
1 2 2
a b b a jb a X

Z + = + =
0
~
j I I
d d
+ =
q q
jI I + = 0
~
a d d q q
V E I R j I X j I X = + + +
E jX R I jX R I V
q q d d
~
) (
~
) (
~ ~
+ + + + =
E I jX R I V
d d q q
~ ~ ~ ~
+ + =
q q d d
I jX R I V
~ ~ ~
+ =
q d a
I I I
~ ~ ~
+ =
q d
V V V
~ ~ ~
+ =
)
~ ~ ~
(not
q
V j
d
V V + =
Building Phasor equations of PM BLAC machine
E j
d e
~ ~
= + e
9
R I
d
~
q q
I jX
~
R I
q
~
d d
I jX
~
q
q
V
~
a
V
~
d
V
~

Phasor diagram for Salient PM with positive I

d
For I
d
>0, the stator produces MMF
distribution around the airgap that
augments the d-axis magnet flux
The stator current is said to be
magnetising.
The flux produced by the MMF
associated with I
d
induces a voltage jX
d
I
d
in the q-axis, which adds to E as shown
in the phasor diagram.
The d and q axis voltage magnitudes are:
sin
d q q d
V V I X I R o = =
cos
q d d q
V V E I X I R o = = + +
E jX R I jX R I V
q q d d
~
) (
~
) (
~ ~
+ + + + =
V: Supply Voltage phasor
E: Back EMF phasor
o Load angle
Current Angle
| Power Factor
angle
Phasor Diagram of salient PM machine +ve Id
For I
d
<0, the stator produces a MMF that
opposes the magnet d-axis flux
The stator current is demagnetising.
A net reduction in flux linking the stator
results in a smaller terminal voltage.
The voltage jX
d
I
d
is now opposite in
direction to E as shown
The d and q axis voltages are equal to :
sin
d q q d
V V I X I R o = = +
cos
q d d q
V V E I X I R o = = +
The power factor angle is given by : | o =
With negative I
d
the power factor is improved.
Phasor diagram for Salient PM with negative id
Phasor Diagram of salient PM machine ve Id
Phasor Diagram of non-salient PM Machine
E jX R I V
a
~
) (
~ ~
+ + =
Phasor diagram for Non-Salient (surface mount)
PM with general I
d
E jX R I jX R I V
q d
~
) (
~
) (
~ ~
+ + + + =
q d a
I I I
~ ~ ~
+ = Since:
Phasor forms of Maximum Torque per Amp
(
(

+ = ) ( 2 sin
2
cos
2
q d m
L L
i
i k T
(

= ) ( 2 sin
2
cos
2
q d
a
a
e
X X
I
EI
k
T
e
d e d
L X e =
q e q
L X e =
m e
E + = e
a
I i
~
=

A
A +
=

a
a
T
XI
X I E E
4
8
sin
2
2
2
1
max

And it's easy to show that:

E jX R I jX R I V
q d
~
) (
~
) (
~ ~
+ + + + =
Note that T and
max
are independent of e
e