DWR

Alternating Current Theory

ROYAL SCHOOL OF ARTILLERY

BASIC SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY SECTION
GUNNERY CAREERS COURSES

Alternating Current Theory

INTRODUCTION
There are 1 000 milli-seconds in one second - if each cycle takes 20 ms then there must be 1000 20 = 50 cycles of the waveform in each second. This is called the frequency of the alternating current, symbol f. The frequency and the period are calculated using the following formulae: f = 1 and = 1 f

he vast majority of power generation and distribution systems operate using alternating current. This includes military systems, such as Rapier, where small petrol or diesel engines are used to turn a machine called an alternator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. This handout covers the basic properties of alternating current systems.

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

irect Current is produced by batteries and by generators that are turned by steam turbine (power station), piston engine (portable) or muscle power. The EMF acts in one direction, only, and the current flow is fairly steady, in one direction. (Like the motion of the chain of a bicycle.) Alternating current (AC) is also made by a rotating electrical machine, but here, the EMF reverses direction for each half-turn of the machine. (Like the motion of your feet as you pedal a bicycle.) The waveform of an alternating current is a graph showing the variation in voltage or current with time. The standard waveform of the European mains supply is shown in Figure One. It is called alternating current because the direction of the EMF and the flow of current alternates between positive and negative values. The European mains supply takes 20 milli-seconds (20 ms) to complete one cycle of the waveform and this is called the period or periodic time of the alternating current. The symbol for the period is , pronounced tor.

The unit of frequency is the Hertz, symbol Hz, although you might see, in some older books, frequency measured in cycles per second, cps or c/s.

AC MEASUREMENTS

ny attempt to measure the voltage or current of an ac supply must take into account its constantly changing values. The waveform in Figure One would give a voltage of zero if it were measured at a time of 10 ms, + 325 V (positive peak value) if it were measured at time 5 ms and 325 V (negative peak value) if measured at time 15 ms. It is no use taking an average because the average is zero as there are equal amounts of positive and negative voltage. The solution to the measurement of ac voltage or current is to calculate the number of volts or amps of direct current that would produce the same power (in a heater or light bulb, for example). This figure is called the root mean square of the alternating current or voltage and is calculated using the following formulae: Vrms = Vpeak 2 peak 2 This means that a 12 V light bulb will shine with the same brightness on 12 V AC as it does on 12 V DC. The rms value is also called the dc-equivalent value of the alternating voltage or current. For European mains, the peak is 325 V and the rms is 230 V. (For a quick calculation, the rms is about 70% of the peak.) All AC measurements are assumed to be rms unless otherwise stated. The mains supply in the USA is 110 V and 60 Hz. The period is 1 / 60 sec or 16.7 ms. Industrial supplies in

rms

ms

Figure 1: The Standard Waveform of the AC Mains

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the UK are 400 V 50 Hz whilst many military systems use 400 Hz.

AC IN A RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
hen alternating current is flowing in a resistor, there are two waveforms: voltage and current. The two waveforms have an identical shape and they rise and fall in step. At all times, the current is governed by Ohms Law and is equal to EMF Resistance. This is illustrated in Figures Two (a) and Two (b) for a 10 V AC supply connected to a 5 W resistor.

ms

Figure 2a: The Waveform of 10 V, AC

Using Ohms Law, = V / R, the current will be 2 A. Of course, the current will be 2 A rms because we used 10 V rms to calculate it. The current rises as high as 2.83 A (2 2 A) when the voltage is 14.14 V. The power in an electrical circuit is found by multiplying Volts by Amps. In the case of AC - this must be calculated over one cycle and the graphical result is shown in Figure 2 (c) where each point on the graph has been obtained by multiplying the corresponding values of Voltage (Figure 2 a) and Current (Figure 2 b). You will see that the power is always positive because when the voltage is negative the current is also negative and, when multiplied as two negative numbers, their product is positive. This means that, for example, during the first halfcycle of the supply a lamp would receive electrical power and emit light. During the second half-cycle, the voltage and current both reverse and the lamp again emits light. If this were not so then, during the second half-cycle, the lamp would have to suck back the light and change it back into electricity again - obviously this does not happen with ordinary light bulbs. The average power over the whole cycle of the wave is 20 W (half the peak) - this can be deduced from examining the graph of Figure Two (c) which is symmetrical about the 20 W line. This average of 20 W is exactly what you would have got by using the DC formula for power: Power = Volts Amps

provided that the rms values of 10 V and 2 A are used in the calculation. Remember that the rms values are the effective values of the alternating voltage and current. Example: 1. A supply of 24 V AC is connected to a lamp of resistance 10 W. Calculate the current and power. Solution: all values are rms so the DC formulae can be used. Figure 2b: The Waveform of 2 A, AC Pwr = V/R = VI = = 24 10 24 2.4 = = 2.4 A 57.6 W.

ms

2. What is the peak value of a 12 V AC supply? Solution: use the standard formula: Vpeak = Vrms 2 = 12 1.414 =
ms

17 V

[Note: all graphs in this handout have been produced using Excel. You may request a file copy from BST Staff.] [Try self-test questions 1 - 5 now.]

There are no negative values!

Figure 2c: The Waveform of 20 W, AC

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AC IN AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
hen an inductor is used with direct current, the effect of the induced EMF is to delay the rise of current when the circuit is switched on and to try to maintain the current when the circuit is switched off. (This is covered in another handout.) When an inductor is used in a circuit with an alternating current then, since the current is constantly changing, the induced EMF will be present all the time - not just at the instant of switching on or off. The induced EMF is always opposing the change that is causing it. For this reason, it is often called a back EMF. The effects of this back EMF on both DC and AC include: If the current is increasing then the induced EMF will try to prevent that increase. As this occurs, the magnetic field gets stronger and takes energy from the EMF - leaving less to make the current flow. If the current is decreasing then the induced EMF will try to keep it flowing. As this occurs, the magnetic field gets weaker as its energy is released to maintain current flow.

aligned the values so that some of the power values are negative. The average power is now zero. The power in an inductor is zero, when averaged over one cycle because the inductor can both store energy in, and release energy from,its magnetic field. Energy storage is is indicated by the positive parts of the graph in Figure Three (c). Energy release is indicated by the negative parts of the graph. Taken over a cycle, it is true to say that any energy that comes from the supply is stored

ms

There are two main effects of the back EMF on AC, where it continually opposes the changing current. These are: Figure 3a: The Waveform of 10 V, AC to oppose the flow of current. to cause the current to have a phase lag of 90 compared to the voltage.

The amount of opposition to current flow increases with frequency because the changes that cause it occur at a faster rate. Unlike the opposition to current flow that occurs in a resistor - which is the same at all frequencies, this opposition varies with frequency. Although similar to resistance and measured in Ohms, it is different and is called Reactance, symbol X. The reactance of an inductor can be calculated using the formula: XL = 2fL

ms

Where f is the frequency and L the inductance in Henries. For example, an inductor of 10 mH at a frequency of 50 Hz will have a reactance of 3.14 . The set of diagrams in Figure Three shows the voltage, current and power values for an alternating supply of 10 V connected to an inductor of reactance 5 . The following points should be noted: The graph of voltage, Figure Three (a), is identical to that of Figure Two (a) used for a resistor. The graph of current, Figure Three (b), shows a phase lag of 90 to the voltage but is otherwise identical to that of Figure Two (b). The graph of power, Figure Three (c), is very different from its equivalent graph for the resistor. The phase angle between current and voltage has reE.03-3

Figure 3b: The Waveform of 2 A, AC, 90 lagging

ms

Equal amounts of positive & negative values! Figure 3c: Waveform of Inductive Reactive Power
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in the inductors magnetic field and then returned. Thus, the power is zero and no heat is produced. This is another difference between reactance and resistance: the resistor converts energy from electrical to thermal energy (heat) and this is a one-way process. The inductor converts electrical energy into magnetic energy and back again - this is a two-way process and the energy is not converted to heat. (In practice, the inductor is not perfectly efficient and a small proportion of the energy is wasted as heat.) Calculation of Reactance: The reactance of an inductor can be calculated using the standard formula: XL = 2fL

150 Ohms

6V

10 mH

Figure 5: A Lamp in Series with an Inductor

where f is the frequency and L the inductance, in Henries (H). For example, an inductor of 10 mH would have a reactance of 3.14 at 50 Hz (2 3.14 50 0.01) and a reactance of 6.28 at 100 Hz, and so on. (Actually, the many turns of copper wire that make up the coil of the inductor usually have some resistance, but this can be ignored in our simplified view of AC circuits.) Variation of Reactance with Frequency: The formula for reactance (see above) matches the pattern of equations that produces a straight-line when plotted as a graph. The reactance is proportional to the frequency. This means that, for example, if the frequency is doubled then the reactance will double, etc. The graph of reactance versus frequency, between Zero and 5 kHz, for an inductor of 10 mH is shown in Figure Four. Inductor in Series with a Lamp: A series circuit with a lamp and inductor will show a variation of current with frequency because the inductive reactance varies with frequency. Using the same lamp that we had in the DC Handout (6 V, 40 mA, 150 ) and using a 10 mH inductor whose variation of reactance is illustrated in Figure Four, the effects of different frequencies (which you will see as a demonstration in the classroom) are as follows:

At DC (Zero Hz) the reactance of any inductor is always zero and the resistance of the circuit is due to the lamp, 150 . The resistor dominates the circuit. The lamp will be bright. At frequencies higher than about 5 kHz, the inductors reactance is several hundreds of Ohms and the 150 of the resistor doesnt make much difference - the inductor dominates the circuit because it has most of the Ohms. The current is small and the lamp will be out because the number of Ohms is large. At frequencies around 2.5 kHz, the inductive reactance and the resistance are similar and the lamp is noticeably dimmer. As the frequency increases above 2.5 kHz, the lamp gets progressively less bright.

Because the reactance of an inductor increases with frequency, it can be used as a filter to allow low frequencies to pass whilst blocking high frequencies. Two simple applications of this are: in two-way loudspeakers, the woofer, or larger loudspeaker, has an inductor wired in series with it so that only the lower frequencies (the bass notes) can pass through to reach the loudspeaker. many computer data cables (e.g. keyboard to PC, PC to monitor) have a lump of magnetic material (ferrite) clamped around them. This increases the inductance of the cable, even though it has only one turn of wire, sufficiently to block the passage of high frequencies from nearby radios, cellphones, etc., that might interfere with the data in the wire. [Try self-test questions 6 - 10 now.]

Figure 4: Variation of Inductive Reactance with Frequency. 10 mH Inductor from Zero to 5 000 Hz.
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AC IN A CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
hen a capacitor is used with direct current, the effect of the capacitor is to delay the rise of voltage (PD) across the capacitor when the circuit is switched on and to try to maintain the voltage (because the capacitor is charged) when the circuit is switched off. The current flows only temporarily, whenever the circuit is switched on or off. (This is covered in another handout.) When a capacitor is used in a circuit with alternating current then, since the voltage is constantly changing, the capacitor will be always charging or discharging not just when switching on or off. The charge in the capacitor causes a displacement of the electric charge in its dielectric - a bit like stretching an elastic band. This produces a voltage that opposes the changes that are taking place in the alternating supply. The effects of this, on both DC and AC include the following: If the EMF is increasing then the displacement increases and absorbs energy from it. This delays the rise of voltage (PD) across the capacitor. If the EMF is decreasing then the displacement decreases and releases energy to delay the fall of voltage across the capacitor.

ding graph for the inductor. (In other words: when the inductor releases energy then the capacitor absorbs energy, and vice versa.) The power in a capacitor is zero, when averaged over a cycle of the alternating current because the capacitor can both store energy in, and release energy from, the displaced charge in its dielectric. Energy storage is indicated by the positive parts of the graph in Figure Six (c). Energy release is indicated by the negative parts of the graph. Taken over a cycle, it is true to

ms

There are two main effects of the storage and release of energy by the displacement current in an alternating current circuit: it allows alternating current to flow apparently through an insulator. In fact, it does not flow through - but it does displace from side to side, between the plates of the capacitor. Since charge is moving then a current must be flowing. it causes the voltage to have a phase lag of 90 compared to the current.

Figure 6a: The Waveform of 10 V, AC

ms

Reactance: although a capacitor allows some alternating current to flow though it, there is some opposition because the displacement of charge requires energy. The energy is returned later and so, just as with the inductor, the opposition is called a reactance. It is measured in Ohms and given the symbol XC. The reactance of a capacitor varies with frequency in the opposite way to that of an inductor. The set of diagrams in Figure Six shows the voltage, current and power values for an alternating supply of 10 V connected to a capacitor of reactance 5 . These graphs should be compared to those of Figures Two and Three and the following points noted: The top graph, the EMF, is the same for all - as this is the supply voltage. The graph of current, Figure Six (b), shows a lead of 90 compared to the voltage and is the inverse (180 out of phase) of the inductors current. The graph of power again shows an average over a cycle of zero. It is also the inverse of the corresponE.03-5

Figure 6b: The Waveform 2A, AC, 90 Lead

ms

Equal amounts of positive & negative values! Figure 6c: Waveform of Capacitive Reactive Power
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say that any energy that comes from the supply is stored in the capacitor and then returned to the supply. Thus, the power is zero and no heat is produced. (As with the inductor, the conversion process is not perfectly efficient and a small proportion of the energy is wasted as heat.) Calculation of Reactance: The reactance of a capacitor can be calculated using the formula: XC = 1 2fC

150 Ohms

6V
1 MicroFarad
Figure 8: A Lamp in Series with a Capacitor At frequencies higher than about 5 kHz, the capacitors reactance is several tens of Ohms and the 150 of the resistor now dominates the circuit because it has most of the Ohms. The current is maximum and the lamp will be brightly lit. At frequencies around 1 kHz, the capacitive reactance and the resistance of the lamp are similar and the lamp is noticeably dimmer. As the frequency increases above 1 kHz, the lamp gets progressively brighter.

Where f is the frequency and C the capacitance in Farads. For example, a capacitor of 1 F at a frequency of 50 Hz will have a reactance of 3.18 k. The same capacitor would have a reactance of 1.09 k at 100 Hz and so on. Variation of Reactance with Frequency: The formula for reactance (see above) matches the pattern of equations that produces a hyperbola when plotted as a graph. The reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. This means that, for example, if the frequency is doubled then the reactance will halve, etc. The graph of reactance versus frequency, between Zero and 5 kHz, for an capacitor of 1 H is shown in Figure Seven. Capacitor in Series with a Lamp: A series circuit with a lamp and capacitor will show a variation of current with frequency because the capacitive reactance varies with frequency. Using the circuit of Figure Eight with the same lamp that we had in the DC Handout (6 V, 40 mA, 150 ) and using a 1 F capacitor whose variation of reactance is illustrated in Figure Seven, the effects of different frequencies (which you will see as a demonstration in the classroom) are as follows: At DC (Zero Hz) the reactance of any capacitor is always infinite and the resistance of the circuit is infinity. The 150 of the lamp makes no difference as the reactance of the capacitor dominates the circuit. The lamp will be off.

Because the reactance of an capacitor decreases with frequency, it can be used as a filter to allow high frequencies to pass whilst blocking low frequencies. Two simple applications of this are: in two-way loudspeakers, the tweeter, or smaller loudspeaker, has an capacitor wired in series with it so that only the higher frequencies (the treble notes) can pass through to reach the loudspeaker. to suppress radio interference in a cars electrical circuits, capacitors are connected between the live wire and earth. At high frequencies, the reactance is very low and the interference is conducted to earth. The cars main electrics run from direct current which, apart from the instant of switching on, cannot pass through the capacitor. With all real components, there will be minor imperfections that cause deviations from the theoretically perfect situation. For example, to reduce weight, the conducting plates of real capacitors are made from very thin metal foil. This thin conductor has a small amount of resistance which will act in series with the capacitors reactance. Minor imperfections in the dielectric will allow a small current to leak through - effectively placing a very high resistance in parallel with the reactance. These points are ignored in this simple treatment of capacitive circuits.

MEASURING REACTANCE
Figure 7: Variation of Capacitive Reactance with Frequency. 1 F Capacitor from Zero to 5 000 Hz.
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he reactance of a capacitor or an inductor can be found by measuring the rms values of voltage and current and using the
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Alternating Current Theory

reactive version of Ohms Law to calculate the number of Ohms: X = Vrms Irms

RESONANCE

Here, the symbol X is used, without a subscript L or C, to show that it applies to either an inductor or a capacitor.

COMBINATIONS OF COMPONENTS
hen a series circuit contains some resistance (phase angle zero degrees) and some inductance (phase angle 90 current lagging) or capacitance (phase anlge 90 current leading) then, since the current must be the same all around the circuit, some balance must be reached. In such cases, the phase angle between supply voltage and current will be somewhere between 0 and 90 depending on the circumstances. In this case, the total opposition to current flow is called Impedance (symbol ) and may be made up from any combination of resistance, capacitance and inductance. Impedance generally applies to practical circuits where several elements are present. It is measured in Ohms and calculated for a circuit from measurements of supply volts and supply current, using Ohms Law: = Supply Vrms Supply Irms

revious sections of this handout have included graphs showing the current and power in an inductor and a capacitor. By comparing the graphs for an inductor with those for a capacitor, you should see that they are opposites - in anti-phase. This feature allows the creation of a family of circuits where, over a narrow range of frequencies called the bandwidth, the effects of the inductance in the circuit are cancelled by the effects of the capacitance in the same circuit. This is called resonance. For resonance to occur, the effects of the capacitor and inductor must be not only opposite but also equal. This can only occur at one frequency - which can be deduced from the graphs of their variation of reactance with frequency. The resonant frequency is the crossing point of the two lines, where the reactance of the capacitor equals the reactance of the inductor. These graphs are shown in Figure Nine. The resonant frequency is, from the graph, about 1.6 kHz, and the effects of resonance are a maximum at this frequency. At higher and lower frequencies, the reactance values diverge and the resonance effects are rapidly reduced as the frequency moves away from the resonant frequency. The common symbol for a resonant frequency is fo. Calculation of the Resonant Frequency: the resonant frequency can be found from a graph or it can be calculated using the formula: fo = 1 2 (L C )

The analysis of these circuits is beyond the scope of this course - apart from one special case called resonance, which is covered in the next section. Most real circuits contain various amounts of resistance, inductance and capacitance - so it is common to refer to the Impedance of a circuit rather than its Resistance. The value of the impedance will usually vary with frequency and it is usually quoted at the centre of the range of operating frequencies for a circuit or device.

Example: the resonant frequency of a combination of a 10 mH inductor and a 1 F capacitor is: fo = 1 2 (10 m 1 ) Using a VPAM calculator press buttons as follows:

2 ( 10 Shift 5 1 Shift 4 ) = x1 The answer is 1.591 kHz, quite close to the 1.6 kHz that we estimated from the crossing point of the lines on the graph. [Try self-test questions 11 - 20 now.]

Figure 9: Variation of Reactance with Frequency. 10 mH Inductor and 1 F Capacitor from Zero to 5 000 Hz.

Hz

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SERIES RESONANCE
n any series circuit, the current is the same all around the circuit. Therefore, the current in the capacitor must be the same as the current in the inductor - consequently, their currents cannot cancel. It is their voltages (PDs) that cancel when resonance occurs. Since their voltages (back-EMF and EMF of displacement charge) provide opposition to current flow then, when that opposition is cancelled, there will be an increase of current at resonance. Thus, the behaviour of a resonant circuit differs greatly at, or near, its resonant frequency from its behaviour at other frequencies. Resonance is easily demonstrated using the circuit of Figure Ten - which contains a small lamp (6 V, 40 mA and 150 ). The action of the circuit can be developed by referring to the reactance values shown in Figure Nine over the range of frequencies shown: At low frequencies (e.g. 500 Hz, the capacitor has about 300 of reactance and this is hardly cancelled by the 30 of the inductor. The result is that the lamp is dimly lit at this frequency because the current is too small. At high frequencies (e.g. 5 kHz), the inductor has about 300 of reactance and, again, this is hardly cancelled by the 50 of the capacitor. The result is that the lamp is dimly lit at this frequency. At frequencies below about 500 Hz, there will be even less current because the reactance of the capacitor increases even more. At frequencies above about 5 kHz, there will be even less current because the reactance of the inductor increases even more. At 1.6 kHz, the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel, leaving just the 150 of the lamp. The lamp shines with maximum brightness.

150 Ohms 6V 1 microFarad 10 mH

Figure 10: A Series Resonant Circuit, with Resistor (lamp) , Capacitor and Inductor been plotted for frequencies between 1 Hz and 10 MHz to show the full extent of the resonance curve. This graph has a logarithmic (log) scale for frequency. A log scale is not evenly spaced like the linear scales that have been used in graphs such as Figure Seven. The log scale is used when an axis on the graph covers a very wide range of numbers (in this case from one to ten million). The log scale expands the smaller numbers and compresses the larger numbers and it is easily recognised by the pattern of gridlines as they are not equally spaced. It is very common to show a frequency range using a log scale. (MS Excel has an option to use a log scale - right-click an axis, choose Format Axis and it is under the Scale tab.)

A graph of current versus frequency, for the circuit of Figure Ten is shown in Figure Eleven. This graph has

mA

10

100

1k

10 k

100 k

1 M Hz 10 M

Figure 11: Graph of Current versus Frequency for the Series Resonant Circuit of Figure Ten. (Log Scale of Frequency)
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150 Ohms 6V
1 microFarad

Lamp1

10 mH 6V

Lamp2

Lamp3

Figure 12: A Parallel Resonant Circuit, with Resistor (lamp) , Capacitor and Inductor

1 microFarad

10 mH

PARALLEL RESONANCE

or any components in parallel, the voltage (PD) is the same for each. Therefore, in the circuit of Figure Twelve, the PD across the capacitor must be the same as the PD across the inductor - consequently, their voltages cannot cancel. It is their currents that cancel when resonance occurs. Since their currents are cancelled, there will be a decrease of current through the lamp at resonance because the total current flows through the lamp. Parallel resonance is easily demonstrated using the circuit of Figure Twelve - which contains a small lamp (6 V, 40 mA and 150 ). The action of the circuit can be developed by referring to the reactance values shown in Figure Nine over the range of frequencies shown: At low frequencies (e.g. 500 Hz, the capacitor has about 300 of reactance and takes a little current. However, the inductor, with 30 , offers little opposition to the current. The result is that the lamp is brightly lit at this frequency because the current can take the easy route through the inductor. At high frequencies (e.g. 5 kHz), the inductor has about 300 of reactance and blocks the current on its side of the parallel circuit but, again, the current can flow through the 50 of the capacitor. The result is that the lamp is brightly lit at this frequency. At frequencies below about 500 Hz, there will be plenty of current because the reactance of the inductor decreasmA es towards zero. At frequencies above about 5 kHz, there will be plenty of current because the reactance of the capacitor decreases towards zero. At 1.6 kHz, the inductive and capacitive currents cancel, and the supply current is zero. (In fact exact cancellation is difficult to achieve and there is usually a small current.) The lamp is out as there is no current flowing.

Figure 14: AC Parallel Circuit with Lamps to One unusual feature of the parallel resonance circuit becomes visible when additional lamps are placed in the inductive and capacitive branches of the circuit of Figure Twelve. This is shown in Figure Fourteen. When demonstrated, this circuit shows that Lamps Two and Three can be brightly lit whilst Lamp One is quite dimly lit. This is because the current in Lamp One is the DIFFERENCE between the currents on Lamps Two and Three. This is similar to the resonance that occurs when a parent pushes a child on a swing - at each push the movement of the swing increases. The movement of the swing can easily be ten times the movement of the parents hand because the swing stores energy from previous pushes. A similar effect happens in this circuit, where energy is stored in an inductor and a capacitor. The current in the parallel branch is bigger than the current from the supply because the parallel branch is storing energy from many previous cycles. The supply current represents the energy in just one cycle. One use of this circuit is in radio and radar receivers. The weak signal from the antenna is connected to a resonant circuit whose resonant frequency is the same as the frequency of the transmission that you are trying to

A graph of current versus frequency, for the circuit of Figure Twelve is shown in Figure Thirteen. There are minor differences between the series and parallel resonance circuits, but these are beyond the scope of this course.
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10

100

1k

10 k

100 k

1 M Hz 10 M

Figure 13: Graph of Current versus Frequency for the Parallel Resonant Circuit of Figure Twelve. (Log Scale of Frequency)
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to another then bandwidth is required and the amount needed depends on the rate at which information must be transferred. For the best performance from a resonance circuit, the amount of extra resistance must be minimised. This is achieved by techniques such as winding the coils of the inductor with the thickest copper wire that can be accommodated and by using a good conductor for the plates of the capacitor. If the extraneous resistance in the circuit is excessive then then resonance curve becomes wider and the height of the peak is reduced. This widens the bandwidth and reduces the effectiveness of 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k 1 M Hz 10 M the circuit. In the case of a radio, where Figure 15: Frequency Response of a Resonant Circuit with the the resonant frequency is used to select Half-Power Points Indicated. (Log Scale of Frequency) the station that you want to receive, having too wide a bandwidth might cause your radio to receive several stations simultanereceive. Resonance effects can increase the amount of ously or give poor performance by admitting noise and signal received by a factor of several hundred. This is interference (these both increase as the bandwidth most useful since an receiving antenna will normally increases). have a very small signal that can be conveniently boosted using a resonant circuit. An additional advantage is that other frequencies - from nearby transmitters - are [Try self-test questions 21 - 30 now.] not increased by the resonant circuit since they do not mA match the resonant frequency. Inductors and capacitors form part of the TUAM or TURF units that are mounted at the base of whip antennae in HF radios. The antennae function much more efficiently with these units in place and correctly adjusted for resonance.

BANDWIDTH

ince the frequency response graph for a resonant circuit is a curve, there is no clearly defined point of cut-off. The resonance diminishes gradually. In electronics, there is a standard technique that is used to determine the point of cut-off and it is defined as follows: For graphs showing Voltage or Current, the cut-off point is when the voltage or current level is 1/2 or 71% of the peak height. In other words, the current has reduced to 71% of the maximum value. For graphs showing Power or deci-Bels, the cut-off point is when the power is half the maximum or the number of deci-Bels is three less than the maximum.

In all cases, the cut-off point represents half-power. It is often called the half-power point, the -3 dB pint or the 3 dB down point. There are two cut-off points on the resonance curve and these are indicated by thick, grey lines in Figure Fourteen. The bandwidth is the frequency difference between the two cut-off points and these are about 3 100 Hz and 800 Hz, giving a bandwidth of 2 300 Hz or 2.3 kHz. Bandwidth is an important feature of a frequency selective circuit such as the resonant circuit. Whenever information is transmitted electronically from one place
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FORMULA SUMMARY
Frequency = 1 Period Period = 1 Frequency

Peak Value = RMS Value 2 XL XC = = 2fL (Inductive Reactance)

1 (Capacitive Reactance) 2fC Vrms Irms (Ohms Law for L or C)

Supply Vrms Supply Irms 1 2 (L C )

(Ohms Law for ac)

fo

(Resonance)

At resonance, the reactance of the inductor is equal and oposite to the reactance of the capacitor:

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SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. The period of an alternating current of frequency 400 Hz is: a. b. c. d. 400 ms 40 ms 25 ms 2.5 ms .6. The opposition to the flow of current in an inductor is called: a. b. c. d. resistance impedance conductance reactance

2. An alternating voltage has a period of 200 s. Its frequency is: a. b. c. d. 5 10 20 200 kHz kHz kHz kHz

7. When alternating current flows though an inductor, the current is: a. b. c. d. lagging the PD by 90 in phase with the PD leading the PD by 90 in anti-phase with the PD.

3. An alternating supply is rated at 48 V. This means that 48 V is the: a. b. c. d. maximum voltage. minimum voltage rms voltage average voltage

8. When an inductor is connected to an alternating supply the power in the circuit is: a. b. c. d. equal to the rms Volts multiplied by the rms Amps zero at all times an average of zero over each cycle greater than the power in a resistance of the same number of Ohms.

4. An alternating current of 4 A has a maximum, or peak value of: a. b. c. d. 230 V 4A 5.66 A 2.83 A

9. When the frequency of alternating current through an inductor is increased then this will increase its: a. b. c. d. resonant frequency reactance bandwidth current

5. When alternating current flows through a resistor, the current is: a. b. c. d. lagging the PD by 90 in phase with the PD leading the PD by 90 in anti-phase with the PD

10. An inductor of 47 mH when used at 100 Hz has a reactance of approximately: a. 2128 . b. 100 . c. 47 . d. 29.5 .

Answers 5. Resistive current is in phase with PD 4. Vpk = Vrms 2 3. AC is always quoted in rms 2. f 1. = 1/ f = 1/ = 1 / 200 s = 1 / 400 = 5 kHz = 2.5 ms
E.03-12

Answers 10. L = 2 = 2 100 47 mH = 29.5 (d) 9. Reactance is proportional to frequency 7. Inductive current lags Volts by 90 6. Reactance = opposition of an Inductor
8 Oct 02

E03 AC Electricity.QXD

8. Power flows back & forth, average = Zero (c) (a) (d)

(b)

= 4 2 = 5.66 V (c) (a) (d) (c)

(b)

Alternating Current Theory

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
11. The opposition to the flow of current in a capacitor is called: a. b. c. d. resistance impedance conductance reactance 17. A capacitor has a reactance of 150 at 2 kHz. WHen the frequency is reduced to 1 kHz then the reactance would be: a. b. c. d. 300 . 150 . 75 . 1 k.

12. When alternating current flows though a capacitor, the current is: a. b. c. d. leading the PD by 90 in phase with the PD lagging the PD by 90 in anti-phase with the PD.

18. A capacitor is connected to a 10 V AC supply and a current of 0.2 A flows. From these figures it can be calculated that: a. b. c. d. 2 Watts of heat is produced. the frequency was 50 Hz. the reactance of the capacitor was 50 . the capacitor is operating at resonance.

13. When a capacitor is connected to an alternating supply the power in the circuit: a. b. c. d. equal to the rms Volts multiplied by the rms Amps zero at all times an average of zero over each cycle greater than the power in a resistance of the same number of Ohms.

19. When a resonant circuit is operating at the resonant frequency, the reactance of the inductor will be: a. b. c. d. zero infinite equal to the resistance of the lamp equal to the reactance of the capacitor

14. When the frequency of alternating current through an capacitor is increased then this will cause: a. b. c. d. a decrease of current a decrease of reactance an increase of reactance an increase of bandwidth

20. When a capacitor of 50 F is used in a resonant circuit with an inductor of 25 mH then the resonant frequency will be approximately: a. b. c. d. 142 Hz 500 Hz 1250 Hz 2000 Hz

15. An capacitor of 20 F when used at 300 Hz has a reactance of approximately: a. b. c. d. 15 . 300 . 320 . 26.5 .

16. When a capacitor is in series with a lamp and the frequency of the alternating supply is varied then the lamp will: (a) a. b. c. d. shine brightly only at low frequencies shine brightly only at high frequencies go dim at the resonant frequency go bright at the resonant frequency.

Answers

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E.03-13

20. Standard formula gives 142 Hz 18. = / = 10 0.2 = 50 17. Freq down - reactance up 16. Capacitors let through high freqs 12. Capacitive current leads Volts by 90 11. Reactance = opposition of a Capacitor
E03_AC_Electricity.QXD

19. Equal (& opposite) reactances at resonance (d)

15. c= 1 / (2 ) = 1 (2 300 20 F)= 26.5 (d)

14. Reactance is inversely proportional to the

13. Power flows back & forth, average = Zero(c)

frequency

(b)

(c) (a) (a) (d) (b)

Alternating Current Theory

mA

Hz

Figure STQ1

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
The graph in Figure STQ1 shows the variation of current with frequency for a resonant circuit. Questions 21 - 25 are about this graph and its corresponding circuit. 24. In a series resonant circuit, when the resonant frequency is reached then: a. b. c. d. the supply current is a maximum. the inductive reactance has its maximum value The capacitive reactance is zero the supply current is a minimum

21. From the graph in Figure STQ1. it can be deduced that the type of circuit used was: a. b. c. d. parallel inductor and capacitor. inductor in series with a lamp capacitor in series with a lamp capacitor in series with an inductor.

25. One effect on the performance of a resonant circuit of using a better quality inductor (i.e. lower resistance in its coils) would be: a. b. c. d. wider bandwidth. less current. narrower bandwidth higher resonant frequency.

22. The resonant frequency of the circuit used for Figure STQ1 is approximately: a. b. c. d. 10 Hz 1.7 kHz 4.5 kHz 1 MHz

23. The bandwidth of the circuit used for Figure STQ1 is approximately: Answers a. b. c. d. 10 Hz 1.7 kHz 4.5 kHz 1 MHz

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E.03-14

25. Less resistance = higher & narrower resonance (d)

24. Series resonance gives max current 22. Use standard formula, 1.7 kHz
8 Oct 02

23. FInd 71% points, 57 mA, width = 4500 Hz (c) 21. It is a series LC circuit, maximum current(d) (b)

(a)

Alternating Current Theory

mA

Hz Figure STQ2

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
The graph in Figure STQ2 shows the variation of current with frequency for a resonant circuit. Questions 26 - 30 are about this graph and its corresponding circuit. 29. In a parallel resonant circuit, when the resonant frequency is reached then: a. b. c. d. the supply current is a minimum. the inductive reactance has its maximum value The capacitive reactance is zero the supply current is a maximum

26. From the graph in Figure STQ2. it can be deduced that the type of circuit used was: a. b. c. d. inductor in series with a lamp parallel inductor and capacitor capacitor in series with a lamp capacitor in series with an inductor.

30. In the parallel resonant circuit of Figure STQ2, at a frequency of 10 kHz: a. the inductor has the lower reactance b. the capacitor has the higher reactance c. the inductor and capacitor have the same reactance d. the capacitor has the lower reactance

27. The resonant frequency of the circuit used for Figure STQ1 is approximately: a. b. c. d. 10 Hz 4.5 kHz 1.7 kHz 1 MHz

28. The bandwidth of the circuit used for Figure STQ1 is approximately: Answers a. b. c. d. 10 Hz 4.5 kHz 2.2 kHz 1 MHz

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E.03-15

30. Above resonance the capacitor has lower Xc

29. Parallel resonance gives min current 27. Lowest point on graph, approx. 1.7 kHz 26. It is a parallel LC circuit, min current
E03_AC_Electricity.QXD

28. FInd 71% points, 85 mA, width = 2200 Hz (c) (b) (c)

(d)

(a)

Alternating Current Theory

Teaching Objectives

Comments

E.03.01: Describe an Alternating Current Using Standard Terminology

E.03.01.01 E.03.01.02 E.03.01.03 E.03.01.04 Sketch the waveform of an AC supply given its parameters and vice -versa. State that t he average value of an alternating current or voltage is zero. Sketch the waveform of the power in an AC circuit. Use rms values to calculate the power in a resistive circuit. Resistive circuit. Includes rms, peak, period, frequency and phase.

E.03.02: Describe the Effects of A lternating Current in a Pure Inductive Circuit.

E.03.02.01 E.03.02.03 E.03.02.03 E.03.02.04 E.03.02.05 E.03.02.06 Describe how the induced emf opposes the flow of alternating current. Use the reactance formula to calculate the reactance of an inductor. Sketch a graph showing the vari ation of reactance with frequency. State that the phase angle is 90, current lagging. Sketch the waveform of the power in an inductive circuit Describe how the energy flows back and forth in an inductive circuit. Demo with sig gen & lamp.

E.03.03: Describe the effects of Alternating Current in a Pure Capacitive Circuit.

E.03.03.01 E.03.03.03 E.03.03.03 E.03.03.04 E.03.03.05 E.03.03.06 Describe how the charge in a capacitor opposes the flow of alternating current. Use the reactance formula to calculate the reactance of a capacitor. Sketch a graph showing the variation of reactance with frequency. State that the phase angle is 90, current leading. Sketch the waveform of the power in a capacitive circuit Describe how the energy flows back and forth in a capacitive circuit. Demo with sig gen & lamp.

E.03.04: Describe the Basic Properties of Resonant Circuits.

E.03.04.01 E.03.04.02 E.03.03.03 E.03.03.04 Describe resonance as the ability to show a pronounced response over a relatively narrow range of frequencies. State that resonance occurs when stored energy is accumulated over many cycles. Identify series and parallel resonant circuits and sketch their graphs of current versus frequency. Calculate the resonant frequency. Indicate bandwidth and effe cts of resistance.

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E.03-16

8 Oct 02