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Abstract In the media there is an ideal image for how individuals should look. Overall this image is flawless and portrays women with an ultra-thin frame or muscular and toned frame for guys. Different forms of media such as magazine, advertisements and television commercials use this typical thin appearance to promote their products, services, or Hollywood in general. However, the image that is being portrayed as standard may have detrimental effects on individuals trying to attain this look. This paper will explore different theories and aspects that relate to this topic including social-comparison theory and social-cognitive theory, and will also include information that has been researched in other studies. Through interviews and surveys among a convenient sample of college students this issue will be further examined to see if there are any links between body image and the medias view of beauty. The sample group will be asked questions about their view on body image, the medias view on body image, the amount of time spent viewing media, and if they compare themselves to individuals used in the media. These questions will evaluate the link between body image and media, and also what kind of affects it has.

Introduction In American culture, the media is omnipresent and seems to be a daily and interactive part of many peoples lives. As children grow up, they are becoming more concerned about their body image as they compare themselves to what the media is showing. Body image is defined as The perceptions, attitudes, emotions, and personality reactions of the individual in relation to his [or her] own body (Lau et. al, 2006). Individuals may become dissatisfied with their body image because it may not compare

to the body types that are displayed in the media due to the growing obesity epidemic. Body image dissatisfaction refers to the underlying shame and physical self-perceptions that may serve as precursors to clinical problems (Levin & Murrrain, 2006). The media can have psychological, emotional, and physical effects on its readers. Some of the extreme effects of internalizing the body images that appear in the media are eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia; other effects can be over-exercising. With these facts presented, our research studied whether or not the media has any effect on an individuals body image. We believe Americans have come to the realization that the body images portrayed in the media may be a fictitious display of reality, and we assert that the media does not have any effect on the body image.

Literature Review Social Comparison Theory Social comparison theory is an important theory to consider when exploring body image and the media. This theory argues that when a person is continually exposed to an idealized image, it will lead them to compare themselves to that image, sometimes even unconsciously (Veldhuis, 2010). The image of a perfect individual portrayed in the media is petite for women and brawny for men. They compare themselves to these models, which can lead to negative feelings and actions. Leon Festinger researched and wrote a study named, A Theory of Social Comparison Processes which led to the comparison theory. In this study (Festinger, 1954) one of his hypotheses was that people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparison with the opinions and abilities of others. He supports this by giving an example of asking who measures intelligence. It is only subjective judgments of others opinions that influences how intelligence is measured and

this is done by comparing. Another one of Festingers hypothesis included that the tendency to compare ones self to another decreases when the difference between his opinions and abilities with them becomes greater. He supports this by saying college students would not compare their intelligence to inmates of a feeble-minded institution (Festinger, 1954, p. 120). There must be a relatable factor involved. One study about Visual Ethics (Reaves, 2011) discusses how comparison is similar to social rank in animal behavior (interior-superior, weaker-stronger, upwarddownward) and humans use this social rank judgment naturally. They observed that reciprocal altruism and exchange suggest social comparison theory as individuals monitor the exchange of favors and compare themselves in terms of giving and receiving (Reaves, 2011, p. 122). Comparing is done in every aspect of life including business, sports, education, and many other avenues. It can be a very constructive mechanism when the comparison is to something clearly unattainable such as models being a standard of beauty in American society. Festingers landmark cognitive balance theory postulated that people have the drive to evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing self to another of similar ability and rank. Self-esteem increases when an individual compared favorably, but anger and frustration increase when self-comparison to another is evaluated downward. When cognitive balance theory is applied to body image, multiple studies have found that the greater the social comparison of media images, the greater subsequent body dissatisfaction (Reaves, 2011, p. 122). Comparing body image sometimes leads to negative things such as depression, or even more serious acts such as diseases like Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia, and sometimes suicide. According to the American Medical Association disorders have doubled since 1960, and individuals with Anorexia Nervosa are dying at a rate of 10-20% from starving

him or herself or suicide (Reaves, 2011). Dramatic numbers illustrate a media disconnect: Models wear size 00 in a country where 32% of schoolchildren are classified as overweight or obese (Tomaselli, 2008; Parker-Pope, 2008); models weigh 23% less than the average woman, while a generation ago the gap was 8% (Ambjornsson, 2005; Wolf, 2001). These staggering statistics show that there are major disconnect between reality and the media. However Social comparison theory is not the only theory to relate to an individual and their view on body image. Social Cognitive Theory Another theory that applies to the idea of body image is Social Cognitive theory that takes more of a phenomenologist approach to the readers response to a text. Social Cognitive Theory is defined as, Views behavior, cognitions, biological and environmental influences as each affecting and being affected by, the other. [In other words] people are products and producers of their own environment (Hendricks, 2002, pg. 115). In a world where people are being bombarded by an unrealistic, yet idealized body image, the repetition of seeing such images will affect the way that people act and think. According to Banduras Social Cognitive Theory, there are four capabilities that affect the way the individuals abilities to learn different behaviors and they are: The ability to symbolize, self-regulation, self-reflect, and learning vicariously (Hendricks, 2002, pg. 115). In any culture, individuals assign meanings to symbols. Through the repetition of these symbols, learning occurs. In the world of television, most of the models that are seen selling various products are grotesquely thin. From seeing these constant symbols of beauty and idealized body image, individuals are slowly being brainwashed into believing that there is only one body shape and they need to strive to be like the waif-like models that are seen in the media (Hendricks, 2002, pg. 115). Self-regulation is the ability to control ones behavior. The more self-

regulation one has, the more control they have over their actions. Those that have high levels of self-regulation are more likely to try to conform to the medias standard of beauty, as opposed to those who have low self-regulation and are unable and unwilling to meet the portrayed standard of beauty (Hendricks, 2002, pg. 115). One factor that plays into self-regulation is self-efficacy which is defined as, The belief in ones ability to effectively perform a behavior; it affects the goals that individuals place on themselves. For example, if a reader of a text such as Glamour magazine sees the skinny models in the text, they will set a goal of losing ten pounds within a month. Though this goal is challenging, these readers will relentlessly strive to lose that weight in order to reach their goal and to look like the model(s). This type of reader displays a high level of self-regulation. On the contrary, a significant portion of the American population has a sense of low self-regulation. This reasoning behind this can be laziness, but many Americans know that the images portrayed in the media are an unrealistic depiction of reality, therefore they are unwilling, and some unable, to strive to look like the models in the media. An additional factor that affects the individuals ability to learn is selfreflection, which is the ability to decipher accurate and flawed thought processes. Different forms of media do a fantastic job at slowly disintegrating at the normal thought processes of the individual, especially women. Many medical researchers have shown that the body image that is in the media is unrealistic and unhealthy (Hendricks, 2002, pg.. 116). The media does a superb job at showing that the body image that is displayed is desired, realistic, and attainable, though it is not. Lastly, vicarious learning also affects behavioral cognitions. Vicarious learning occurs through the observations of actions of others and noting the consequences of such behavior. According to Hendricks, People look to media when they lack experience or lack access to alternative sources of information (Hendricks, 2002, pg. 117).

When people watch and observe different forms of media, they model their behavior after what they have seen or learned. Observational learning is an ongoing, multi-step process that requires a lot of time. The first part of this process is paying attention and identifying with a model. When viewers interact with different forms of media such as television or magazines, they may have an acclamation to a certain celebrity (model) for reasons such as attractiveness, career choices, similar life stories, etc. Because of these reasons, individuals will pay close attention to these models and live vicariously through them. The next step in this process is, Perceiving the noted behavior as producing desired results (Hendricks, 2002, pg. 116). When the observer sees that this model receives accolades or rewards for a particular behavior, then the observer will then take the necessary steps to mimic that behavior. For example, in a Tyler Perry film entitled Why Did I Get Married, Sheila (played by singer Jill Scott) starts off in the movie as an obese woman who is married to a husband that constantly criticizes her weight. At the end of the movie, Sheila loses weight and finds the man of her dreams. This conveys to the audience that losing weight produced the desired result of finding a better love interest. Overall, the Social Cognitive Theory accounts for how people can internalize the body images that are displayed in the media, and how it can have a negative effect on their body image. Levine and Murrain (2009) suggest Surveys and qualitative studies should find that, beginning at the age where they can think critically about themselves in relation to personal and outside influences, children and adolescents will report that mass media are sources of influence, and even pressure, on themselves, their peers, and others (p. 13). Exposure to media creates an ideal image that people tend to believe. Levine and Murrain (2009) state people of all ages select and use media for many purposes, including entertainment and distractions, but also exploration of significant developmental issues pertaining to curiosity, education, popularity, identity, gender roles,

and sexuality (p. 14). The exploration of the developmental issues in younger children is solved by turning to media. If the media is misrepresenting the truth, then people will continue to be misled. Today, media continues to mislead people with the idea of attractiveness. Jefferson and Stake (2009) state that within the interviews with EA [European Americans] adolescent girls have revealed that, although they recognize that the beauty ideals depicted in magazines are very difficult if not impossible to achieve, they nevertheless feel a strong pressure to conform to those ideals and experience negative feelings when they fail to do so (p. 398). Levine and Murrain (2009) explain that there is wealth of evidence from content analyses that the ideal female body showcased on television, in movies, in magazines, and on the internet reflects, indeed embodies, the proposition that think is normative and attractive (p. 15). How can people be happy with themselves if the media continues to portray the wrong image? Lau et al. (2006) state that images in the media serve as powerful tools for relaying messages of what is normal and desirable to the general public (p. 262). Who is to say what the average person is supposed to look like? Discrepancies between different countys media images are also detrimental to humans satisfaction with their own body image (Lau et al., 2006). Media: Television & Magazines Television is a great influencer of peoples perception. The more time spent watching television will lead to a greater body dissatisfaction (Levine and Murrain, 2009). Lau et al. (2006) states that the average American watches 30 hours of TV per week (p. 261). Television not only portrays people in shows, but also inundates the viewer with advertisements that suggest a better life-style. Magazines can be a great influence of peoples perception of body satisfaction. Studies have proven that females who look at glamor magazines are more prone to having eating disorders and self-

dissatisfaction (Levine and Murrain, 2009). A study ...revealed that almost 70% [of 550 working class girls] reported that the pictures in magazines have an influence on their conception of the perfect body shape (Levine and murrain, 2009). Pictures in Magazines are often photo-shopped to recreate a better, more attractive image, which in the end, is a lie. The sociocultural theory of body image dissatisfaction is a useful framework for explaining the relationship between media images in the U.S. and body image dissatisfaction among Asian American women (Lau et al., 2006, p. 263). Cultures have different values and humans physically look different based on what part of the world they are from. Women and girls in Western society experience strong social pressures to reach a cultural ideal of thinness and perfection in appearance (Jefferson & Stake, 2009, p. 396). The example of beautiful Asian women is concerning due to the fact that some Asians are dissatisfied with their appearance because American media infiltrates their own media. (Lau et al., 2006). When people move to different countries, they must adapt to the environment. As levels of acculturation increases, an individual seeks to be more included in the new culture (Lau et al., 2006, p. 263). A second limitation of most body image research is that typically no distinction has been made between two aspects of body image: (a) discrepancies between personal ideals for attractiveness and self-evaluations and (b) the importance placed on body features for overall self-judgments of attractiveness (Jefferson & Stake, 2009, p. 397).

Methodology

Survey Objective

9 With this survey, we explored whether or not the American media has an effect on individuals. We argued that media does not have a negative effect on individuals whether it be mentally, physically, or emotionally.

Participants In order to measure whether or not the media has an effect on people, we took our sample from Queens University of Charlottes students. The criteria for the students to participate included that they had to be male or female, a Traditional Undergraduate student, and between the ages of 18-24 years old. To find these participants, we sent out Facebook messages, asked for volunteers in classes, and requested for help from the Psychology department. To collect the needed data, we facilitated six different focus groups that lasted for 45 - 60 minutes. The focus groups were held in a disclosed area to measure the effects (or lack thereof) that the media has on these students. Each member of the research held a separate focus group consisting of six individuals to try and obtain a diverse sample of college students. The focus groups were held in November 2012, during normal school hours, under the supervision of a facilitator.

Focus Groups As mentioned above, the focus groups lasted approximately 45 - 60 minutes. Food was provided as a token of appreciation for their feedback. A private room was the location for each focus group because we felt that this study was fieldindependent, meaning that the setting did not have an effect on our outcome/results. During these focus groups, students were asked a series of eight open-

10 ended questions that measured whether or not the media has an effect on them.

Analysis The data was transcribed from the responses that we gained from the students. We used different methods to compile the answers to see if there was overlap in the responses. Doing so allowed us to come up with categories to the responses. Some simple descriptive statistical analysis was used to determine the mean, mode, median, and frequency levels on certain questions.

Research Sub Questions RQ1: Does the media target women more than men?

Hypothesis The media does not have a negative effect on students personal body image

Discussion Men report that the ideal male body type is the triangular or V-shaped muscular mesomorph or the ecto-mesomorph, a man with a well-proportioned buildin sharp contrast to the thin, weak-looking ectomorph or the fat endomorph. Muscularity is a key component of male body image and some go to harmful lengths to achieve it. Male Bodybuilders and athletes' fantasy bodies accentuate the value of muscularity in the United States and Europe, becoming fetishized in ads since the 1980s. Perhaps Calvin Klein's 1980s male underwear ads have set the "aesthetic norm" for males everywhere

11 while the market-place has seen a surge in men's personal care products (Pompper, 2007, p. 526).

References

Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. SAGE Social Science Collections. Retrieved from http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/528Readings/Festinger1954.pdf Jefferson, D.L., &Stake, J.E. (2009). Appearance Self-Attitudes of African American and European American Women: Media Comparisons and Internalization of Beauty Ideals. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(4), 396-409. Doi:10.1111/j.14716402.2009.01517.x Hendriks, A. (2002). Examining the Effects of Hegemonic Depictions of Female Bodies on Television: A Call for Theory and Programmatic Research. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 19(1), 106.Lau, A. M., Lum, S.K., Chronister, K.M., & Forrest, L. (2006). Asian American college womens body image: A pilot study. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 1(2), 259-274. Doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.2.259

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Levine, M.P. & Muren, S.K. (2009). Everybody knows that mass media are/are no [pick one] a Cause of Eating Disorders: A critical Review of Evidence for a casual link between media, negative body image, and disordered eating in females. Jounral of Social & Clinical Psychology, 28(1), 9-42. Pompper, D., Soto, J., & Piel, L. (2007). Male Body Image and Magazine Standards: Considering Dimensions of Age and Ethnicity. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(3), 525-545. Reaves, S. (2011). Rethinking Visual Ethics: Evolution, Social Comparison and the Media's Mono-Body in the Global Rise of Eating Disorders. Journal Of Mass Media Ethics, 26(2), 114-134. doi:10.1080/08900523.2011.559793. Veldhuis, J., Konijn, E., Hoogervorst, H., & Beliaeva, T. (2010). Weight Marks on Models: Information Labels Reduce Body Dissatisfaction Incited by the Thin Body Ideal. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1.