Biodiesel para Motores Diesel

Bio-diesel
biodegradable alternative
fuel for diesel engines

Dr. Gadepalli Ravi Kiran Sastry

Readworthy
About the Author
Dr. G. Ravi Kiran Sastry is a Professor in the department of Mechanical
Engineering in Chaitanya Engineering College, Visakhapatnam of
Andhra Pradesh. Dr. .Sastry did his M. Tech (Thermal Engineering) in
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad and was awarded
his PhD from Andhra University, Visakhapatnam with a specialization in
alternative fuels for I.e. Engines.
Dr. Sastry has huge teaching as well as Research experience.
Dr. Sastry is an ardent researcher in the area of finding alternative fuels
as a replacement to commercial fuels especially biodiesels of non-edible
oils such as Jatropha, Mahua and Palm Kernel oils.
Dr. Sastry has a good number of research paper contributions in
national as well as international journals/conferences in the thrust area
of the performance of 0.1. Diesel engine using Biodiesels.
Bio-diesel
biodegradable alternative fuel for diesel
.
engInes
Dr. Gadepalli Ravi Kiran Sastry

New Delhi
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First published 2008
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Sastry, Gadepalli Ravi Kiran, 1972-
Investigations on bio diesels : a permanent replacement to petro diesels /
Gadepalli Ravi Kiran Sastry.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p.
Includes index.
ISBN 13: 978-81-89973-50-6 ISBN 10: 81-89973-50-9
1. Biodiesel fuels--Research. 2. Diesel motor --Alternative fuels. 3. Diesel
motor--Vibration. 4. Diesel motor--Noise. I. Title.
DDC 662.669 072 22
Printed at Salasar Imaging Systems, Delhi - 35
Foreword
Depletion of petroleum products may not be taking place within offing
because earth's reserves are immense. But cost of exploration may
escalate and finally the petroleum products may be dearer day-by-day.
Already, the day has come the cheaper diesel of erstwhile times has
become unbearably costlier. In this context, a viable and sustainable
alternative fuel is necessary to cater to the needs of mind boggling fleet of
automobiles in the world. It calls for the necessity to decrease the
pollution levels also complying with the emission norms to keep the
environment clean. The advent of biodiesel has come to the rescue in this
warranting situation. This fuel is renewable originating from the vast
plant population of the globe. Basically, this oil is biodegradable and
controls the greenhouse gas which is responsible for the global warming.
Department of Marine Engineering, AV College of Engineering, is one of
the pioneering departments in the country which can boast of
diversifying research in the area of biodiesel applications and alternative
fuels. It has pioneered mijn.y studies in this field with the concerted effort
of researchers in designing the systems to produce biodiesel in the
laboratory at the economically viable rates and implement them in
running the diesel engines in lieu of petro-diesel. Much accuracy is called
for in the measurement of the engine parameters which can define
exactly the engine behaviour with the new trial. Dr. Sastry, worked hard
in streamlining the systems to design biodiesel plants to bring succour to
the community of the diesel users. Dr. Sastry strove to exploit non-edible
oil plants to replace diesel oil usage in the conventional diesel engines.
The day is not far away to see that all diesel engines run by petro-diesel
will be replaced by biodiesel, partially or fully.
Dr. B. V.Appa Rao
Department of Marine Engineering
A.U College of Engineering
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam-530 003
Acknowledgements
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. B.V. Appa Rao, Professor,
Department of Marine Engineering, A U. College of Engineering, for his
expert guidance and support during the course of this study.
I express my gratitude to Dr. T. V. K. Bhanu Prakash, Professor and
Head of the Department of Marine Engineering, for his continuous
encouragement.
I also extend my heartiest thanks to the entire faculty of Marine
Engineering, of A U. College of Engineering for their continuous
encouragement; Prof. K.V.L. Raju, Principal, M.V.G.R. College of
Engineering, for this cooperation and support; and Prof. R.N. Someswara
Rao, formerly at AU.C.B. for this valuable suggestions.
Finally, I take this opportunity to say big thank you to my mother,
wife and children for their sincere cooperation.
Foreword
Acknowledgement
List of Figures
List of Tables
Nomenclature
Contents
Names of the Oils Used in this Study
1. Introduction
Biodiesel As An Option For Energy Security In India I Studies On Rapeseed
Oil Methyl Ester (RME) I Studies On Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester (SME) I
Studies On Palm Oil Methyl Ester (POME) I Studies On Jatropha Oil Methyl
Ester OME) I Studies On Methyl Tallowate Biodiesel I Studies On Linseed
Oil Methyl Ester (WME) I Studies On Mahua Oil Methyl Ester (MME) I
Summary
v
vi
viii
xiii
xiv
xvi
1
2. Transesterification Procedure 51
3. Heat Release Rate Calculations 56
4. Experimental Set Up 61
5. Results, Discussion and Conclusions 71
Performance Studies I Comparison of The Sound Pressure Levels At All
Loads And For All The Oils I Engine Vibration Comparison I Time
Waveforms of Vibration I Phase Analysis I Assessment of Engine Trend
With The Use Of PKME, JME, MME And Diesel Oils I Conclusions I
Future Scope of Work
Bibliography 100
Appendix-A The vibration signatures at other loads not mentioned in the
chapters have been appended below for verification 106
Appendix-B The time waveforms measured at various points on the
engine at various loads have been appended below 138
Appendix-C The pressure- crank angle diagrams for other loads not
mentioned in the chapters are appended below for verification 154
Index 162
List of Figures
Fig. Title Of The Figure Page
No. No
1.1 Power output for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
1.2 Torque for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
1.3 Ignition lag for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
1.4 BSHC for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
1.5 Rate of pressure-rise for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
1.6a Torque Vs Cl.
1.6b Torque Vs <p
1.7a Power Vs Cl.
1.7b Power Vs <p
1.8a Specific fuel consumption Vs Cl.
1.8b Specific fuel consumption Vs <p
1.9 Heat release rate Vs crank angle in degrees
1.10 Heat release rate Vs crank angle degrees
1.11 Heat release rate Vs crank angle degree
1.12 Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle degrees
1.13 Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle degrees.
1.14 Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle degrees.
1.15 Engine torque variation with engine speed
1.16 Engine power variation with engine speed
1.17 Specific fuel consumption with engine speed
1.18 Brake power Vs engine speed
1.19 Torque Vs engine speed
1.20 Specific fuel consumption Vs engine speed
1.21 Brake thermal efficiency Vs engine speed
1.22 Variation of peak pressure with brake power
\
1.23 Variation of maximum rate of pressure rise with brake power
1.24 Variation of combustion duration with brake power
1.25 Variation of heat release rate at maximum power output
1.26 Variation of sfc with brake power
1.27 Variation of brake thermal effeciency
List of Figures I ix
1.28 Variation of peak pressure with brake power
1.29 Variation of maximum. rate of pressure rise with brake power
1.30 Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque
1.31 Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine
speed
1.32 Derivative of pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at
peak torque
1.33 Derivative of pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at
rated engine speed
1.34 Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends
at peak torque
1.35 Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends
at rated engine speed
1.36 Exhaust temperature Vs bmep
1.37 Thermal efficiency Vs bmep
1.38 bsfc Vs bmep
1.39 Exhaust temperature Vs bmep
1.40 Improvement in peak thermal efficiency with respect to biodiesel
in fuel
1.41 bsfc Vs brake power
1.42 Break thermal efficiency Vs brake power
1.43 Specific energy consumption Vs brake power
2.1 Mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification process
2.2 Flow Sheet for production of biodiesel from non- edible vegetable
oils
3.1 P-9 & PV diagram for the engine running on pure diesel at full
load
3.2 P-9 and derived net heat release curves for pure diesel full load
3.3 P-9 and derived cumulative heat release curves for pure diesel at
full load
4.1 P-9 and derived cumulative heat release curves for pure diesel at
full load
4.2 Schematic diagram of data integration circuit taking data from the
encoder and the pressure transducer
4.3 Diesel engine test rig
4.4 Engine loading device Eddy current dynamometer with Spring
balance
x I Bio-diesel
4.5 Vibration readings on the engine. Eddy current dynamometer's
operating panel can be seen in this figure
4.6 Noise measurements on the engine with Larson-Davis labs model
710 Dosimeter
4.7 Connection from crank angle encoder fixed to the engine
4.8 The engine data logger in interface with the computer and the data
being logged by the developed software C7112
4.9 Piezo Electric Transducer
4.10 DC-11 Vibration data logger
4.11 Optical Stroboscope
4.12 Piezo Electric Accelerometer
5.1 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at no- load
5.2 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at 1,4 load
5.3 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at half-load
5.4
th
Comparison of combustion pressures at 3/4 -load
5.5 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at full- load
5.5a Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Full- Load
5.6 Comparison of differential pressures for all oils at all loads
5.7 Comparison of peak pressure for all oils at all loads
5.8 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads with pure diesel
run
5.9 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for JME run
5.10 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for MME run
5.11 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for PKME run
5.12 Comparison of Brake power in KW Vs fuel consumption in grams
per second
5.13 Comparison of load percent Vs brake specific fuel consumption in
Kg/Kw-Hr
5.14 Comparison of mechanical efficiency Vs load per cent
5.15 Comparison of Indicated thermal efficiency Vs load per cent
5.16 Comparison of Brake thermal efficiency Vs load per cent
5.17 Comparison of Net heat release rate Vs load percentage
5.18 Comparison of Cumulative heat release rate Vs load percentage
5.19 Diesel heat release rate plot at full load
5.20 JME heat release rate plot at full load
List of Figures I xi
5.21 MME Heat release rate plot at full load
5.22 PKME heat release rate plot at full load
5.23 Comparison of Sound pressure levels recorded at various loads
and for various oils
5.24 Overall values of vibration in acceleration amplitude Vs the load
percentage
5.25 Foundation vibration with the diesel oil run at full load
5.26 Foundation vibration with the JME run at full load
5.27 Foundation vibration with the MME run at full load
5.28 Foundation vibration with the PKME run at full load
5.29 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the diesel oil run at
full load
5.30 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the JME run at full
load
5.31 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the MME run at full
load
5.32 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the PKME run at full
load
5.33 Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the
crankshaft with the diesel oil run at full load
crankshaft with the JME run at full load
crankshaft with the MME run at full load
crankshaft with the PKME run at full load
5.37 Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with
the diesel oil run at full load
the JME run at full load
the MME run at full load
the PKME run at full load
5.41 Time wave form collected on the cylinder head when engine
running at full load with the diesel oil
running at full load with the JME
xii I Bio-diesel
5.43 Time wave form collected on the head when engine
running at full load with MME
running at full load with PKME
5.45 Time wave form collected radial on the cylinder head when engine
running at full load with the diesel oil
running at full load with JME
:'.49 Comparison of first order Phase of vibration measured radial to
the cylinder
5.50 Comparison of first order Phase of vibration measured vertical on
the cylinder
5.51 Engine vibration trend when run with oils under consideration at
{ullload.
5.52 Limited spectrum average of vibration acceleration when run with
oils under consideration at full load
List of Tables
Table Title of the Table Page
No. No.
11 Biodiesel req-uirement for blending
1.2 Properties of O.D. and palm oil methyl ester (POME)
1.3 Viscosities of POME and temperature (ASTMD445)
2.1 Properties of diesel, non-edible vegetable oils and their
methyl esters
0:
v
e
p
A
"[
llb.th
llIth
llm
~ P
~ T
ABOC
ASME
ASTM
ATOC
B.T.E., b.th.ll
B100
B2
B20
BBOC
BOC
bmep
bp
bsfc
BTOC
CA
CAD
CHRR
CO
DJ.
Nomenclature
Equivalence ratio
Relative Equivalence Ratio
Ratio of Specific Heats
Efficiency
Dynamic Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity
Crank Angle
Density
Wavelength
Shear Stress
Brake Thermal Efficiency
Indicated Thermal Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency
Pressure Difference
Temperature Difference
After Bottom Dead Center
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American Society for Testing and Materials
After Top Dead center
Pure Biodiesel
Blend of 2% Biodiesel and 92% Petroleum Diesel
Blend of 20% Biodiesel and 80% Petroleum Diesel.
Before Bottom Dead center
Bottom Dead center
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
Brake Power
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Before Top Dead center
Crank Angle
Crank Angle in Degree
Cumulative Heat Release Rate
Carbon Monoxide
Direct Injection
deg
ECA
F.e.
F.I.A.
FME
HC
HHV
HSDI
I.T.E., i.th.ll
I.DJ.
imep
ip
isfc
JME
LHV
LOME
Degree(s)
Engine Cycle Analysis
Fuel Consumption
Fuel Injection Analysis
Frying Oil Methyl Ester
Hydro Carbon
Higher Heating Value
High-Speed Direct Injection
Indicated Thermal Efficiency
Indirect Injection
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
Indicated Power
Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption
Jatropha Oil Methyl Ester
Lower Heating Value
Linseed Oil Methyl Ester
MME, MOME: Mahua Oil Methyl Ester
NHRR Net Heat Release Rate
OEMs
PKME
POME
PORIM
RME
rpm
SAE
SEC
sfc
SME
TCSBO
TOC
Original Engine Manufacturers
Palm Kernel Oil Methyl Ester
Palm Oil Methyl Ester
Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia
Rapeseed Oil Methyl Ester
Revolutions Per Minute
Society of Automotive Engineers
Specific Energy Consumption
Specific Fuel Consumption
Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester
Thermally Cracked Soyabean Oil
Top Dead Centre
Nomenclature I xv
Names of the Oils Used in this Study
S.NO Common Name Botanical Names
(Local language names are given in the (Family Name is given in
parenthesis) the parenthesis)
1. JATROPHA (Ratanjyot,Nepalam, Adavi
Jatropha Curcas Linn.
Amudam,Undigapu,Physic Nut,Purging
( Euphorhiaceae)
Nut,etc. )
2. MAHUA (Madhuca,Mowra,Ippa, illupal, etc.)
Madhuca Indica,Bassia
LatifolaRoxburghi.
(Sapotaceae)
3. PALM (Oil Palm, Khajuri)
Elaeis guineenis,
(P.s.:Palm Kernel is Obtained from Oil Palm)
Elaeis oleifera.
(Palmae)
1
Introduction
Biodiesel is one of the widely tested alternative fuels in the market. A
number of studies have been done and the results show the performance
of biodiesel similar to that of petroleum diesel. It is also beneficial to
human health and environment when compared to diesel. The research
includes studies performed by the U.S. Department of Energy, the u.s.
Department of Agriculture, Stanadyne Automotive Corp. (the largest
diesel fuel injection equipment manufacturer in the U.S.), Lovelace
Respiratory Research Institute, and Southwest Research Institute.
Biodiesel is the first and only alternative fuel to have fulfilled the
rigorous health effects testing requirements of the Clean Air Act.
Biodiesel has been proven to perform similar to diesel in more than 40
million successful road miles and in virtually all types of diesel engines,
countless off-road miles and countless marine hours. Currently more
than 100 major fleets use biodiesel
One of the major advantages of biodiesel is that it can be used in
existing engines and fuel injection equipment with little impact on the
operating performance. Biodiesel has a higher cetane number than U.S.
diesel fuel. In more than 30 million miles of in-field demonstrations, B20
showed similar fuel consumption, horsepower, torque, and haulage rates
as conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel also has superior lubricity and has
the highest BTU content in the comparison to any other any alternative
fuel (falling in the range between #1 and #2 diesel fuel).
Biodiesel becomes gel in very cold temperatures, just as the common
#2 diesel does. Although' pure biodiesel has a higher cloud point than #2
diesel fuel, typical blends of 20 per cent biodiesels are managed with the
same fuel management techniques as #2 diesel. Blends of 5 per cent
biodiesel and less have virtually no impact on cold flow.
Biodiesel can be operated in any diesel engine with little or no
modification to the engine or the fuel system. Pure biodiesel (B100) has a
solvent effect, which may release deposits accumulated on tank walls and
2 I Bio-diesel
pipes from previous diesel fuel use. With high blends of biodiesel, the
release of deposits may clog filters initially, therefore, precautions should
be taken to replace fuel filters until the petroleum build-up is eliminated.
This issue is less prevalent with B20 blends, and there is no evidence that
lower-blend levels such as B2 have caused filters to plug. The use of a 2
per cent blend of biodiesel, it is estimated, increases the cost of diesel by 2
or 3 cents per gallon, including the fuel, transportation, storage and
blending costs. Any increase in cost will be accompanied by an increase
in diesel quality since low-blend levels of biodiesel greatly enhance the
lubricity of diesel fuel.
The recent switch to low-sulphur diesel fuel has caused most
Original Engine Manufacturers (OEMs) to switch to components that are
also compatible with biodiesel. In general, biodiesel used in pure form
can soften and degrade certain types of elastomers and natural rubber
compounds over a period of time. Using high per cent blends can impact
fuel system components (primarily fuel hoses and fuel pump seals) that
contain elastomer compounds incompatible with biodiesel, although the
effect is lessened as the biodiesel blend level is decreased. Experiments
during the last seven years with B20 has show that no changes to gaskets
or hoses are necessary.
The biodiesel industry has been active in setting standards for
biodiesel since 1994 when the first biodiesel taskforce was formed by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM approved a
provisional standard for biodiesel (ASTM PS 121) in July 1999.
Most fuel today is used much before six months, and many
petroleum companies do not recommend storing petroleum diesel for
more than six months. The current industry recommendation is that
biodiesel be used within six months, or reanalyzed after six months to
ensure the fuel meets ASTM specifications (PS 121-99). A longer shelf life
is possible depending on the fuel composition and the use of storage
enhancing additives. The use of biodiesel in existing diesel engines does
not void parts and materials workmanship warranties of any engine
manufacturer.
There are thirteen companies that have invested millions of dollars
into the development of the biodiesel manufacturing plants actively
marketing biodiesel. Based on existing dedicated biodiesel processing
capacity and long-term production agreements, more than 200 million
gallons of biodiesel capacity currently exists. Many facilities are capable
of doubling their production capacity within 18 months.
Introduction I 3
The U.S. Department of Agriculture announced in January 2001 the
implementation of the first programme providing cost incentives for the
production of 36 million gallons of biodiesel. Bills supporting the use of
biodiesel and ethanol were also introduced in the U.S. Congress in 2001,
including one that would set a renewable standard for fuel in the U.S.
and one that would give biodiesel a partial fuel excise tax exemption.
More than a dozen states have passed favourable biodiesellegislation.
Biodiesel is a non-polluting recycled fuel made from organic oils. It is
chemically called Free Fatty Acid Methyl Ester. It is made from processed
organic oils and fats, and can be burned in normal diesel engines just like
normal mineral diesel, but its use neither pollutes the atmosphere nor
adds to the causes of global warming. It is also possible to make good
bio-diesel from waste vegetable oils like used chip fat. In this way,
burning bio-diesel turns a waste disposal problem into a non-polluting
fuel source.
Organic fuels are derived from plant and animal fats. Mineral fuels
are derived from the fossil remains of decomposed organic matter
extracted from below the surface of the earth. It is a common knowledge
that the resources of mineral oils are nearly depleted, and the cost of
extracting the remaining reserves will become increasingly high. There is
an urgent need to find other sources of energy before mineral fuel
supplies run dry.
It is also well known that burning of fossil fuels increases the level of
carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere as the carbon locked within the earth's
crust, when burned, is released into the atmosphere as exhaust gasses.
This is the main cause of the 'Green House' effect in which the overall
temperature of the globe increases as it becomes enveloped within a pool
of carbon dioxide. This process is believed to be the main cause of global
warming, which is now a well-accepted fact even amongst those who
were most skeptical. All the time we burn normal petrol or mineral
diesel, we are therefore actively contributing to global warming.
However, the burning of organically derived fuels does not contribute
any additional CO2 into the atmosphere, as the carbon released is the same
as the carbon absorbed by the plants as they grow. Using organic fuels is
therefore beneficial to both the environment and the atmosphere.
Many potential organic fuels presently pose a waste disposal
problem. For example, waste vegetable fats used for cooking require
costly disposal. But most of these materials can easily be re-processed to
make useful fuels by the process of transesterification.
41 Bio-diesel
Biologically derived oils and fats comprise of three fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol. Processing detaches the three hydrocarbon chains to
make biodiesel, and glycerin. The glycerin can be used to make soaps or
fermented to make ethanol, which is re-used to make biodiesel, or it can
be burned as a heating fuel.
Biodiesel as an Option for Energy Security in India [1]
India ranks sixth in the world in terms of energy demand accounting for
3.5 per cent of world commercial energy demand in 2001. The energy
, demand is expected to grow at the rate of 4.8 Per cent per annum. ?? A
large part of India's population, mostly in the rural areas, does not have
access to it. Hence a programme for the development of energy from raw
material, which grows in the rural areas, will go a long way in providing
energy security to the rural people. The rise in energy demand in all
forms is expected to continue unabated owing to increasing urbanization,
standard of living and expanding population stabilization of which not
been possible before mid of the current century. The demand of diesel
(HSD) is projected to grow from 39.81 million metric tons in 2001-02 to
52.32 million metric tons in 2006-07, at the rate of 5.6 per annum. Our
crude oil production as per the Tenth Plan Working Group is estimated to
hover around 33-34 million metric tons per annum even though there
will be an increase in gas production from 86 million standard cubic
metres per day (2002-03) to 103 million standard cubic meters per day in
(2006-07). Only with joint venture abroad there is a hope of oil
production to increase to 41 million metric tons by (2016-17). The gas
production would decline by this period to 73 million standard cubic
meters per day. The increasing gap between demand and domestically
produced petroleum is a matter of serious concern. Our dependence on
imported oil will increase in the foreseeable future. The Working Group
has estimated import of crude oil to go up from 85 million metric tons
per annum to 147 million metric tons per annum by the end of 2006-07,
correspondingly increasing the import bill from $ 13.3 billion to $ 15.7
billion at today's prices. Transport remains the most problematic sector,
as no alternative to petroleum-based fuel, has been successful so far.
Hence petroleum based fuels especially petroleum diesel (HSD), will
continue to dominate the transport sector in the foreseeable future but its
consumption can be minimized by implementation of biodiesel
programme expeditiously. Targets need to be set up for biodiesel
production to achieve blending ratios of 5, 10 and 20 per cent in phased
manner.
Introduction I 5
BIODIESEL REQUIREMENT FOR BLENDING
The estimated biodiesel requirements for blending with petroleum diesel
over the period of next five years are given in Table 1:
Table 1. Biodiesel requirement for blending
Year Diesel demand Biodiesel requirement for
million tons blending million tons
@5% @10% @20%
2001-02 39.81 1.99 3.98 7.6
2002-03 42.15 2.16 4.32 8.9
2003-04 44.51 2.28 4.56 8.6
2004-05 46.97 2.35 4.70 8.4
2005-06 49.56 2.48 4.96 8.9
2007-08 52.33 2.62 5.24 10.48
FEASIBILITY OF PRODUCING BIODIESEL AS A DIESEL SUBSTITUTE
While India is short of petroleum reserve, it has large arable land as well
as good climatic conditions (tropical) with adequate rainfall in large parts
of the country to account for large biomass production each year. Since
the demand of edible oils is higher than their domestic production, there
is no possibility of diverting these oils for production of biodiesel.
Fortunately, there is. a large junk of degraded forest land, unutilized
public land, field boundaries and fallow land of farmers where non-
edible oil-seeds can be grown. There are many tree species, which bear
seeds rich in oil. Of these some promising tree species have be;:!n
evaluated and it has been found that there are a number of them such as
Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot) and Pongamia Pinnata ('Honge' or
'Karanja'), which would be very suitable in Indian conditions. However,
Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot) has been found most suitable for the
purpose. It will use lands which are largely unproductive for the time
being and are located in poverty stricken areas and in degraded forests. It
can also be planted on farmers' field boundaries and fallow lands. These
can also be planted in public lands such as along the railway lines, road
sides and beside the irrigation canals.
PROPOSED JATROPHA PLANTATION
Jatropha curcas has been found the most suitable tree species for the
reasons summarized below:
It can be grown as a quick yielding plant even in adverse land
situations viz. degraded and barren lands under forest and non-
6 I Bio-diesel
forest use, dry and drought prone areas, marginal lands and as
agro forestry crop. It can be planted on fallow lands and along
farmer's field boundaries as hedge because it does not grow too
tall as well as on vacant lands alongside railways, highways,
irrigation canals and unused lands in townships under public /
private sector undertakings.
The seeds of Jatropha are available during the non-rainy season,
which facilitates better collection and processing. The cost of
plantation is largely incurred in the first year and improved
planting material can make a huge difference in yield.
Raising Jatropha plant and its maintenance creates jobs for the
rural poor, particularly the landless, in plantation and primary
processing through expellers.
It has multiple uses and after the extraction of oil from the seeds,
the oil cake left behind can be used for bio gas production and is
excellent organic manure, the biomass of Jatropha curcas
enriches the soil and it can also be put to other uses.
Retains soil moisture and improves land capability and
environment.
Jatropha adds to the capital stock of the farmers and the
community, for sustainable generation of income and
employment.
ECONOMICS OF JATROPHA BIODIESEL
In India, it is estimated that the cost of biodiesel produced by
transesterification of oil obtained from Jatropha curcas oil seeds shall be
approximately same as that of petro-diesel. The seed contains 30 per cent
oil, and oil extraction can be 91-92 per cent. 1.05 kg of oil will be required
to produce 1 kg of biodiesel, recovery from sale of crude glycerol will be
at the rate of Rs. 10 per kg. The price of glycerol is likely to be reduced
with processing of large quantities of oil and consequent production of
glycerol raising the cost of bio-diesel. However, new applications are
likely to be found creating additional demand and stabilizing its price.
With volatility in the price of crude, the use of bio-diesel is economically
feasible and a strategic option.
ECONOMICS OF BIODIESEL IN THE US
US produces biodiesel from edible oil (mainly Soya oil), the 100 per cent
biodiesel costs around $ 1.25 to $2.25 per gallon depending upon
purchase volume and the delivery costs and competes with low sulphur
Introduction I 7
diesel oil. However, it is costlier than normal diesel and the B20 blend
costs 13 to 22 cents more per gallon than normal diesel. It takes about 7.3
pounds of soya bean oil, which costs about 20 cents/pound, to produce a
gallon of biodiesel. Feedstock costs are therefore at least $ 1.5 per gallon
of Soya diesel. Under the mustard seed programme, oil can be produced
today for approximately 10 cents/pound and the total cost of producing
mustard biodiesel is around $ 1 per gallon. The mustard oil, a low value
product, contains as much as 90 per cent mono-saturated fatty acids
which make it perfect for biodiesel, balancing cold flow issues with Nox
emission issues. US is planning to add 5-10 billion gallons of biodiesel
through mustard seeds. The mustard oil contains a high value pesticide
that helps keep the price of mustard oil low. In India, it is estimated that
cost of biodiesel produced by transesterification of oil obtained from
Jatropha curcas oil-seeds shall be approximately same as that of
petroleum diesel. The byproducts of biodiesel from Jatropha seed are the
seed oil cake and glycerol which have good commercial value. The seed
oil cake is a very good compost being rich in plant nutrients. It can also
yield biogas, which can be used for cooking and its residue as compost.
Hence oil cake will fetch good price. Glycerol is produced as a byproduct
in the transesterification of oil. These byproducts shall reduce the cost of
biodiesel to make it at par with petroleum diesel. The cost components of
biodiesel are the price of seed, seed collection and oil extraction,
transesterification of oil, transport of seed and oil. As mentioned earlier,
cost recovery will be through sale of oil cake and glycerol. The use
biodiesel is economically feasible.
Studies on Rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME)
If straight unprocessed vegetable oil is burned, the fatty acids in the oil
would start to congeal and harden (coke up) on the inside of the engine as
well as in the fuel injectors, eventually leading to big, expensive engine
problems. Therefore, it is necessary to process vegetable oil to remove the
fatty acids making the oil more similar to diesel compositionally. Biodiesel
is an alternative, renewable, clean diesel fuel made from triglycerides
(vegetable oils, fats, waste cooking oils), which can be used in neat form, or
blended with petroleum diesel for use in compression ignition engines.
Biodiesel reduces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide (one
of the main causes of acid rain), hydrocarbons, benzene, and particulate
matter. Blending in this way tends to reduce the emissions and smoke
levels, though power output will still tend to be lower and separation of the
blended constituents could occur in cold weather [3]. No engine problems
81 Bio-diesel
were reported in large-scale tests with, for example, urban bus fleets
running on B20. Fuel economy promised, but it increases nitrogen oxide
levels. The biodiesel industry is looking for additives that would reduce
nitrogen oxide levels. Kevin et al. [6] compared alternative fuel transit
buses price and reported that there were no expected increase for biodiesel
blend use because the engine and fuel system were the same as that used
for the conventional diesel version. Many scientists reported problems of
diesel engine operation with biodiesel. Bag et al. [5] reportessd that
extended tests of esters in diesel engines had been encouraging. Like other
fuels, combustion of esters is incomplete. The gradual accumulation of
esters in the crankcase eventually leads to greatly altered viscosity of the
lubricating oil. Bechtold [7] and Perkins et al. [8] reported that biodiesel
had higher viscosity and higher pour points compared to typical diesel
fuel, which could affect operation in very cold temperatures. Like diesel
fuels, pour point additives are effective at decreasing pour point. The
above-mentioned problems can be overcome by blending conventional
diesel fuel with esters (usually methyl esters) of vegetable oils. The most
common ratio is 80 per cent conventional diesel fuel and 20 per cent
vegetable oil ester (also termed "B20, indicating the 20 per cent level of
biodiesel) like petroleum diesel. No engine modifications are required, and
biodiesel maintains the payload capacity and range of diesel. Since
modifications are not required, there is no need to change vehicles, spare
parts inventories, refuelling stations or skilled mechanics.
Straight biodiesel has a cetane rating Significantly higher than typical
#2 diesel fuel, slightly lower heating value, slightly higher viscosity, and
contains approximately 10 per cent oxygen mass .The lower heating value
will cause a small loss in maximum power if the engine fuel system is not
recalibrated. Perkins et al. [8] observed performance trends of the diesel
and rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engines at 1000 hour of the 1000-hour
endurance test and are shown in Figs 1.1 & 1.2. The power and torque
curves for the diesel and rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engines are almost
similar but slight offset was observed for the rapeseed methyl ester. This
offset results in the rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engine reaching their
peak power output at a lower engine rpm. Another notable difference is
that the rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engine produced a flatter power
curve than the diesel-fuelled engine. Babu et al. [9] has worked both on
the neat vegetable oils and their esters. He has studied the power and
torque curves of the engine with the usage of above said oils, which are
depicted below:
Introduction I 9
25
'E20
6
15
J 1:
o
ar+:

.-+-Dj.al
2200 2)0

i500
i:400
':'300
I:
..
2200
Fig. 1.2.Torque for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel.

e. 13
.! 12
l::+-____
o 0.1 02 0.3 0.5 0.8
...:JI(Mpa)
Fig. 1.3. Ignition lag for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
10 I Bio-diesel
-
? 80 .,...---,.------....-....,
I _Rspeseed at
Co 80 meth)i ester
1
40
-
20 .....
0 +--....,.--,....--,...-.,.---,-.,.--....,.--f
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
BMEP,IIpa)
Fig. 1.4. BSHC for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
EIIEP (llpa)
0.6
Fig. 1.5. Rate of pressure-rise for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel
Murayama et al. [2] compared the engine performance with the
rapeseed methyl ester with pure rapeseed oil. The difference in the
engine performance between the two fuels is very small, except for the
ignition lag, which is smaller for the methyl ester (Figs. 1.3 & 1.4).
However, the major difference between the two fuels is the much smaller
carbon deposits with methyl ester when compared with pure rapeseed
oil. It can be seen from Fig. 1.5 that the engine noise increases linearly
with an increase in the amount of premixed combustion and the
maximum rate of pressure rise, regardless of the kind of fuel. Therefore,
the maximum rate of pressure rise and the amount of premixed
combustion appear to be critical factors for controlling the engine noise.
Introduction I 11
Senatore et al. in their paper [15] works on the RME inspired by the
results obtained [10-14] on bio fuel which has good overall behaviour,
with performance and emission levels comparable to diesel fuel.
These figures present the torque and specific consumption
respectively under the above test conditions. For the various fuel
properties, whenever the comparison is made for the same equivalence
ratio value, there is observed a marked difference in the curves (Figs. 1.6a,
1.7a and 1.8a.), which stresses how the performance of biodiesel is clearly
lower (about 20-25%) than that obtained from diesel fuel, when the same
quantity of air and fuel is introduced into the cylinder. As expected, this
difference tends to cancel itself out if one refers to the relative
equivalence ratio '<p' (Figs.l.6b, 1.7b and 1.8b).
200 ~ - - - . - - ~ - - ~ - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - ~
180
160
140
=120
!lOO
so
60
40

.
--100,. J)!iKtl PUel
- - - - 100,. R.ME
20
O ~ - P ~ - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - . - - ~
10 IS 20
lS 40 4S .so SS 60

Fig. 1.6a. Torque Vs ex
12 I Bio-diesel
60
40

..

--- IOn. DiKtl!bel
- - - - - - 100ft RJ.IE
__ .. ____ .. __ .... __
1.0 15 ::l.O
5.0 55 6.0
Fig. 1.6b. Torque Vs cp.

5S-
50-
4S.
40-
J5

o 15.
c:to.
10
-
oS

10 IS 2h 3S J 4.5 .5.5 60
ex
Fig. 1.7a. Power Vs ex
Introduction I 13
,. __
J5
,
lOO'r. DiKel ftael
- - - - RMIi:
,

-. .....
B

U
Fig. 1.7b. Power Vs <p

410
i 37.

--- 1..". DM$el Pad
- - - - lo(w' RUE
r
III
.'l
Fig. 1.8a. Specific fuel consumption Vs ex
..
141 Bio-diesel
--1001. D i t ~ . l F\1el
- - - - 1001. RME
B
LO
0.'
,
It
- ...
..
Fig. 1.8b. Specific fuel consumption Vs cp
Figures 1.9-1.11 shows the net heat release rate diagrams for three
different operating conditions (<p = 3.75, <p = 3.15 and <p = 1.61) for pure
diesel fuel and pure methyl ester, respectively. These figures point out
that the heat release rate initially follows a downward trend,
corresponding to the end of compression stroke, which suddenly changes
slope at combustion starting. By analyzing these diagrams, one can
observe that when the engine is fuelled with biodiesel, the process starts
in advance in all operating conditions, a feature, which becomes more
evident as the load increases. This determines a similar trend in the mean
temperature variation rate of gases in the cylinder, as shown in Figs.1.12-
1.14. Therefore, depending on the fuel used, the maximum temperature
increase rate is found at somewhat different engine crank angle positions.
In particular, compared with the operating conditions tested using diesel
fuel, when biodiesel is used the temperature variation rate peaks at a
position closer to piston top dead centre.
Introduction I 15
30----------------------------------
--lOO!llt I>iesti
--- -lOCl'loRJa

20 0 20
Crank. Angle In Degrees
Fig. 1.9. Heat release rate Vs crank angle in degrees.
3.-------------------------
- DWellllel
%I - - - l00f0 RKE
1
28
=3.15
I JJ
11
f.
1
I!
-1.-+--....... - .... - ..... - ........... _-1
-31 -28 -11 ID 20 3D
CnRk ADP in Depee.
Fig. 1.10. Heat release rate Vs crank angle in degrees.
161 Bio-diesel
4 0 ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - ~
M30 20 -10 t) 110 lO
30
Crank. Anale In Degrees
Fig. 1.11. Heat release rate Vs crank angle degree
--100% Diesel ~ l
----100%RWE
$ =3.15
-15
- 2 0 - - ~ - - ~ - - - - . - - - - . - - - - . - - - ~ - - ~
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Cnmk Angle in Degrees
Fig. 1.12. Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle in degrees.
Introduction I 17
30
100% Diesel Fuel
~
%5
- -100% RME
~
4-=3.15
~
le
Q)
5
i!
"'Cf
-5
-10
-11
-%0
-3e
-%0
0
%0
30
Crank Angle in Degrees
4 0 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 100% Diesel FUel
- -100% RUE
~ =1.61
...
20 ...... -...,..-..... - ..... --....-..... - ....
-30
20
10
o
10
20
30
Crank. Angle in Degrees
181 Bio-diesel
Desantes et al. [16] evaluate the potential of rapeseed oil methyl ester
(RME) to improve the combustion process in a high-speed direct injection
(H5DI) diesel engine equipped with high-pressure common-rail injection
system. The study, based on the comparison of three different fuels
(standard gas-oil, RME and 30% RME/gas-oil mixture), takes into
account the main aspects that control diesel combustion, from the
injection rate characteristics to the spray behaviour characterized using
an optical pressurized chamber.
This global study of the whole injection-combustion process
identifies some causes of the decrease in pollutant emissions observed
when the engine operates with RME.
The use of fuels derived from agricultural products like rapeseed oil
methyl ester (RME) is currently receiving considerable attention due to its
economic and ecological interest [18] [19]. 5everal authors have evaluated
RME behaviour in D .1. and I.D.I. diesel engines [20] [23] [24] [25], and
previous results are variable, particularly regarding pollutant emissions.
Experiments have involved the study of mechanical stress problems of
the injection system and oil contamination [20] [21] [22]. In the cases
where detailed studies of the combustion process with RME have been
carried out, the analysis was purely chemical [17]. Very few studies have
incorporated an analysis of the influence of the RME characteristics on
the physical mechanisms that control the injection-combustion process in
a diesel engine.
Studies on Sunflower oil methyl ester (SME)
These are the observations made by Dulger et al.[26] by his
experimentation on sunflower methyl ester. The variation of full load
torque with engine speed for biodiesel and diesel fuel is given in Fig. 1.15
For diesel fuel, the maximum torque is 152 Nm at 2250 rpm while for
5ME, the maximum torque is 150 Nm at 2250 rpm. Maximum torque is
obtained at same rpm for both fuels. At 4500 rpm, diesel gives a torque of
117 Nm, biodiesel 106 Nm. Overall, diesel fuel yields 0-10 per cent higher
torque values than 5ME. Figure 1.16 shows full load engine power
variation with engine speed. A maximum power of 55 kW is obtained at
4500 rpm for diesel, maximum power for 5ME is 50 kW at 4500 rpm.
Below 2500 rpm, power outputs for both fuels are almost same. Above
2500 rpm, diesel produces 0-10 per cent higher power than 5ME. The
reason why 5ME produces lower torque and power output than diesel
fuel is attributed to fuel pumping problems of 5ME due to its higher
density and viscosity compared to diesel, lower heating value of 5ME
Introduction I 19
and inappropriate injection timing for 5ME. Figure 1.17 shows specific
fuel consumption. Minimum specific fuel consumption for diesel is 280
g/kW-h at 2000 rpm, while for 5ME 283 g/kW-h at 2000 rpm. At 4500
rpm, diesel consumes 326 g/kW-h and 5ME 340 g/kW.h. Over the whole
rpm range, fuel consumption for 5ME is 2-5 per cent higher. The reason
for this is believed to be lower heating value of 5ME than diesel fuel
which leads to higher fuel consumption per unit power produced. No
performance penalties [27], [28], [29], [30], contamination of fuel line
elements and lube oil and carbon deposits are found in the combustion
chamber due to high viscosity [31].
This study shows that 5ME is an alternative to diesel fuel. According
to the tests, the torque, power and specific fuel consumption for 5ME
operation are within the same levels as when operating with pure diesel
fuel. Although the results of the tests carried out on the test bench seem
to be very encouraging, more tests with 5ME should be carried, out to
cover all operating conditions, not only full load conditions. Moreover,
modifications on engine design and operation parameters such as
injection timing, injection pressure and fuel heating should be tested and
optimized for 5ME operation.
~
~
~
i
..
c
'51
c
...
I-+-DIESEL
-BIODIESEL
200
f
t t
I I
I
1 SO

100
2
,
so
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed (rpm)
Fig. 1.15. Engine torque variation with engine speed
~ 60
I 40
20
!!
0. 0
'"
w
1000 2000 3000

l
_OIESEL
_BIOOIESEL
4000 5000
Engine speed (rpm)
Fig. 1.16. Engine power variation with engine speed
20 I Bio-diesel
I
-DIESEL
-BIODIESEl
400
t f I
*t
I
Qi
g _ 350

.2
... ~ ~ 300
I

4

<=
::I ... 250
'\)
~ . 200
.,
a.
8 150 In
100
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
E ngine ~ p e e d (rpm)
Fig. 1.17. Specific fuel consumption with engine speed
Studies on Palm oil methyl ester (PO ME) [70]
Tests were carried out by Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia
(PORIM) with ordinary diesel and POME. A brief description of the
conditions and properties is given below:
a) Baseline Ordinary diesel fuel
b) POME 2535 POME at 25 C and intake air at 35 C
c) POME 9535 POME at 95 C and intake air at 35 C
d) POME 5035 POME at 50 C and intake air at 35 C
e) POME 5050 POME at 50 C and intake air at 50 C
f) POME 8585 POME at 85 C and intake air at 85 C
g) POME 2550 POME at 25 C and intake air at 50 C
h) POME 2575 POME at 25 C and intake air at 75 C
ENGINE TRIALS
Brake Power
Referring to Fig.Ll8, the maximum brake power is achieved at around 2000
r/min, conforming very well with the manufacture's specifications. It can
be observed that the engine produced almost identical performance on OD
and POME fuel under different preheated conditions. It can be seen that as
the fuel temperature is increased there is a tendency to power
improvement, especially while the engine is operating below 3500 r/min,
which was best observed in the case of POME9535 and POME5035. This is
most probably due to the reduction of fuel viscosity as temperature rises;
once a POME is heated up to 55C its viscosity approaches the OD level
(refer to Table 2). The reduction in viscosity leads to fuel droplet
refinement, which in turn improves the fuel spray, atomization, fuel
evaporation and injection characteristics of POME fuel. In addition, the
ignition delay time was reduced and the cetane rating was also increased,
thus approaching the minimum specification for diesel fuel (13). This leads
lI'ltroduction I 21
to 'diesel-like' brake power output. However, as the fuel is heated above
lOOC the fuel viscosity becomes too low to effectively perform its
lubricating function on the fuel pump; which deteriorates fuel pump
delivery efficiency and results in lower power output (at 95C POME
viscosity is about 2.2 cSt). Combustion was more nearly 'hypergolic' with
preheating since the time for each fuel element to be oxidized was
significantly reduced. Pursuant to the phenomenon of hypergolic
combustion, thermal dissociation can be achieved by preheating the fuel.
Upon injection of preheated fuel into the combustion chamber, owing to
the presence of a few chemically active fuel radicals, the fuel is ignited and
consumed more rapidly than fuel injected at conventional temperatures.
The actual phenomenon of hypergolic combustion can be realized only if
the preheated fuel is subject to a high supply pressure with the aid of a
high-temperature fuel injection system. This condition is still under
investigation. For the case of POME 2550, the hot intake air activated the
air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber, therefore improving
combustion efficiency, which in turn leads to better power output.
Torque
The plot of torque Vs engine speed is shown in Fig.1.19 indicating a
similar trend as in Fig. 1.18. Thus the above arguments are used to explain-
the observation.
SpecificfUelconsuntption
A plot of specific fuel consumption against engine speed is shown in
Fig.1.20. It is shown that POME at normal and preheated forms exhibits
slightly higher specific fuel consumption than OD fuel. The differences in
fuel consumption reflect the differences in relative fuel density, calorific
value of fuel, fuel quality and quality of fuel in terms of the cetane index.
Referring to Table 2, the POME has a higher specific density (around 5
per cent higher than OD), lower specific combustion enthalpy and lower
heat release rate than OD fuel. The higher specific gravity of POME
compared with OD fuel indicates that a 15 per cent lower calorific value
by mass leads only to a 10 per cent reduction in volume. Since diesel
injection equipment metres by volume, the maximum fuel energy
delivery without modification is effectively reduced by 10 per cent. In
other words, an extra 10 per cent of POME fuel is required to produce the
same level of energy output as OD fuel. In addition, once POME fuel is
preheated to above 55C, its viscosity is reduced significantly; this will
22 I Bio-diesel
increase the fuel flow rate, which in turn will increase the specific fuel
consumption. The preheated fuel shows similar fuel characteristics, but
with a proportional reduction in viscosity with the increase in
temperature, which is clearly shown in Table 3. POME 5035 shows a
similar level of fuel consumption with baseline OD fuel, as their viscosity
levels are equivalent. The trends demonstrated in Fig1.20 also indicate
that an increment in fuel temperature has more adverse effect on specific
fuel consumption for POME than the intake air temperature.
Figure 1.21 shows the brake thermal efficiency against engine speed. It is
obvious that the baseline OD fuel performs the best in terms of brake
thermal efficient throughout the engine operation range. This is mainly
due to the relatively higher power output and lower fuel consumption
when using baseline OD fuel. However, for the preheated POME cases,
even though they generated slightly higher power output than the
baseline OD system, the adverse increment in fuel consumption is a
serious penalty to downgrade their brake thermal efficiencies.
Table: 2. I Properties of 0.0. and Palm Oil Methyl Ester (POME)
Properties POME OD
Specific density (g/cm
3
) 0.875 0.832
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C 4.17 3.60
Cetane number 50-52 53
Calorific value (KJ I Kg) 41300 46800
Viscosities of POME at various temperatures are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Viscosities of POME al!d Temperature (ASTMD445)
S.No. Temperature in C Viscosity
(1) 29.5 8.05
(2) 70 4.40
(3) 55 2.93
(4) 100 2.06
(5) 120 1.65
Introduction I 23

-Baseline
""'*" POME50S0
PONE"35
-t- POME8S85

r{mill
......-PONE9535
-A- POME2$50
-e- PONE$035
-H- POME2S7S
Fig. 1.18. Brake power Vs engine speed

- IIIIIeIine
""'*" 1'OMI!5050

-+- POM8I5IS
..... 1'OMI!!1S3S
-6- POMI!2S5O
-i3-1'OMI!S035

Fig. 1.19. Torque Vs engine speed
24 I Bio-diesel

lE
..
"I
fit
i
-a-une
-*" POM85050
0.91-------------i- POM82535 ___
..... POMEI5I5
___ POME9S35

O ..... -s-POMUl3$---H-.q
.... fOME2S75
0 ... .......
35
30
25
20
.,
Fig. 1.20. Specific fuel consumption Vs engine speed
-- BueliJIe

J--I-oH9'-__J'--------- -t- POMB2S3!1
POMB8S8S
-*"" POME9!13!1
H-U-__J'-----=---- ---.- -e..- POh.f2!1SO ------=r
-e- POME!103!1
-B- POME2S7!1
o
1/xX) 211110 :!O()() 4000

r'",11I
Fig. 1.21. Brake thermal efficiency Vs engine speed
Introduction I 25
Studies on Jatropha oil Methyl Ester (JME)
Uncertainties concerning adequate and stable supplies of petroleum fuels
have renewed interest in vegetable oils as diesel engine fuels [32]. Non-
edible oils are quite promising fuels for agricultural applications.
Vegetable oils have similar properties to diesel and can be used to run
compression ignition engines with few or no modifications [33].
Investigations have been carried out on a variety of vegetable oils, e.g.,
Jatropha oil, Karanja oil, rice bran oil, rapeseed oil, for use in diesel
engines [34]. Diesel engines with vegetable oils as fuels produce the same
power output but with reduced thermal efficiency and increased
emissions [35]. Besides this, vegetable oils lead to problems of gum
formation and smoke emission. Most of the problems of vegetable oils
can be overcome by esterifying them.
Kumar et al. [36], in their experimental work, have evaluated and
compared the performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of
a single-cylinder, water-cooled, direct-injection diesel engine running on
Jatropha oil and its methyl ester with diesel operation. With Jatropha oil,
the maximum brake thermal efficiency was 25.6 per cent compared to
29.4 per cent with diesel. The thermal efficiency was 27.8 per cent with
the methyl ester of Jatropha oil. Smoke and particulate levels were higher
with Jatropha oil than diesel. The methyl ester of Jatropha oil was better
than the pure oil but it was still inferior to diesel. Hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide emissions were slightly higher with both Jatropha oil
and its methyl ester than with diesel whereas NO levels were lower than
with diesel. Ignition delay and combustion duration were longer and
peak heat release rates were lower with Jatropha oil and its methyl ester
than with diesel. Again the methyl ester of Jatropha oil was better. On the
whole, it is concluded that the methyl ester of Jatropha oil could be used
unmodified in diesel engines with no major detonation in performance.
The long-term effects of this fuel have to be evaluated.
26 I Bio-diesel
70
es
~ S : ~ 1
-
J
-
I
ID
55
I
I
SO
0-
Std.:..-
4S

.w.op_at
+
NE al,fajboP. 01
40
0
,
..
-
<>

+
1 - L ~ ~ ~ __ ~ __ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o
3
Fig. 1.23 .Variation of maximum rate of pressure rise with brake power
-
<5
Introduction I 27
o '23
&aka PoINer ( kW)
Fig .1.24 .Variation of combustion duration with brake power
4
r 30
-
J
I
I
20
10
- 2 D - h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
34(1, 310 MO 310 380 310 400 "'0 420 430
Qank Andte ( dag CA)
Fig. 1.25. Variation of heat release rate at Maximum power output
28 I Bio-diesel
A single-cylinder diesel engine was operated on Jatropha oil, methyl
ester of Jatropha oil and diesel. The following are the conclusions based
on experimental results:
~ The operation of the engine is smooth on Jatropha oil and methyl ester
of Jatropha oil with acceptable performance. The use of Jatropha oil
results in a slightly lower thermal efficiency than with diesel. With the
methyl ester of Jatropha oil the brake thermal efficiency is similar to
diesel values. Maximum brake thermal efficiencies are 25.6, 27.8 and
29.4 per cent for Jatropha oil, its methyl ester and diesel, respectively.
~ Exhaust gas temperature is higher with the Jatropha oil and methyl
ester of Jatropha oil than with diesel due to slow combustion.
~ Hydrocarbon emission is greater for the Jatrophci oH than the diesel,
150 pp m for Jatropha oil and 120 pp m for diesel at maximum
output. However, it is only 130 ppm with the methyl ester of Jatropha
oil. Similar trends are seen in the case of CO emission.
~ The maximum smoke level with Jatropha oil is 4.4 BSU, whereas it is
only 3.8 BSU with its ester and 3.6 BSU for diesel.
~ Particulate emissions are lower with methyl ester of Jatropha oil than
pure Jatropha oil. Trends are similar to smoke emissions.
~ Ignition delay and combustion duration are longer with both
Jatropha oil and methyl ester of Jatropha oil than with diesel.
~ Lower rates of heat release are found with Jatropha oil and methyl ester
of Jatropha oil than with diesel during the premixed combustion phase.
On the whole, it is concluded that the methyl ester of Jatropha oil can
be good alternative fuel for diesel engine, however, the problem of
sluggish combustion and high smoke levels needs attention. The long-
term effects of these fuels have to be evaluated.
The performance of the engine and combustion parameters of the
engine with diesel and methyl ester of Jatropha oil are presented and
discussed below.
The variation of specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency
with power output for the methyl ester of Jatropha oil and diesel are shown
in Figures 1.26 and 1.2Z The specific fuel consumption is higher i.e., the
thermal efficiency is lower with the ester of Jatropha oil. This is probably due
to the low volatility, slightly higher viscosity and high density of the methyl
ester of Jatropha oil, which affects mixture formation of the fuel and leads to
slow combustion. The maximum thermal efficiency of the Jatropha ester is
Introduction I 29
about 26.5 per cent, whereas it is 29.3 per cent with diesel. However, there is
no drop in maximum power with the Jatropha ester.
Exhaust gas temperature increases when the load rises and it is higher
for Jatropha ester than diesel, particularly at higher loads. Due to incomplete
combustion of the injected fuel and part of the combustion extending into
the exhaust stroke, there is a slight increase in exhaust gas temperature with
Jatropha ester compared to diesel oil operation. The maximum temperature
of exhaust gas at peak load is 492"C for the ester and 474C for diesel. With
100 per cent methyl ester of Jatropha oil' operation smoke emission is
increased at higher loads. This may be due to the higher viscosity and
density of the ester that leads poor vaporization and slow combustion of the
injected fuel. When the highly viscous Jatropha ester is injected, the
atomization of fuel is poor leading to larger droplets and less air entrainment
resulting in inefficient combustion. This leads to higher smoke emission with
Jatropha ester. However, smoke is less at lower loads.
The variation of peak pressure and the rate of pressure rise for various
loads are shown in Figures 1.28 and 1.29. The peak pressure depends on
the amount of fuel taking part in the uncontrolled combustion phase,
which is governed by the delay period and the spray envelope of the
injected fuel. There is a little difference between the peak pressures of the
methyl ester of Jatropha oil and diesel. At high loads the peak pressure is
slightly higher than diesel with the Jatropha ester. As seen in Figure 1.29,
there is a big difference in the maximum rate of pressure rise between the
two fuels. The maximum rate of pressure rise of the ester of Jatropha oil is
generally higher at high power outputs probably due to the dominating
effects of the premixed phase of combustion.
INFERENCE
A single cylinder compression ignition engine was operated successfully
using methyl ester of Jatropha oil as the sole fuel. The following
conclusions are made based on the experimental results:
Engine works smoothly on methyl ester of Jatropha oil with
performance comparable to diesel operation.
Methyl ester of Jatropha oil results in a slightly reduced thermal
efficiency as compared to that of diesel.
The exhaust gas temperature is Increased with the methyl ester of
Jatropha oil as compared to diesel operation at peak output.
Hydrocarbon emission is low with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil.
30 I Bio-diesel
There is no significant difference in smoke emissions when the
methyl ester of Jatropha oil is used.
CO emission is increased at higher loads with the methyl ester of
Jatropha oil. On the whole, it is concluded that the methyl ester of
Jatropha oil will be a good alternative fuel for the diesel engine for
agricultural applications.
~
~
"'"
=0,
-:!
~ .
700
600
500
400
300
200
0
-0- Std Dtesel
___ Jatropha Ester
Brake Power (kW)
Fig. 1.26. Variation of sfc with brake power
4 0 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
o
Speed 1500 !pm
Inj. Tmring 29 BIDe
........ Std Diesel
____ Jatropha Ester
2 3
Brake Power (kW)
Fig ,1.27. Variation of brake thermal efficiency.
4
4
Introduction I 31
V' Std Diesel
....
.... Jatropha Ester
Speed 1500 rpm
Inj. Timing 29 BIDe
Fig 1.28 .Variation of peak pressure with brake power
6 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
-+- Std Diesel
-.-Jatropha Ester
Speed 1500 rpm
Inj. Timing 29 BIDe
o 2 3 4
Brake Power (kW)
Fig. 1.29. Variation of maximum rate of pressure rise with brake power
32 I Bio-diesel
Studies on methyl tallowate biodiesel
All et al. [37] have conducted experiments on four fuels produced by
blending biodiesel (methyl tallowate) and #2 diesel fuel. Engine in-
cylinder pressure data were collected at various engine speeds and used
to evaluate the peak pressure, indicated mean effective pressure (imep),
rate of change of pressure, rate of heat release, mass fraction of fuel
burned, and charge temperature with respect to crank angle. Peak
cylinder pressures for each fuel blend at all engine speeds were lower
than peak pressure for #2 diesel fuel, the imep values for all fuel blends
were less than that of #2 diesel fuel. The differences in imep values
correlate with the differences on power output of the engine. The
maximum rates of pressure rise for all fuel blends are less than that of #2
diesel fuel. The rate of heat release decreased with increase in engine
speed as well as with the amount of methyl tallowate in the fuel blend.
Peak rate of heat release for all fuel blends is less than that of #2 diesel
fuel. When methyl tallowate was blended with #2 diesel fuel, the shift in
the location of peak heat release was slightly away from top dead centre
(TDC). Ignition delay slightly increased when methyl tallowate was
blended with #2 diesel fuel at peak torque conditions but at peak power
the type of fuel blends did not affect ignition delay. On the other hand,
burn duration slightly decreased with increase in methyl tallowate in the
fuel blend at peak torque condition and there was no significant effect on
burn duration at peak power condition. The charge temperature
decreased with increase in methyl tallowate content of the fuel blends. A
reduction in charge temperature can help reduce NO
x
emissions. It was
concluded that the fuel blends used in this study would have no
detrimental long-term effects on engine performance, wear, and knock.
Interest in cleaner burning fuel is growing worldwide and reduction
in exhaust emissions from the internal combustion engine is gaining
importance from the past few years. It is widely recognized that
alternative diesel fuels produced from vegetable oils and animal fats can
reduce the exhaust emissions from compression ignition engines without
significantly affecting engine performance. Ali et al. [38] reported no
significant difference in power output with different blends of diesel fuel,
methyl tallowate, methyl soyate, and ethanol. Further, CO and NO
x
emissions were not affected by the blends used, but HC emissions were
significantly lower with a 80:13:7 per cent (v Iv) blend of diesel: methyl
tallowate and ethanol, the recommended blend for minimum emissions
as compared with #2 diesel fuel.
Introduction I 33
Pollutant emissions reduction from diesel engines requires detailed
knowledge of the combustion process. However, the complex nature of the
combustion process in a diesel engine makes it difficult to understand the
events occurring in the combustion chamber which determine the
emissions of exhaust gases including CO, HC, NO
x
and smoke. Most Cl
engines are designed to operate on diesel fuel and, therefore, perform best
while operated on that fuel. During the engine design and optimization
process, an engine manufacturer performs in-cylinder pressure
measurement to determine cylinder pressure, rate of change in pressure,
estimated rate of heat release, mass-burned fraction, and charge
temperature. High-speed data acquisition systems are used by
performance development engineers and are found to be of practical value.
Algorithms and techniques that provide an accurate representation of heat
transfer and a means of very accurately determining top dead centre (TIX)
have been developed. Engine cycle analysis (ECA) and fuel injection
analysis (PIA) software can be used to obtain steady state engine
performance characteristics (Gill.A.P. [41]). The combustion process in a
diesel engine is usually considered to occur in four phases according to
heat release rate (Barbella et al. [39]). Those phases are the ignition delay
period, premixed burning phase, diffusion burning, after diffusion
burning phase and oxidation phase. These phases are used to follow the
transformation of fuel in the combustion cycle.
Several studies have been reported on the effects of fuel and engine
parameters on diesel exhaust emissions. Kittelson et al. [42] conducted in-
cylinder and exhaust soot mass measurement on a single-cylinder
conversion of a four-cylinder, direct injection (DI) diesel engine using a
sampling system, which allowed dumping, diluting, quenching, and
collection of the entire contents of the cylinder on a time scale of about 1
ms. They observed that soot concentration, heat release, and fuel injection
data were related to one another. Maximum soot mass was observed
shortly after top dead centre (ATDC), which reached a peak between 15
and 30 crank angle (CA) ATDC. After reaching its peak value, soot
concentration decreased with increasing CA and approached exhaust
levels by 40 to 60 CA ATDC. There was a longer delay between the start
of combustion and the start of soot formation for high equivalence ratio,
which was due to a slightly longer premixed burning phase at high load.
The increase in length of the premixed burning period was much smaller
than the increase in the formation lag time. They concluded that oxygen
availability late in the cycle was a critical factor in determining exhaust
soot concentrations.
34 I Bio-diesel
5hundoh et al. [44] observed that low (1,000 rpm) and high (2,000
rpm) engine speeds had no effect on heat release rate because the
injection rates were the same, and heat release closely followed the
injection rate ID type C combustion. The gas temperature in the case of
the low speed condition was higher than that at high speed and was the
reason for higher NOx and lower smoke levels at low speeds.
Barbella et al. [39] studied the formation and oxidation of soot, light
and heavy hydrocarbons, CO, CO
2
, and NO
x
during the combustion cycle
of a DI diesel engine. They observed that the concentrations of heavy
hydrocarbons decreased during the early stages of the combustion cycle.
Maximum soot formation occurred ATDC after that the soot formation
decreased slowly at 40 CA ATDC.
Niehaus et al. [43] observed that diesel fuel produced more premixed
burning than thermally cracked soyabean (TC5BO) at brake mean
effective pressures (bmep) of 100 and 300 KPa.
Czerwinski et al. [40] used a rapeseed oil, ethanol, and diesel fuel
blend and compared the heat release curves with diesel fuel. He
observed that the addition of ethanol caused longer ignition lag at all
operation conditions. At higher and full loads, the combustion speeds
were high with strong premixed phases. The addition of rapeseed oil
gave a little lower combustion speed and lower combustion temperature
as compared to diesel fuel. The inflammation lag with rapeseed oil was
slightly shorter and the combustion duration was approximately equal to
diesel fuel. The blend of diesel, rapeseed oil, and ethanol had lower heat
values, which diminished the power output at full load as well as the
available power during the transient operating conditions.
The overall objective of this project is to perform in-cylinder pressure
measurements on an engine to determine cylinder pressure, rate of
pressure change, rate of heat release, mass-burned fraction of fuel, and
charge temperature curves on fuels produced by blending #2 diesel fuel
and biodiesel (methyl tallowate) in a Cummins N14-410 diesel engine. It
is expected that this study would help establish the fuel burning
characteristics needed to control exhaust emissions and engine coking.
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
Pressure vs Crank Angle
This relationship gives a gross indication of engine knock, the location of
peak pressure, and the value of the peak pressure. Peak cylinder
pressures for each fuel blend at all engine speeds were lower than the
Introduction I 35
peak pressure with #2 diesel fuel. Representative graphs showing
pressure with respect to crank angle for peak torque and rated engine
speed are shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31, respectively.

1200 rpm 100 : 0
12000

10 15 20
80 :20
10 :30
60 :40
f 8000

4000

-360 -210 -180 -90 0 90 180 210 360
Cruak A:acJe deC
Fig. 1.30. Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque (graph
in box shows the peak pressure values)
1600
16000 lSOOrpm
100 :0
15000
80:20
14000
/"
12000
13000
10:30
12000

11000
60 :40
5
,
800
J
4000
0

--
-360 -210 -180 -90 0
90
180
210
::IoU
Cruk Aac1e
Fig. 1.31. Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine speed
(graph in box shows peak pressure values)
36 I Bio-diesel
Similar trends are observed at all other engine speeds and loads.
Looking at the magnitude of the peak pressures for the blends as
compared to #2 diesel fuel, it was concluded that since the peak pressures
were less than that for #2 diesel fuel, there should have been no effect on
engine durability and there should not be any problem related to knock,
combustion, or partial burn with engine performance.
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
Indicated mean effective pressures is defined as the indicated average
constant pressure exerted on the piston during the expansion stroke,
which will produce the same amount of work as the actual pressure
during the compression and expansion strokes. Since the imep is related
to the power output of the engine, differences in the imep can be
compared with differences in power output at a given engine speed.
At 1200 rpm engine speed, the imep values for the 80:20, 70:30, and
60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate were within 2.5 per
cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. These results were consistent with the peak
pressure results with the same blends. At rated speed of 1800 rpm, the
imep values for the above blends were all within 1 per cent of that for #2
diesel fuel. Also the indicated mean effective pressures for all fuel blends
and engine speeds were less than the imep for #2 diesel fuel. The
differences in imep values corresponded with differences in power output
of the engine.
Derivative of Pressure with Respect to Crank Angle
This analysis, which is simply the derivative of the pressure shown in
Figure 1.30, indicates how rapidly pressure changes and helps identify
potentially damaging combustion conditions. After correlating the
observed value of the maximum rate of pressure rise with the engine
hardware, an engine manufacturer can establish a limiting maximum
value, which will ensure acceptable engine life.
The representative graphs showing the development of change in
pressure with CA for engine speed at peak torque and rated engine speed
are shown in Figures 1.32 and 1.33, respectively. The points in the
combustion strokes at which the derivatives are equal to zero in Figures
1.32 and 1.33 correspond to the points of maximum pressure indicated in
Figures 1.30 and 1.31, respectively.
Introduction I 37
.. r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
,-.,.
-..
3
~
.,.
I
'I .
t:
... ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ..... ~ ~ ~ - - - - ~ ~ - - - - - - ~ ~
.lI 41 11 ,. II
CI-* ............ TOe. .....
Fig. 1.3 .
3
I
.:.
!
:a
I . I ~ - - - - - - - - - - + - - - ........ - - - - ~
'; .,.
t:
... ~ ~ - - __ ..... --__ --..... ----__ - - - - ~ ~ - - __ .J
... .,. ...U . u
Cnnk AngIe ........... TDC .......
Fig. 1.33. Derivative of pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated
engine speed
The results showed that in-cylinder pressure change was maximum
at an engine speed of 1100 rpm and decreased as engine speed was
38 I Bio-diesel
increased to 1200 rpm and then increased as engine speed was further
increased to 1600 rpm, the speed at which maximum power was
produced. Further increase in engine speed again decreased the peak
value of pressure change. The location of maximum pressure change
with CA also shifted from 0.0 to 0.20 CA, AIDe IO 13 to 13.8
0
CA BIDe
(before top dead centre). The shapes of all pressure change curves were
the same as that for #2 diesel fuel. #2 diesel fuel has a peak change of
pressure of 361,385 and 374 KPa at engine speed of 1200, 1600, and 1800
rpm, respectively. The locations shift from 0.20 CA AIDe to 13.6
0
CA
BIDC and 13.8
0
CA BTDC at the above engine speeds, respectively.
At 1200 rpm engine speed, peak values of change in pressure with
crank angle for the 80:20, 70:30, and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel:
methyl tallowate are within 2 per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. The
location of these points were 0.20 CA ATDC, 11.20 CA BTDC and 2.4
0
CA
BIDe for the respective fuel blends. At an engine speed of 1600 rpm,
where peak power is produced, the peak value of change in pressure was
maximum within the operating range of 1200 to 1800 rpm. The peak
values of change in pressure for these fuel blends were within 1.5 per cent
of that for #2 diesel fuel and their locations were more or less the same as
that for #2 diesel fuel. At rated engine speed of 1800 rpm, the peak values
of change in pressure with CA for all fuel blends were within 1.5 per cent
of that of #2 diesel fuel with their locations shifted to 14.6, 14.4, and 14.0
0
CA BIDe respectively, as compared to 13.8
0
CA BTDC, for #2 diesel fuel.
Looking at the performance of the engine in terms of peak value of
change in pressure with CA, it can be concluded that there were minor
differences in the peak values. In most cases, the peak value of change in
pressure was less than that for #2 diesel fuel. These small differences in
the rate of change in pressure should have no long-term effect on engine
performance, wear, and knock.
Rate of Heat Release Vs Crank Angle
This analysis shows the estimated rate of heat release during the
combustion process. The results provided a quantified assessment of
combustion rate and the means to diagnose combustion problems. The
analysis was based on pressure and volume measurements. Therefore,
some assumptions were made to calculate the rate of heat release. The first
assumption was that the trapped charge remained in a uniform single zone
of constant composition from intake valve closing to exhaust valve
opening. Actually, large temperature gradients existed in the charge during
Introduction I 39
combustion and the chemical composition of the unburned gases was
different from the burned gases. The second assumption was that leakage
and heat transfer to the wall was negligible. The third assumption was that
the charge mixture behaved as an ideal gas. Based on these assumptions,
the rate of heat release with respect to CA and location of peak heat release
for blends of diesel and methyl tallowate at different engine speeds were
calculated and it was observed that peak rate of heat release decreased as
engine speed increased from 1100 to 1900 rpm. The location of peak rate of
heat release was delayed as the engine speed increased. Furthermore, as
the diesel fuel content of the blended fuel was reduced, the peak rate of
heat release was also reduced. The shapes of peak rate of heat release
curves for all fuel blends at all engine speeds were similar to that of #2
diesel fueL #2 diesel fuel had a peak rate of heat release of 0.287 KJ 1
0
CA at
the engine's peak torque producing speed of 1200 rpm and 0.250 KJ/o CA
at the engine's rated speed of 1800 rpm. The trends of peak rates of heat
release with CA for all fuel blends at engine speeds of 1200 and 1800 rpm
are shown in figures 1.34 and 1.35, respectively.
tj 0.3
o
~ 0.2
oS
j
Cl) 0.1
ac:
i
= O ~ ~ ~ - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
'S
a
&I -0.1_ ..
30
---.......
0
,.....---3.,..0----6 ... 0----4
90
Crank. Angle Referened@TDC,degrees
100:0
80:20
7Q)O
69.::10
Fig. 1.34. Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at
peak torque (graph in the box shows the peak rate of heat release)
40 I Bio-diesel
-<
0.3
U
100:0 lie., :IJIIIl
0
80:20

0.2
7Q)0
t:JS

I
Go)
15
20
23
-
0.1 Go)
Jl:::

Go)
0
=
....
=
Go)

-0.1
-30
0
30
Crank Angle Referenced @ TDC, dearees
Fig. 1.35. Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at
rated engine speed (graph in the box shows the peak rate of heat
At 1200 rpm engine speed, peak rates of heat release for 80:20, 70:30
and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate are within 2
per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. The locations of peak rates of heat
release are within 10.6 and 11.2 CA after top dead centre (ATDC) for the
respective fuel blends as compared to 10.6 CA ATDC for #2 diesel fuel.
At rated engine speed of 1800 rpm, the peak rate of heat release for the
80:20, 70:30, and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate
were within 1.2 per cent of that of #2 diesel fuel. Locations of peak rates
of heat release were within 0.4 CA ATDe of that of #2 diesel fuel. A
similar trend was observed at all other engine speeds. In general, as the
amount of methyl tallowate was increased, there were reductions in the
peak rates of heat release as compared to #2 diesel fuel with the exception
of the 70:30 and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate, in
which cases there are slight increases at 1200 rpm. Reductions in the peak
rate of heat release are less than that of #2 diesel fuel (Ali et al. [55]). To
understand the process of heat release in detail, one must know the mass-
burned fraction of the fuel with respect to CA to determine the ignition
delay and burn duration.
Vegetable oils have comparable energy density, cetane number, heat
of vaporization, and stoichiometric air I fuel ratio with mineral diesel fuel.
The large molecular sizes of the component triglycerides result in the oils
having higher viscosity compared with that of mineral diesel fuel. The
viscosity of liquid fuels affects the flow properties of the fuel, such as
Introduction I 41
spray atomization, consequent vaporization, and air/fuel mixing. The
problem of viscosity has an adverse effect on the combustion of vegetable
oils in the existing diesel engines. Besides, some problems crop up in the
associated fuel pump and injector system. An acceptable alternC;ltive fuel
for engines has to fulfill the environmental and energy security needs
without sacrificing operating performance [55], [56].
Methanol and ethanol are two abundantly available alternative fuels,
which possess the potential to be produced from biomass sources. These
fuels can be successfully used as diesel engine fuels by preparing
biodieseL Transesterification process utilizes methanol or ethanol and
vegetable oils as the process inputs. This indirect route of utilizing alcohol
as a diesel engine fuel is definitely a superior route as the toxic emissions
containing aldehydes are drastically reduced. The problem of corrosion of
various engine parts utilizing alcohol as fuel is also solved by the way of
transesterification [57].
Biodiesel is a chemically modified alternative fuel for diesel engines,
derived from vegetable oil, fatty acids, and animal fat. In its simplest
form, the carbon cycle of vegetable oils consists of the fixation of carbon
and the release of oxygen by plants through the process of photosynthesis
and then combining of oxygen and carbon to form CO
2
through the
processes of combustion or respiration. It is appropriate to mention here
that the CO
2
released by petroleum diesel was fixed in the atmosphere
during the formative years of the earth, whereas the CO
2
released by
biodiesel gets continuously fixed by plants and may be recycled by the
next generation of crops. The carbon cycle time for fixation of CO
2
and its
release after combustion of biodiesel is quite small as compared (few
years) to the cycle time of petroleum oils (few million years). It is well
known that petroleum refiners are now facing new sulphur and aromatic
compound specifications. Since biodiesel is a fuel made up of esters
derived from oils and fats from renewable biological sources, it has been
reported to emit far less regulated pollutants than petroleum diesel fuel
[58],[60].
The process of utilizing biodiesel in the IC engines for transport as
well as other applications is gaining momentum recently. lEA
(International Energy Agency) has recognized biodiesel as an alternative
fuel for the transportation sector. The European Commission proposed a
12 per cent market share for biofuels by the year 2020. Kaltschmitt et aL
[57] conducted a study, which shows that beanery carriers offer some
42 I Bio-diesel
clear ecological advantages over fossil fuels such as conserving fossil
energy resources or reducing the greenhouse effect [63].
Knothe et al [4] investigated the influence of fatty acid structure on
the performance as a diesel fuel. Pischinger et al [59] found monoesters to
be technically suitable in terms of good miscibility with diesel oil, almost
similar volumetric heat content, adequate viscosity and cetane number
[65]. The high carbon residue indicated by the Conrad son value and high
viscosity is due to the large molecular mass and chemical structure. The
high carbon residue is likely to lead to heavy smoke emission from an
engine [66].
In Austria, biodiesel from rapeseed oil is commercialized. The first
industrial plant for biodiesel production with a capacity of 10,000 tons per
annum in the world went into operation in Austria in 1991. RME is
produced in co-operative and industrial-scale plants. An interesting fact is
that biodiesel is produced from a mix of RME, 5MB, and FME (used frying
oil methyl ester) in Austria. Tax benefits in Austria and Germany encourage
the use of 100 per cent biodiesel fuel in ecologically sensitive areas and
agricultural and mountainous region [64], [65]. In Ireland, two pilot
projects on the use of biodiesel (RME) in commercial vehicles are reported.
In the first project, pure biodiesel was used in buses, trucks, and in pleasure
cruisers. The RME used was obtained through oil extraction, followed by
esterification on a small-scale tractor-mounted esterification unit. The
second project involved a comparative analysis of the behaviour of a
number of vehicles operated on RME and SME, imported from UK and
Italy, respectively. Vehicle testing started in mid-1996. A principal
disadvantage of rapeseed oil as a source of biodiesel in Ireland was its
economic feasibility, as it is up to 0.25 ECU/litre (about 6.6 ECU/GJ) more
expensive than its fossil-based equivalent. In Denmark, two companies
produced non-food rapeseed oil, on a commercial basis, for export. At
present, there is no commercial production of biodiesel in Denmark
During a test, four city buses were made to run on biodiesel for 3 months.
The results were promising but not satisfactory from environmental point
of view. The Danish National Transport Plan "Trafik 2000" mentions the use
of biofuels as one of the five major instruments to reduce COz emissions
from the transport sector. However, there is no commitment for large-scale
use within the government [61],[62],[66]. In the United States, fuel tax
rebate or other governmental aid or regulations could propel biodiesel into
a high volume, lower cost production track that enables it to compete head-
on-head with diesel fuelfor a variety of applications [59].
Introduction I 43
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has prescribed
certain tests and their limits for diesel fuel to be used in Cl engines. For
any alternative fuel suitable for long-term engine operation without
engine modifications, it should be in conformity or within close range to
these ASTM limits [67].
Studies on Linseed oil methyl ester (LOME)
A host of plant and forest resources are available in the world from which
different vegetable oils can be produced and formulated for use in diesel
engines. The present work has been carried with such an objective, where
non-edible oil has been appropriately modified by way of esterification
and subsequently used for running the diesel engine. Linseed oil was
selected for the present investigation, as it is available in large quantities
and non-edible in nature. Linseed oil is obtained from the dried ripe seed
of the flex plant, Linum usitaissimum, grown in the temperate areas
across the world. Its viscosity is lower than most of other vegetable oils. It
has high linoleic acid content. Linoleic acid is a straight chain molecule of
18 carbon atoms [C
17
H
29
COOH] with three double bonds at 9-10, 12-13,
and 15-16 carbons. Its high degree of unsaturation is responsible for the
drying properties of the oil. Linseed oil has lower heating value (LHV) of
39.75 MJ/kg(dry).
This reduction in frictional losses is also reflected by the decreasing
trend followed by unaccounted losses, which can be noticed from the heat
balance sheets for various concentrations. The energy saved by decrease
in frictional horsepower makes additional contributions towards useful
energy, cooling losses, and exhaust losses. This reflects in increased
thermal efficiency, cooling losses and exhaust losses. It is evident from
the graphs of exhaust temperature vs. bmep (Fig. 1.36 and Fig. 1.39 ) that
the exhaust gas temperature also increases along with thermal efficiency
as a function of blend concentration initially. Smoke opacity for biodiesel
blends (Fig.l.37 and Fig.l.38) is also noticed to be generally lower than
that of diesel oil. It also repeats the trend followed by thermal efficiency
curves. There are two main reasons: the higher thermal efficiency means
better and complete combustion and lesser amount of unburned
hydrocarbons in the engine exhaust thus improving smoke opacity
values.
The molecule of biodiesel, i.e., linseed oil methyl ester (LOME),
contains some amount of oxygen that takes part in combustion and this
may be a possible reason for more complete combustion. The oxygen
molecule present in biodiesel molecular structure may be readily
441 Bio-diesel
available for oxygen. However, it was noticed that after a certain limit of
biodiesel concentration, the thermal efficiency trend is reversed and it
starts decreasing. This behaviour of biodiesel fuel needs advanced
investigations.
An important observation is that all the blends have a higher thermal
efficiency than the baseline data of diesel fuel. A graph between the
concentration of ester blend and improvement in peak thermal efficiency
for various concentrations of biodiesel blend is plotted in Figure 1.40.
Esterification is a process, which brings about a change in the
molecular structure of the vegetable oil molecules, thus bringing down
the levels of viscosity and unsaturation of vegetable oils. The viscosity of
vegetable oil reduces substantially after esterification. The density and
viscosity of the linseed oil methyl ester formed after esterification were
found to be very close to petroleum diesel oil. The flash point of LOME
was higher than that of diesel oil. The 20 per cent biodiesel blend also
demonstrated comparatively higher flash point than petroleum diesel oil
and was in range of 'safe fuel'. The cetane number for the neat diesel oil
obtained by this method is 50 and cetane number of LOME was 52. A 20
per cent blending of LOME with diesel oil improved the cetane number
of diesel oil. Lower concentrations of LOME in biodiesel blends can be
used as a cetane improver. The calorific value of LOME was found to be
slightly lower than petroleum diesel oil. All these tests for
characterization of biodiesel oil demonstrate that almost all the important
properties of biodiesel are in very close agreement with the diesel oil
making it a feasible alternative for the application in compression ignition
engines for partial replacement of diesel fuel.
Esterification has been found to be an effective technique to prevent
some long-term problems associated with utilization of vegetable oils
such as fuel filter plugging, injector coking, formation of carbon deposits
in combustion chamber, ring sticking, and contamination of lubricating
oils. The carbon deposits on piston top and injector coking substantially
reduced in biodiesel-fuelled system. The performance of biodiesel-fuelled
engine was marginally better than the diesel-fuelled engine in terms of
thermal efficiency, brake specific energy consumption, smoke opacity,
wear of vital components, and exhaust emissions for entire range of
operations. It was conclusively proved that self-lubricity of LOME in
biodiesel played a key role in engine performance. Biodiesel is proved to
be a potential candidate for partial substitute of mineral diesel oil.
Introduction I 45
.DIIIO
-+-,....
-6-1118 ....
____ 1JIJIIt8 ....
1ID
- - - ~
-.-211 .....
0 1 2 3
5 6 7
... DiIIIIQ

m tIxIl 11'
..
"'.,"'
.. mlldIld

MIidln'

_1Id .. I'
o 1 2 3 4 5 8
IMP
Fig. 1.37. Thermal Efficiency Vs bmep
46 I Bio-diesel
0.4
.0lIl0
0.3 ......-......
. .........
G.2 -111-.....
---_ ......
0.1 -+-........

o
1
2

7
Fig. 1.38. bsfc Vs bmep
ID
ID
....... DllltO

o 1 2 3 s

.. 'MI ....
Fig. 1.39. Exhaust temperature Vs bmep
Introduction I 47
O __
o fD
Fig. 1.40. Improvement in peak thermal efficiency with respect to biodiesel in fuel
Studies on Mahua oil methyl ester (MM E)
The brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) of each fuel is shown in figure
1.41. The term ''brake specific" is used to designate quantities that have
been normalized by way of division by the engine's power, thus the bsfc is
equal to the fuel flow rate divided by the engine's power. Figure 1.41
shows that bsfc for MME is higher than diesel. This is due to the fact that
ester has lower heating value compared to diesel; so more ester-based
fuel is needed to maintain constant power output.
Li 1.4
1.2
- 1

.11 .. ,
0.4
tl 0.2
I
B ..... lI
_ ...... DIa l J

-
=
8
8.5 1 1.5
2
2.5 J 3.5
4
Braise Power in KW
Fig. 1.41. bsfc Vs brake power
481 Bio-diesel
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Figure 1.42 shows the brake thermal efficiency for ester is lower than
diesel fuel. Brake thermal efficiency of an engine depends on a number of
factors but when we are discussing about fuel the most meaningful
properties are heating value and specific gravity. The combination of
heating value and mass flow rate indicates energy input to the engine.
This energy input or consumption to the engine in case of MME is more
compared to diesel. And it is very clear that the reduction in efficiency is
very low compared to diesel fuel, which is due to the oxygen content in
the ester, which results in better combustion [66] and [69].
l
.S 35
i 30 . . . a . . e r ~
. ~ 25
..-!lII---
~ : :
~
~ ~ -
110
/
I
Die .... ll
~ :
---:0.;...1
1.5 1.5
.
25 3 3.5
i I
1
2 4
BraJm Po-wer la KW
CD
Fig. 1.42. Break thermal efficiency Vs brake power
SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Figure 1.43 shows. that specific energy consumption (SEC) is higher for
MME than diesel. The high SEC is due to the lower energy content of the
ester. Already there are reports that biodiesel prepared from vegetable
oils has high SEC [65], [66], [67] and [68]. The esters that convert the
chemical energy to mechanical work are comparable with diesel fuel.
This specific energy consumption measures the amount of input energy
required to develop one-kilowatt power. This is an important parameter
to compare brake thermal efficiency of an engine because it is taking care
of both mass flow rate and heating value of the fuel. Here, for MME, both
mass flow rate and heating value are different and hence it is simple if
comparison is made in terms of specific energy consumption rather than
specific fuel consumption.
Introduction I 49
1 4 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
12
10
8
6
4
2
I
Biodiasell
_ -..- Diesel _
O ~ O - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
1 2 J 4
Brah Power in KW
INFERENCE
In this study Mahua oil was transesterified using 6:1 mole ratio of
methanol to oil to obtain methyl ester of low viscosity (5.2 CSt) and good
conversion percentage (92%). The ester was washed with phosphoric acid
to remove traces of alkali and substantially with distilled water. MME
possesses lower calorific value around 12 per cent compared to diesel.
The specific gravity does not vary much compared to diesel. The kinetic
viscosity is slightly higher than that of diesel however within the
biodiesel standard limits (5.2 CSt). Cetane number is slightly higher by 10
per cent which are favourable for combustion. Flash and fire points are
high which is advantages for fuel transportation. The cloud point is
higher than diesel, which creates problem in low temperature regions.
The performance of diesel engine with biodiesel does not vary much.
The specific fuel consumption is higher (20%) than that of diesel and
thermal efficiency is lower (13%) than that of diesel. Exhaust pollutant
emission are reduced compared to diesel. Carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbbn, smoke number and oxides of nitrogen were reduced 30 per
cent, 35 per cent, 11 per cent, 4 per cent, respectively, compared to diesel.
Summary
Characterization of biodiesel depends on the relative merits and demerits
and the investigation reports submitted by various authors worldwide in
the contemporary time.
Interest depends on how biodiesel is suitable for replacement for
petro diesel. It is reasonable to take global parameters into consideration
before a sensible recommendation is made. There are no impossible
50 I Bio-diesel
solutions that can impede the replacement without the design changes of
the diesel engine to suit the biodiesel. The advantages are overriding as
compared to the setbacks biodiesel is suffering from. The setbacks are
surmountable with suitable additives or minor affordable design
changes. For example, separation of blended constituents in cold weather,
increase in NO
x
levels by virtue of the constituent oxygen, lube oil
dilution in the crankcase, increase in pour point at cold temperatures can
be tackled by appropriate remedial measures.
There are inbuilt setbacks that marginally debilitate the biodiesels.
For example, lower heating value, higher viscosity, and higher density
result in marginal decrease in the performance in some aspects. This can
be compensated with the growing trend in the rise of petro diesel price
and environmental pollution.
All the methyl esters of the oils tested, especially the non-edible type,
can be recommended for replacement because of the reason that the
diesel engines can be run without knock and detonation and primarily
lesser emissions in the exhaust gases.
In this study, over and above the comprehensive investigations taken
up to characterize various biodiesels in the literature, additional
parameters like noise and vibration of the engine in different engine
running conditions have been taken up. The idea of studying engine
vibration and noise in comparison to biodiesel is mooted since the
combustion in the cylinder creates the main excitation force and vibration
recorded on the cylinder in FFT form is the true reflection of the mode of
combustion of particular ester. Time waveforms and phase of vibration
on the cylinder are also obtained while the engine is running with the
oils to be tested and compared with the diesel baseline signatures.
The idea of studying engine vibration and noise in comparison to
biodiesels is mooted to explore the feasibility in an unconventional way
to evaluate their suitability in the context of soaring petro-diesel price
keeping in view the trend in its rise.
2
Transesterification Procedure
The use of vegetable oils in lieu of diesel fuel in conventional diesel
engines requires modification in their properties. Considerable efforts
have been made to develop vegetable oil derivatives that would
approximate the properties and performance of the hydrocarbon-based
diesel fuels. The problem of substituting pure vegetable oils (non-edible)
for diesel fuels are mostly associated with their high viscosities.
Reduction of viscosity can be effected by any of the processes like
transesterification, mineralization, and pyrolysis. Mineralization
consumes more time and pyrolysis brings about irregular molecular
break down. Hence transesterification of some of the edible and non-
edible oils has been taken up in this work to experiment on a laboratory-
based engine with the esterified versions and their blends with diesel oil.
Transesterification of Vegetable Oils
Transesterification is the general term used to describe the important
class of organic reactions, where an ester is transformed into another
through interchange of alkyl groups and is also called as alcoholysis. The
transesterification is an equilibrium reaction and the transformation
occurs by mixing the reactants. However, the presence of a catalyst
accelerates considerably the adjustment of the equilibrium. General
Equation for Transesterification Reaction is given below
RCOOR' + R" OH ~ RCOOR" + R' OH
The basic constituent of vegetable oils is triglyceride. Vegetable oils
comprise of 90-98 per cent triglycerides and small amounts of mono,
diglycerides and free fatty acids. In the transesterification of vegetable
oils, a triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid
or base, producing a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol. The
overall process is a sequence of three consecutive and reversible reactions
in which di- and monoglycerides are formed as intermediates. The
stoichiometric reaction requires one mol of triglyceride and three moles
of alcohol. However, an excess of the alcohol is used to increase the yields
52 I Bio-diesel
of alkyl esters and to allow phase separation from the glycerol formed.
Several aspects, including the type of catalyst (base or acid), alcohol!
vegetable oil molar ratio, temperature, purity of the reactants (mainly
water content in alcohol) and free fatty acid content have an influence on
the course of the transesterification [45]. So in this work the reactants of
high purity has been used (methyl alcohol with 99.95% purity) in the
process. The process employed is the base-catalyzed process, where the
transesterification of vegetable oils proceeds faster than the acid-
catalyzed reaction [46,47] together with the fact that the alkaline catalysts
are less corrosive than acidic compounds.
The mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification reaction of
vegetable oil, as explained by the VIf Schuchardt{45}, is shown in the
Figure 2.1. The first step (Eq.1) is the reaction of the base with the alcohol,
producing an alkoxide and the protonated catalyst. The nucleophilic
attack of the alkoxide at the carbonyl group of the triglyceride generates a
tetrahedral intermediate (Eq. 2), from which an alkyl ester and the
corresponding anion of the diglycerides are formed (Eq.3). The latter
deprotonates the catalyst, thus regenerating the active species (Eq.4),
which is now able to react with a second molecule of the alcohol, starting
another catalytic cycle. Diglycerides and monoglycerides are converted by
the same mechanism to a mixture of alkyl esters and glycerol.
ROH + B
R'Coo-riIz
?R

o
R'COO-rHz
+
HaC-O'
---
R'CO<Hj=H2
R"Coo-9H ?R

o
+ ROOCR"

R"COO-cr
H
HzC-oH
+
B
(I)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Fig. 2.1. Mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification process
Alkaline metal alkoxides (as ClfJONa for the methanolysis) are the
most active catalysts, since they give very high yields in short reaction
times even if they are applied at lower molar concentrations. However,
they require the absence of water, which makes them inappropriate for
Transesterification Procedure I 53
typical industrial process. Alkali metal hydroxides (KOH and NaOH) are
cheaper than metal alkoxides, but less active. Nevertheless, they are good
alternatives, since they can give the same high conversions of vegetable
oils just by increasing the catalyst concentration to 1 or 2 folds.
MAKING VEGETABLE OIL METHYL ESTERS
Here one stage base-catalyzed process has been selected for the methyl
esterification of non-edible vegetable oils like palm kernel, Jatropha, and
Mahua which are forest products available in the region and methanol
(99.95% purity) as reactants and NaOH as catalyst. Initially, the process is
carried out with 200ml of vegetable oil sample to find out the appropriate
quantity of catalyst required for a specific type of oil to get high yields of
methyl esters [45]. After successful attempt with 200ml sample, the same
proportions of the constituents were used in processing methyl esters of
required quantities, for establishing the properties and experimentation
on le engine with a batch size of 1 litre.
PROCESS EMPLOYED FOR MAKING THE METHYL ESTERS
1) Desired amount of fresh vegetable oil is filtered and taken in a
reaction vessel.
2) Reaction vessel with the fresh vegetable oil is kept in constant
less temperature water bath and allowed to reach 5()<> C.
3) Twenty per cent methanol per litre of fresh vegetable oil is taken
and desired amount of NaOH is weighed and dissolved in it.
4) The above mixture is introduced into the reaction vessel.
5) Now the contents in the reaction vessel are mixed vigorously for
30 minutes.
6) The reaction vessel is removed from heat,source and is allowed to
settle overnight.
7) The products are checked for the glycerol separation clearly, if
not, it is to be treated as failed batch and again a fresh batch with
varied NaOH is taken and processed.
8) Upon overnight settlement, separation of dense glycerol layer at
the bottom and mixture of methyl ester, catalyst and alcohol as
the top layer is observed.
9) Top layer is separated and water washed to remove the excess
catalyst and the alcohol, as they are more soluble in water than
methyl esters.
10) Washing method employed involves mixing of 50 per cent water
and 50 per cent biodiesel taken in a beaker, stirred for few
minutes and then allowed to settle for 12 hours.
54 I Bio-diesel
11) Since biodiese1 has a lower specific gravity than water, the water
will eventually separate and settle to the bottom along with
soluble matters, mainly the remaining alcohol and catalyst, and
biodiese1 will remain on top of the water.
12) In the first wash the water turns white. The wash water is
drained off and the process is repeated until the drained water is
totally clear.
13) If the biodiese1 is observed slightly cloudy, it is heated to 50"C
and is held for 15-20 minutes to clear up the cloudiness.
14) Finally, the biodiese1 is allowed to cool and filtered with 10-
micron filter paper.
The following flow sheet clearly explains the production of biodiese1
from non-edible vegetable oils chosen in our laboratory.
Fig. 2.2. Flow Sheet For Production Of Bio-Diesel From Non-Edible Vegitable Oil
Transesterification Procedure I 55
After making the required quantities of methyl esters of each oil'
necessary properties of these esters are established as per the IS test
methods (IS: 1448). The author has employed the above said process and
prepared methyl esters of each oil and the properties of these esters have
been established as per the standards recommended by HPCL,
Visakhapatnam and Chemical engineering department of A.D. College of
Engineering. The results are tabulated in Table 2.1. Later, the esters
samples were tested on the laboratory based 0.1. Compression Ignition
Engine for performance analysis. The Chapter- IV deals with the
experimental setup and the experimental procedure employed.
S. Name of the
No oil sample
1. Density at
300C Kg/m
3
2. Gross
Calorific
Value, I<J /Kg
1
4. Icetane
Number
5. Rams bottom
Carbon
Residue,
Wt%
7. Pour Point,
OC
8. Add
Number, mg
KOH/gm
Diesel Jatropha
830 918.6
43000 39770
1
40
-
45
0.1 0.64
Winter 3 20
Max,
Summer 15
Max
0.2Max 10
Jatropha Palm Palm Mahua Mahua
Methyl kernel Kernel Methyl
Ester Methyl Ester
Ester
880 916 875 875 860
38450 39250 41500 30248 38650
1
5
.
65
140-45 1
48
I
0.5 0.45 0.38 0.46 0.15
1200 1172 1
100
1171
<-3 27 <-3 27 <-3
<0.2 1.2 <0.2 20 <0.2
Table 2.1. Properties of diesel, non-edible vegetable oils and their
methylesters
The following Chapter (Chapter Ill) deals with the mathematical
modelling for the calculation of the heat release rate calculations based
on the first law of thermodynamics.
3
Heat Release Rate Calculations
This chapter deals with the mathematical modeling for the calculation of
the heat release rate calculation based on the first law of thermodyamics
Heat release analysis of the engine reflects the combustion process
occurring in the engine. It is carried out within the framework of first law
of thermodynamics. The combustion, heat transfers and mass laws affect
the pressure crank angle data of an engine. Thermal efficiency and peak
cylinder pressure are influenced v.ery much by the combustion process.
Heat added before TDC increases heat losses, frictional losses and loss of
peak cylinder pressure. Advancing the combustion not only leads to
increase in effective expansion ratio but also increases the previously
mentioned losses. T h ~ crank angle at which 50 per cent of total heat is
released has been identified as an effective parameter for online engine
tuning [48]. Heat release equations can be checked and modified suitably
by comparing them with the heat release rate curves obtained from
engine pressure vs. crank angle data. This enables the heat release
equations to be used in cycle simulations, which can result in
considerable savings in cost and time during engine development.
The different methods for computation of heat release rate from
cylinder pressure data vary in the degree of accuracy with which the
contents of the cylinder are considered. Some methods are simple and
easy to use and some others are complicated and involve extensive
computation to achieve accuracy. Krieger et al. [49] strives for extreme
accuracy in representing the thermodynamic properties of the working
medium. This leads to complicated computations. The model needs wall
temperature and heat transfer coefficient estimates and has to be used
along with a detailed cycle simulation. Gatowski et al. [50] developed a
one zone model in which the specific ratio of the working medium is
represented by a linear function of temperature. They have included
crevice effects. Wall temperatures and heat transfer coefficients are
estimated. Hayes et al. [51] estimated the heat release rates of a diesel
Heat Release Rate Calculations I 57
engine by assuming air as working medium. The model needs initial
estimate of mass of the cylinder contents through a cycle simulatiorwmd
heat transfer estimates. Karim et al. [54] estimated the heat release rates
in duel fuel engines using a model that considers dissociation of the
products of combustion and needs heat transfer estimates and discussed
a method, which assumes that the cylinder charge has a ratio of constant
pressure to constant volume. Specific heat ratio is equal to the average
measured polytropic index during compression and expansion as the
case may be. Hence the heat transfer is not considered separately.
Varaprasad Rao [52] implemented a scheme, which uses the average
polytropic index of compression and expansion to calculate the
cumulative heat release to exhaust valve opening, excluding the period
between occurrence of the spark and the end of combustion. Heat release
analysis, which can be easily computed with a simple programme, is
presented. In his study, instantaneous compression and expansion
indices are used to calculate heat release rate based on the equations
developed by Ramesh et al. [53]. This method of calculating the
exponents of compression and expansion directly eliminates the work of
plotting log (p) vs. log (v) and estimating the mean exponents
graphically. During the combustion period, the polytropic exponent is
varied linearly from the average value during compression to that during
expansion.
Heat Release Equation
Considering the cylinder charge to be homogeneous, from the first law of
thermodynamics,
(1)
where Q = Chemical Energy Released in KJ /Kg,
c
W = Work Output in KJ /Kg,
~ = Heat Transfer from the cylinder in KJ /Kg,
U = Internal Energy of the conten,ts of the cylinder KJ /Kg,
Assuming the cylinder contents to be an ideal gas,
I1Qc= P.I1V +mC
v
I1T + I1Qh
(2)
where
P = Cylinder Pressure in bar,
58 I Bio-diesel
3
V = Cylinder Volume in m/kg,
m = mass of the cylinder charge in kg,
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume of the cylinder contents in
KJ/KgO K,
T = Charge Temperature in K
Eq. (2) can also be rewritten as
!1Qc = P !1V(-"LJ + (_I_JV!1P + !1Q h
y-l y-l
Where y = ratio of specific heats.
(3)
The rate of change of chemical energy released with respect to crank
angle may be expressed as
!1Qc (_n )p!1V (_1 )v!1P
!1() = n -1 !18 + n -1 !1() (4)
Where n is the polytrophic exponent and () is the crank angle. This
equation takes care of heat transfer effects also. During polytropic
compression expansion,
n n
We can write (5) ~ V; =P zV
z
In[t]
In[Vz]
This leads to the expression n= V
1
(6)
Equations (4) & (5) are used to calculate the heat release rate.
Applying equation (6) between successive data points, the instantaneous
polytrophic exponent is obtained. The heat release rate is then integrated
to give the cumulative heat release pattern.
Pressure readings are obtained from a pressure pick-up flush
mounted on the cylinder head wall and crank angle encoder recorde<;l
crank angle readings. These two outputs were integrated by an engine
recorder as shown in Fig.4.2, and presented as p-e diagram with suitable
software. The practical data acquired for one particular cycle of operation
is presented in Appendix 'C'. On substitution of the experimental data in
the governing equations presented above, the heat release rate has been
Heat Release Rate Calculations I 59
computed. A derived heat release rate curve from the above method for
the engine running at full load, and at rated rpm of 1500 is presented in
Fig.3.2. Pressure and crank angle values at this load and speed are used
as inputs for the heat release compilation through Finite difference
method. The experimental data recorded is comprehensively presented
in the graphical plots, (Figures 3.1-3.3) in which information is used for
evaluating the heat release rate under different operating conditions. The
similar kinds graphical plots for various percentages methyl esters at
various load conditions are presented in Appendix C.
Engine Indicating System
100
j : :::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::r:::::::::::r::::::::::
. :: ::
! : ':::::::::::1::::::::::::[::::::::::':1::.":::::::1::::::::::::1::::::::::::
~ ~ 1 ~ ~
o
. . r .. .
o 120 210 3010 i80
erank MqI.
IMEP (BAR)
PEAK PR. (BAR)
PEAK PR. IJRT TOC (0",..)
OP MAX (BAR/OeQ)
OP MAX IJQT TOC (0",..)
".1
62.7
... 8
3.0
... .,
1 0 0 r - - - ~ - - ~ - - - - . - - - ~ - - ~ - - - - ~
INDICATED POIJEQ (KIJ): 2.80
SPEED (QPM) : 1500
8r_ph No.: 5
rtl" : BUO.pO
'" 80 1-1l--_tt
~ .6n : : : ; :
vu 1 .. rrTT ........ -.. .
S 40 .0 --i.-...... -i .......... - ~ - ... .-).u .. n ... _.+-...... 0
I : 1 i i ;
~ 20 r- rttt ....
o ...
196 392
Cylinder UoI... <cc)
Fig. 3.1. p-e & PV diagram for the engine running on pure diesel at full load
60 I Bio-diesel
100
80
60
i
"" .
Is;
20
0
o
Englne In System
-r--_l1--t ........ -r ............ .
__ '11: (i

120 720
IMEP (BAR)
PEAK PR. (BAR)
PEAK PR. IJRT TOC (0"0)
DP MAX (BAR/O .. o)
OP MAX IJRT TOC (Oeo)
't.1
62.7
+ B
3.0
+ 't
""
INDICATED POIJER
SPEED
MA)( NET HAT RELEASE.
(KIJ) 2.BD
(RPM) , 1500
RATE (.1...0.9> 130.11
MfitlX NET HEAT RL.ASE
f : ::::::::::::r::::::::r::::::::::r:::::::::::f:::::::::::t::::::::::::
16 ....... ;r ............ ::.'.. . .... .t--.. . -.+ ...... -.--..
RATE WAT TOC co.q) : + i
CUM\A.ATIV HEAT RELEASE 139..3t5
6 __ U.alu. 11 .... 0
: 1 1
1 8 ....... ++1 t ..
i 0 1 '1 1 . .
Br "ph No. 5
r,l.. BUD. pO
T-_Cr--T--1--_
3!!2 3<18 376 38.
Fig. 3.2. P-9 and Derived Net Heat Release curves for pure diesel full load
Englne Indicating System
lOO
,
80 r( .. .... j"' .. t .. .. i ........ ..
j :::::
v 60 __ __ -r'i .. _-- -- .. .. r---1_-_
; :: ::
! 40 '"'"T----'r"''-_
u
1'-----1--
.t 20 ......... + ........... + ........ + ......... + ........... + ........... .
: : : : :
o
: : 1_: :
o 120 210 3dO 't8O 720
Cr_ ,...
IIIP (BliP)
PAK PP. (BI'Ip)
PEAK PP. UpT Toe (Deq)
DP IIAX (BAP/Deq)
DP IIAX upT Toe (Deq)
1.1
62.7
... 8
3.0
... 1

INDICATED POUEp (KU) 2.80
SPEED (RPm : 1500
III'IJ( NET HEIIT RELEASE
RllTE (J.-o.q> 130.11
III'IJ( NET HEIIT RELEASE
RllTE IlAT T1JC (Iloq) 1+ 1
ClJIU.I\TIVE HEIIT RElEIISE (J.-o.q>.139.3I!
_ v.lUlt .1.10
BrOlph No. 5
fil.. BUD. pO
I
i 80 i 1 i ;
J 1_ rryr
10 . .: .... i ............ j ............ .j. .}
J ::::
'i 0 t .... .. ++j .. t ........... .
] 270 3:'
Fig. 3.3. P-9 and Derived Cumulative Heat Release curves for pure diesel at full
load
.4
Experimental Set Up
The experimental setup of DI diesel engine is arranged in the engines
laboratory. Experimentation is carried out at various engine loads to
study the cylinder pressure and heat release rate with respect to the
crank-angle. Engine performance data is acquired for the esters as well as
pure diesel oil independently to study the above-mentioned parameters.
Engine cylinder vibration is monitored at each load and for each ester
simultaneously to compare the cylinder excitation frequencies with the
base line frequencies using diesel oil. Since the very combustion in the
cylinder is the basic exciter, the vibration study of the engine cylinder
through the derived FFT and overall levels is the representative of
combustion propensity.
Experimental set up
The schematic diagram (Fig. 4.1) represents the instrumentation set up
for the experiment. The Piezo electric transducer is fixed (flush in type) to
the cylinder body to record the pressure variations in the combustion
chamber. Crank angle is measured through the crank angle encoder and
a plot is drawn between the pressure and crank angle, which is the basic
signature to compare the performance of the engine run with various
oils. Accelerometer is mounted on the cylinder head to record the engine
vibrations using DC-ll dats lOgger, which directly gives the spectral data
in the form of FFT, the overall vibration levels and the phase of vibration.
Eddy current dynamometer is coupled to the engine for loading
purposes. The engine data logger is commissioned to collect the data
from the pressure transducer and crank angle encoder and to transmit
the same to the computer to display the data in graphic form. These two
signals collected are integrated and a pressure-crank-angle plot is
compiled with suitable software C7112. The total arrangement of the
instrumentation with respect to engine position is shown in the diagram
4.1 and the engine data logger circuit is depicted in the schematic
diagram shown in Fig. 4.2.
62 I Bio-diesel
Eddy current
Dynllmometer
Data Logger
cccc
ccce
ccec
cece
FFT Analyzer
Fig. 4.1. P-9 and Derived Cumulative Heat Release curves for,pure diesel at full
load
Fig.4.2. depicts the schematic diagram of the connections from the
piezo electric transducer and the cranl< encoder to the data logger.
The data from the above said transducers is translated into graphic form
to construct p-e diagram.
Black
Encoder (M)
9pinD-tvPe
Shielded
3 rot cable
Piezo
sensor
Fig. 4.2 Schematic diagram of Data Integration Circuit taking data from the
encoder and the pressure transducer
Experimental Set Up I 63
DIRECT INJECTION (DJ.) DIESEL ENGINE
The or diesel engine (make Kirloskar Company, Pune) was used for
conducting the experimentation. The details of the engine are as
mentioned below:
Rated Horsepower: 5 hp
Rated Speed: 1500rpm
No of Strokes: 4
Mode of Injection: or
No of Cylinders: 1
ENGINE LOADING SYSTEM
In order to load the engine, Eddy current dynamometer is used and is
essentially an electric brake, which resists rotation. This rotational
resistance is what forces the engine to work during the test. The engine
and dynamometer are connected by a belt drive arrangement as shown in
Figures 4.1 and 4.2.
Fig. 4.3 Diesel engine test rig
64 I Bio-diesel
Fig. 4.4. Engine loading device Eddy current dynamometer with Spring balance
Fig. 4.5. Vibration readings on the engine Eddy current dynamometer's operating
panel can be seen in this Figure
Fig. 4.6. Noise measurements on the engine with Larson-Davis labs model 710
Dosimeter
Fig. 4.7. Connection from crank angle encoder fixed to the engine
66 I Bio-diesel
Fig. 4.8. The engine data logger in interface with the computer and the data being
logged by the developed software C7112
Eddy Current Dynamometer Details
Speed: 1000-2000 rpm
Peak torque at: 1000 - 2000 rpm
Accuracy ratings + / - 0.3 % to 0.5 %full scale
Type of Loading: Eddy Current Dynamometer with compatible 24
KG representing the Max Load on the engine with a suitably designed
spring balance.
PIEZO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER (Sl11A22, SN9982)
A Piezo-electric transducer [Fig. 4.9] is fixed on the engine cylinder head
for obtaining the combustion chamber pressure data at regular intervals
and transmits the same to the computer on-line. Due to the Piezo-electric
effect, these mechanical properties manifest themselves as electrical
equivalent properties.
Fig. 4.9. Piezo Electric Transducer
VIBRATION ANALYZER EQUIPMENT
The DC-11 FFT (Fig.4.10) analyzer is a fully digital spectrum analyzer and
data collector specifically designed for machine condition monitoring,
advanced bearing fault detection, and measurement diagnostics. This
instrument measures and displays the following along with rotary
machine component balancing as an additional facility. The vibration
accelerometer and the optical stroboscope are depicted in the Figures 4.11
and 4.12 respectively.
a) Time wave form (oscilloscope)
b) FFT auto spectra
c) Envelop spectra selected by multiple band pass filters
d) Rotation speed
e) Amplitude and phase on rotation speed and its harmonics
FFT Analyzer Details :(Fig.4.l0)
Frequency Range: 1-2000 Hz
Input Signal Range: 100mv
Gain: Auto, 0 -54 dB in 6 dB steps
68 I Bio-diesel
Input parameters:
Frequency Span: 1-2000 Hz in 1Hz resolution
Frequency Resolution: 1600 lines
Signal to Noise Ratio: Greater than 70 dB
Linear Averages: 1 - 256
Weighting Function: Hanning
Pass filters: None
Amplitude Measurement Units: Acceleration, velocity and displacement
Scale: Peak values
Data Storage Capacity: 400 line spectra 700, 800 line spectra 400, 1600 line
spectra200.
Fig. 4.10. DC-11 Vibration data logger
Fig. 4.11. Optical Stroboscope
Fig. 4.12. Piezo Electric Accelerometer
DATA LOGGING EQUIPMENT FROM THE ENGINE CYLINDER AND
SOFTWARE:
C7112 is a laboratory engine data acquisition system software and is the
enterprise-wide software environment designed to support all aspects of
telemetry data acquisition, processing, archiving, and display. It gathers
the information about a system or process from the data recorder. It is a
core tool to the understanding and control of such systems or processes.
A fully shielded wiring loom, complete with sensors and probes to accept
data and the parameters information such as crank angle and pressure,
gathered by sensors, converted to digital format and forwarded onto a
computer online for analyzing purposes as shown in Fig 4.2. Combining
real and non-real time system services with secure network architecture,
captured pressure-crank angle data as input is displayed in real time into
the LeD display of laptop in this experimentation. (Fig. 4.8)
EXPERIMENTATION PROCEDURE
The experimentation is conducted on the engine operated at normal
room temperatures of 28 to 33C and using various neat esters of non-
edible oils and diesel oil at five discrete part load conditions. The data
collection is done independently for the above said oils. The engine is
allowed to run at lS00rpm continuously for one hour in order to achieve
the thermal equilibrium under operating conditions. After this period,
cylinder pressure and crank angle are monitored for every load on the
70 I Bio-diesel
engine. The engine vibration is measured at strategic points on the
cylinder and on the mounting of the engine to evaluate the relative
performance in the context of vibration emanated by the engine. P-8 and
heat release rate graphs have been derived for the above said esters with
the software based on the first law of thermodynamics.
SUMMARY
The fuel consumption for all the esters as well as the diesel is measured at
all defined loads. This is an attempt to evaluate engine performance for
comparison, which is taken up in chapter V.
The indicated power is obtained from the measurements and
compilation of the combustion pressures with respect to the crank angle
in the cylinder at the defined loads. An algorithm is developed to
calculate the mean effective pressures at every load.
The quantities like net heat release rate and cumulative heat release
rate are derived from the pressure-crank angle signatures by the software
developed.
The engine vibration is monitored by assessing the vibration on the
cylinder in three different directions as well as on the engine mounting.
The time waveforms and phase of vibration are also measured on the
cylinder while the engine is running. The results are elaborately
discussed in the chapter five.
5
Results Discussion and Conclusions
Data pertaining to the engine performance, noise and vibration is
collected from the engine by using diesel oil as base line oil and then
using the methyl esters of various non-edible oils viz. Jatropha, Mahua
and Palm Kernel. These three oils are the non-edible oils freely available
in the region either in the local forests or in the semiarid lands. The
author feels it necessary to validate the performance data with the
vibration and noise data emanating from the engine by the
implementation of the esters in neat form without changing the engine
design. Any change in the vibration in excess which the engine develops
with the conventional diesel needs an attempt to verify the suitability of
the biodiesel or modify the design of the engine to reduce the vibration.
Since the combustion and mass effects are changing with the change of
oil, which obviously alters the structural excitation, it is thought to
investigate the excesses in the vibration and noise emitted by the engine.
Combustion in the cylinder and the flame propagation takes place with
certain finite number of frequencies (albeit larger frequency range) in the
heterogeneous combustion. Since these burning frequencies form the
excitation frequencies of the cylinder, vibration measured on the cylinder
in FFT mode reflects the combustion propensity of the type of oil used. In
that way, the performance of biodiesel oils is correlated with that of the
petro-diesel to understand the replacement aspect conclusively. This
method is mooted especially in the event of the conventional
performance quantities differ by dismissible margin and commonality in
many aspects is being established.
The data collected makes three parts.
Combustion pressure data and the fuel consumed by the engine
at various loads for all the oils under consideration.
Vibration of the engine on the cylinder and on the foundation,
especially by measuring the acceleration amplitude.
Sound pressure levels at one-meter distance from the engine at
various loads.
72 I Bio-diesel
The pressure-crank angle data is collected for all the oils under
consideration (non-edible oil methyl esters and diesel oil as baseline oil).
The data is collected at various loads (five load points viz. no load,
quarter load, half load, three quarters load and full load). Pressure-crank
angle data is the data collected by the engine recorder, which converts the
pressure data into the graphic form by using C7112 engine software. This
data forms a baseline acquisition to derive other parameters like
pressure-volume, log p -log v, net heat release rate and cumulative heat
release rate based on the First Law of thermodynamics, which is
discussed in the chapter - ill.
As mentioned above, the vibration data is collected and reported in the
form of spectrum averages and overall levels and is presented in the graphic
forms (FFf and time wave forms by using Vast-an and On-Time software) for
comparison and evaluation. Even though the vibration study cannot be
directly connected to the engine performance, it can be a suitable tool to
assess the occurrence of knock and detonation, if any, during combustion.
The amplitude and frequency change in the burning rate brings enough
variation in the vibration propensity recorded on the cylinder.
The combustion pressure data is collected at all the loads for the oils
under consideration and compared graphically with the diesel oil (Figs.
5.1-5.5). The individual P-9 plots are also drawn for the oils (Figs. 5.8-5.11)
and it can be assessed that the diesel, }ME and PKME exhibited steep rise
in combustion pressure with marginal variation in peak pressures. It can
be observed from the individual pressure plots that the pressure rise
trends for the diesel and }ME are similar with higher peak pressure in the
case of diesel oil. Similarly, the pressure plot trends for the MME and
PKME are almost same as can be observed in Figure 5.5a.
60
50
40
;
2
-10
PRESSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT NO
LOAD
1\
/ \
/ \
/
"-

"'-
500
Crank Angle in Degrees
Fig. 5.1. Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at No-Load
Results Discussion and Conclusions 1 73
PRE'iSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT 1/4 LOAD
- - - - - - - DIESEL
----- MME
--PKME
Crank Angle In Oegr ...
Fig. 5.2. Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Load
PRESSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT HALF LOAD
M,---------------------------------------------------
!\

.:3Ot------------------------1------'+--------------------
i 2D -------- 1 '\
t l' '\"

",>,"--.
= = - -
1. ",I __________________ _
Crank Angle In Degrees
Fig. 5.3.Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Half-Load
741 Bio-diesel
PRESSURE l'LOTS FOR ALL OILS AT 3/4 LOAD
" ' - - - ~ - - - - -
...
'"
= Cl
.5
- - ~ - - ~ - - - - - -
eraDk Angle in Degrees
th
E[J
.... DIESR
_. _.JWE
- -hOlE
--.....
Fig. 5.4. Comparison of combustion pressures at 3/4 - Load
PRESSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT FULL LOAD
70 ------------- ---
10
220 :HO 2110 210
_'O.L-_______________________________________ _
Craak Aaele la Decrees
E[]
.... DIESI!L
-._.MN
_-INE
--PKME
Fig. 5.5. Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Full- Load
Results Discussion and Conclusions I 75
PRF.SSUREPLOTS FOR ALL OilS <\T FULL LOAD
70 ----------------------------

cl!
Cl
't 30
;

Crank Angle In Degrees
I
I
I
,------'
:' --_. -.DESF.Lj'
,- _ ... MME
I-----JME
I PKME I
Fig. 5.5a, Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Full- Load
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE BAR CHART

li!
S3
Cl
-
NO LOAD 1/4 LOAD 112 LOAD 3/4 LOAD - FULL LOAD
.DIESEL
.JME
=MME
UDPKME
Fig_ 5.6. Comparison of differential pressures for all oils at all Loads
76 I Bio-diesel
PEAK PRESSURE BAR CHART

60
10
I 0
i
NO LOAD J/4LOAD JI2LOAD 3/4 LOAD FULL LOAD
L __
Fig. 5.7. Comparison of peak pressure for all oils at all Loads
PRESSURE PLOYS FOR PURE DIESEL AT ALL LOADS
____ --__________

--LOADO%
---LOAD2S%
- - - - - LOAIHO%
- - - -LOAD_
--- -LOAD 100%
...
. ,,1-__________________________ --.l
Fig. 5.8. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads with pure diesel run
C
p
=
10 - - - - ---
.. -- --- - - --- ----
cc -- - -- --
oS
t '"
'"
il "
!t ..
Pressure Plots for JME at all Loads
--1
i
I
------------------'
Cnnk Angle in Degrees
LOADO% 1
- - - -LOAD 25%
LOADSO% I
_. _. -LOAD7S%
1- .. - . LOAD 1)0%
Fig. 5.9. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for JME run
Press.re plo" for MME at AB Loads

eo ----------------------.-... ----
--LOAOO%
.!!
---
t ..
- --LOA02'%
- LOAOSO%
1 ..
-. - LOA07S%
- -LOAD 100%
S50 _
.,. '-------------------------------------.....
CRANK ANGLE IN DEGREES
Fig. 5.10. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for MME run
78 I Bio-diesel
PRfSURE PLOTS FOP PKIE AT LOAOS
"
, ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~ ~ - - - - - - - - ~ ~
I m m ~ ~ ~ - ~
lC
J
F"""""I
---,I<lOOO
........ tl2l.OAO
- . - . ~
_ _FlII..OH)
Fig. 5.11. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for PKME run
Performance Studies
The performance curves of the engine are drawn as shown in Figs. below
(Figures 5.12--5.22). MME stands first in fuel consumption at all loads as
per the experimental investigation. The consumption is more by 15-30 per
cent, followed by PKME and then JME, and last the diesel oil, which is
consumed minimum at all loads. The consumption of methyl esters of the
three non-edible oils converges to the same consumption at the full load
(Fig. 5.12). Brake specific fuel consumption follows suit of the absolute
fuel consumption. Mechanical efficiency of the engine run with the
methyl esters of non-edible oils is greater than the diesel by 10-15 per cent
with an exception of PKME developing almost the same efficiency at
higher loads comparable with the diesel. Indicated thermal efficiency
and brake thermal efficiency at all loads are more for the diesel whereas
with the methyl esters the engine is generating lesser thermal efficiency
by 5-10 per cent, (Figs. 5.15 &5.16). The cumulative heat release rate is
coinciding at higher loads for all the oils' and at full load PKME leads
marginally in this value. The heat release rate curves are almost same for
the diesel oil, PKME and JME with the trends in premixed combustion
and the diffused combustion zones are similar, whereas MME's premixed
zone is split into two rates and with the diffused combustion zone similar
to the pure diesel (Fig. 5.21). The specific gravities and the calorific values
of the esters are varying by some degree when compared to the diesel oil
and this aspect stands as the main reason for the above said variation in
performance. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 represent the maximum differential
pressures and peak pressures generated at various loads for the three
different esters and the petro-diesel. Petro-diesel is developing highest
peak pressures and the differential pressures indicating its lesser ignition
delay when compared to the esters tested. The esters tested are sluggish
in generating the above aspect with more ignition delay. The sound
emanated (Figs. 5.23, 5.5a) is the standing evidence for the above
discussion on maximum differential and peak pressures. The Figures
from 5.19 to 5.22 represent the net heat release rate curves pertaining to
the three esters and the petrodiesel. All the esters behaved similar to
diesel except the MME, since the premixed combustion is dull for the
MME, which has taken place in two rates, and the diffused combustion is
almost flatter comparatively. This is the reason MME is generating
consistent overall vibration levels (Fig. 5.24) at all the loads and smooth
pressure distribution curve in Figure 5.5a. Ester of Mahua maintained
sustained combustion without violent trend in premixed combustion
stage despite the reason it generates lower pressures and power
comparatively. In addition to this finding, MME's performance has
suffered at higher loads as can be observed from the Figures 5.12 to 5.18.
The diffused combustion phase is better than the premixed combustion,
which is responsible for the higher frequency generation as can be
observed from the Figure 5.35. The diffused combustion phase is
synonymous with the high frequency generation in the cylinder vibration
which conspicuously appeared in the vibration FFT recording on the
cylinder perpendicular to the crank in radial direction.
FUEL CONSUMPI10N Vs BRAKE POWER
O..M ---------- "- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - - - - -
i U
i
~ ...
.!
~ u
- _ ...
i
'
.. '
.. '
.' .
f"F-".-'."'- ........ -.-C ~ . ~ . ~ . ~ ---
IJ ., r-='----------------------
;:l
, .oo
. ~
_ . [[]"" -"" DIESEL
--- .)ME
----MM!
-- - --PKME
..
Fig. 5.12. Comparison of brake power in KW Vs fuel consumption in grams per
second
80 I Bio-diesel
BSFCVSLOAD
1.4,----------------------------,
12
... : .
.. ...
1
: 0 -
0.6 ". --....::--___ ---PKME

0.2

LOAD 10 %
Fig . 5.13. Comparison of load per cent Vs brake specific fuel consumption in
kg/kw-hr
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY Vs LOAD
100 ----- .-----------------------------
';I. 90
G 80 t======:::2;::;:;"" -===J
ro --
u
E 60 ' ..... DIESEL
50 j-----__ ;c __ ___j ,_ .. -IME
-< i--MME '
I :: '--PKME_!
20 t-----6'r---------------------
10
60%
LOAD %
80% 100% 120%
Fig. 5.14. Comparison of mechanical efficiency Vs load per cent

.
r.l
po;
=I
Indicated Thermal Effeciency Vs Load
35 r----------------------------------------------,
30
0% 20% 80% IOtl%
Load %
-DIESEL

---PKME
Fig. 5.15. Comparison of indicated thermal efficiency Vs load per cent
Brake Thermal Effeciency vs Load
25
-
20

........ -
- .... .
.- , ......
* " ....
15
.. "" .. " .,
--DIESEL
b' ,..'
PKME
... "
"" -
"" ;"".;"
.
JME
10
-_. --MME

5

oV
I
0%
20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Load %
Fig. 5.16. Comparison of brake thermal efficiency Vs load per cent
82 I Bio-diesel
Net Heat Release Rate Vs Load

....... .,:-;

..... ,;:.;. ...
251---- ------- _- -
- ----
"20 . -
_--
151'-:: - - - __________ _
______________________________________
__________________________________
20% 40% 60%
Load '1'.
80% 100% 120%
Fig. 5.17. Comparison of net heat release rate Vs load percentage
CUMULATIVE HEAT RELEASE RATE VS LOAD %
180
180

---
...
,

120

--PKME

-- ............ -:-
100
.- .-
MME
oS
.... , .
--JME
;
80
-- DIESEL
U
60

20
0
0% 20% 60% 80% 100% 120%
LOAD %
Fig. 5.18. Comparison of cumulative heat release rate Vs load percentage
Englne Indlcating System
100
;
80
j 1 i ; i 1
; dO TT Tj".
i 1'0 . -....... ... --.---.... .. --.. ----.-
et 20 -- ------ .. L .... __ -__ .L._._ .... L ......... 1-. .......... 1. .
i i ...... -!-- ....... i '
o
o 120
IMEP (BAR)
PEflK PIl. (S"'R)
PEAK PR. URT TDC (000)
DP MAX (BAR/Coo)
DP MAX URT TDC (000)
: ".1
: 62.7
: .... e
: 3.0
: t- ...

INDICATED POUER (KU) 2.BO
SPEED (RPM) 1500
I1AX tT HEAT RELASE
RATE (.J ....DeQ> 130.11
MJ( NET HEIIT RLEMI:
f: ::::.::::::r:::::::t:.::::.::r::::::::::t:::::::::::r:::::::::
i 16 .-.------- r---r 1--1----.. -1--- RftTE URT TDC (o.Q) 1 + ..
CLlnlJl...ATIVE HftT RLEfIISE. 138.315
...... v..l..... .1.-tO
I ._ .... - : ....... -... .
e,..aph No. 5
ra1e BUD. pO
i 0 .. ...... t .... .... ,t .... .... r .......... j- .. .. .. 'l .. ......
100

00
dO
5

<It
20
0
o
""" .,. ..
er ... fW'tQl.
Fig. 5.19. Diesel heat release rate plot at full load
! :!
.::::::::::::t:::::::::::t::::::::::r:::::::::::r :::::::::(::::::::::
. .-.--.... ... -......... ........... .
........... ............ .......... ........... ............ ........... .
1 ' ....... j ....... __ .... i-__ ;
i
120 2"'0 360 -+eo
er .... flllnQl.
IMEP (BAR)
PEAK PR. (BAR)
P[:AK PR. UAT Toe (O.Q)
OP MAX (BAQ/OeQ)
DP MAX URT TDC (000)
: 3."
: 5B.5
: .... B
\ 2.7
: .... 1

INDICATED POUER (KU) 2.37
SPEED (RPM) 1500
MX HET HEAT RELEME
! 32 ............ , ............ , ............ , ............ 1. ........... , ........... .
I :: :::::::": .. :::: .. ::'''::1::::::::::::1::::::::::::::::::::::::1::.:::::::::
a .::.,:::-::1::::::::::::[::::::::::::1::::::::::::: .. ::::::::::::::::::::::
AftTE <.1A)eq) .28..88
f1N( NET HEAT RELEMIE
MTE WRT TOe <o-q> .+ '"
ct.I1IJI..fItoTIUE HEAT AELEft&E <J'....o.q>. 128.08
_ u.luo
11.-tO
Srillph No.
f"il"
5
JATN.pO
i ! j i
Fig. 5.20. JME heat release rate plot at fullloa:d
100
eo ........... .:.......: . 1 ,
i .so ........... + ...... ,:::::;::::::::::::r:::::::::::r::::::::::I::::::::::
i .0 .... .. .. .... ...... I .... .. ,- .... .. -t-.......... t .... " .... ..
Do. 20 .. L ........... L........ .L .......... 1 ........... 1 ........... .
i i ....... j ....... i i
120
ystem
II1EP (BAP)
PEAK PA. (BAA)
PEAK PP. IJAT TDC (D_g)
DP tlAX (IIAP,D-o)
op tlAX IoIAT Toe (Dog)
381
: 3.7
: 59.7
: ... e
= 2."
: + ..

INDICIITED POUEP (KIJ) 2.5B
SPEED (APtl) 1500
fW( lET teAT AELDISE
AIIIIT t22.26
ItI'tX NET I,..T RJ....DWE
AI'rl'!: Yn' TUC .+ ..
o..H..I..ATlW: HEM' AFJ...EMIE (J....otq). 133.81
--.. V.l... 11.40
!32
! 24
i "
i
er.ph No. 5
j 0
F"al. MAHN.pO
......... .:. .. _ ....... ...... u: ........ .:.. ......... .. .:. ..... u.
: .. .. f .. .. .. l, ..
.......... .. r
Jf ..... i ....... y._-""'=c:..
.... .i.. ...... ) ...... j ...... .... r .. .. + ..........
3&'
er
.,..
301 ...
-
Fig. 5.21. MME heat release rate plot at full load
...
84 I Bio-diesel
er .. l"IrIgl.
Fig. 5.22. PKME heat release rate plot at full load
COMPARISON OF THE SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS AT ALL LOADS AND
FOR ALL THE OILS
Diesel oil produces more sound pressure levels any other oil at all
loads by a maximum rise of 1.5 decibels. The MME generates least noise
(Fig. 5.23). It can be observed that the noise emanation from the cylinder
depends on the indicated power developed with particular usage of the
oil. Since the power developed by the MME is comparatively lesser, the
sound pressure levels will also be lesser. Some investigations [35,36] in
the literature revealed that the noise emanation depends on the
maximum differential pressure rise and rate of pressure rise during
combustion. The Figure 5.6 envisages the differential pressures that
follow suit of noise of the engine run with the oils under investigation.
Comparison SOUDd Jftssure lewls at all oils

100
=
98 +------.----,
!;l
96
= 94
92
Si
90
LQo\Do% LQo\025% LQo\050% LQo\075% LQo\0100%
WAD%
Fig. 5.23. Comparison of sound pressure levels recorded at various loads and for
various oils
5.3 Engine Vibration Comparison
The overall values of vibration on the cylinder in two directions are
measured. One in the radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft
and the second on the cylinder head in vertical direction.
With JME, the engine generated the minimum overall vibration when
compared to other oils including diesel but with an exception that it
generates slightly higher value on the cylinder head in vertical direction
as shown in Figure 5.24
The vibration transmitted to the foundation in the case of diesel oil
run is comparatively more than other oils as obtained in the vibration
spectrums (Figs. 5.26-5.29). The vibration signatures obtained on the
cylinder in vertical direction indicate lesser high frequency amplitudes in
the case of JME (Fig. 5.31) indicating supporting lesser overall levels as
indicated above. The observation is same for JME in the signatures
obtained in the other two radial directions on the cylinder (Figs. 5.35 &
5.39).
OvmAlL u:vrL OF VIBRATION ON THECYUNDFJUN VERTICAL
DOW::TION FOR AlL THEOns

.

i
w
&l
u
u
..: .
La.D21%
LOAD %
.DESEL
.JME
I!IMME
IDPKME
Fig. 5.24 .Overall values of vibration in acceleration amplitude Vs the load
percentage
86 I Bio-diesel
....
St.t:tCJOn: O F F R O U T E ~ "_chi .... : OFF ROUTE .. Paint: tt036
EncinO run with dle$el 011
Foundation vibretton at tull load
1111+ ...................... , ..................... .
AMp 1 t tuc::t. ".66 ...0 Frat = a4.95 Hz
Fig. 5.25.Foundation vibration with the diesel oil run at full load
Vibr.,ion readlnc on
enctne Foundation
Fig. 5.26:Foundation vibration with the JME run at full load
Station: OFFROUTE. "aehJ..--: OFF ROUTE,. POoint: ... 8
1\.11'\ et fulllOed
Vlbrlrtion .peel.,.., on the fOWldetton
ofthe .... 1ne
,
r
Fig. 5.2Z Foundation vibration with the MME run at full load
-
at.t.lan: OF'FAOUTE,. tt.chi .... : ROUTE. Point:: .asB
3 ................... __ .... ___
! PKME run at full toad
: Vibration spectrum on the fotMldatlon
of the erclne
-- -_ ... + ........ .
,t;; .................. .
Fig. 5.28. Foundation vibration with the PKME run at full load
-St:at: .on: OFF'FIOUTE. tt.acht..--: OFF ROUTE,. Po 'rtot:: tN)SS
.----1.---------..
Diesel run at fulr Iced
,
Vibration reedlnc on the
cylinder heed tn v.nlcel
direction
..................... , .................. .
Fig. 5.29. Cylinder vibration in direction with the diesel oil run at full
load
-
St.-= .. on: DFFftDUTE. "-.zha..-z OFF ROUTE. poInt:
: i
--t------------,---
: i
Vibration spec1:"," on the cylinder In
the .... rtlc.1 alreoction
Fig. 5.30. Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the JME run at full load
88 I Bio-diesel
st.t t.an: "--=h:lr-.: OFF Po""1;.: .aa'7
MME run.t full Ioltd
Vibration spectt'Ufn on the cyUnder
in verttce' direction
........................ + ...... -- ................ { ..................... .
i ; !
,
..... -.. .................. .
!
Fig. 5.3l. Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the MME run at full load
OFFROUTE .. OFF flOUTE#
Vibration spec:tn..n on of the
-L ............. __ ._- -... 1 ................ .
,
! cylinder irI _rtice' dlf8Ctlon
.1" _-
,
+ .... + ..................... , .... ,,1-.+ .................. ................... .
Fig. 5.32. Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the PKME run at full load
at.tt.on: QFFFIOUTE ... 1'Iach:l .... : DFF ROUT&:. Po.lnt: 1HJ34
-
oil run et
Afotp J. I tuct.. 4.7? MO
Fig. 5.33. Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft
with the diesel oil run at full load
-- -
,
Vibration spec::tlUt"1'\' on the
!Cylinder In ..adlal dln:JCtlon
.... to U1e er.,k 'Shatt
"._-- ---
Fig. 5.34 .Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft
with the JME run at full load
---i----- ..
MME run .t full load
Vlb, .. tton Spet:1n.rn radl.' to the
c.)Illnder perpencUc\,Il.r to the
with the MME run at full load
St_tlon: DFFAOUTE. ".-.:=ha .... ; OFF ROUTE .. Po'nt:= tI036
"KME tun at full to*"
Vlbr.taon spectlU'Tt radial to tNl
cyllnde ... perpendieular to cr.nk .... tt
............... - --t-----t ..
,
,
,
I 1
........... 1
i ' , i
!
,
aoc'HI,,, ........... , ......... .
i
with the PKME run at full load
90 I Bio-diesel
-
st._-= loon: DFFAOUTE .. "ac::h.in.: OFF ROUTE ..
----t-----
, -----f-------
,
Otesel 011 t\M'1 .t full lOed
: :
RQdlal reedinc on the cylinder In exi.'
direction of the crank shaft
. ,
.. ...... + ............................... I
.................... + ......................... 1. ................ .
Fig .5.37. Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the
diesel oil run at full load
OFF'FIOUTE .. "ac:th:ln-.l CJlFF ROUT&: ..
.JME IUI'1 et full load
.. t ........ .............. ............... ........ f .............. ..
!
Vibration -speC"tn.wn r$dI.1 to __ ............ .
cyl)nder in line the ClXIC of the
crank cha1't
, .
...... ___ ____ __ l .. ___ .. ____ . ______ . __ . __ ______ _
.... , ........................ j .................. .. .. .. 1
Fig. 5.38 .Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the
JME run at full load
.. ME: tun at tull load
! Vibnrtion .peetn.rn radlet to
_____ , ..... _ ..... ___ . __ ...... the c),Under nlln. u-. ex. of __....
i the cr.,k sh.ft
,
i
.ODIr ....................... + ........................... f .......................... L ....................... + .......................... .
; i
Fig. 5.39.Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the
MME run at full load
st:.t: tC2n: OFFROUTE. ".-chine; OFF Point: tta:li5
.. { ....
. .
PKME run et full load
Vibration radlel to the
cylinder In line 'the aXis 01 the crlilf1k
sheft
Fig. 5.40. Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the
PKME run at full load
Time Waveforms of Vibration
The time waveforms collected for comparison do not yield information as
to identify the combustion propensities with the usage of oils under
consideration. Combustion is identified to take place after every 80 ms.
The Time waveforms (Figs. 5.41-5.48) are taken radially and vertically on
the cylinder with the engine run with the methyl esters and the diesel oil.
The time waveforms in the piston slap direction (Fig. 5.45-5.48) envisage
higher vibration acceleration levels in case diesel oil burning approaching
5g and the acceleration levels in case of esters are below 4g. This is
because of the lower power development in the case of the esters tested.
St_tian: OFFROUTE. .... : OFF ROUTE.. "oint: tI03?
o
Ti .... ______ ______ ______ ________ ______ -,
I DIESEL RUN iT FULL
j LOAO.VEtrnCALREAOING ON THE
J.O .... -.--.---i ......... -.... -- .. -...... L ...... CVUNDER
! ;
-1..0 .................. i: ... _ .................... .... -........ . .... .- ....... ..:. ..... -
-- ! ------- - --:-
-.O.,T .... _-----r:O'l!l ...
Afotplltude -1..79 0 Frot = a 9a Nz
......... red: J.?-Dee-2004 J.J.:a4
Fig. 5.41. Time waveform collected on the cylinder head when engine running at
full load with the diesel oil
92 I Bio-diesel
Tt._ ......... 1
Re.ad1J"l&: on the CylFlder et full load
fot' Jatropa 01' run
____ l __ ,_
........... 2a-o.co-2004 ..1.2:30
fun load with the ]ME
iza.:S4
9.7'7 0
T:l __ t.gro.J
Fig. 5.43 .Time waveform collected on the cylinder head when engine running at
fun load with MME
Tj._ ... --.-1

-.10 .... _ ......... ___ ., ........ _ ... __ ..
,
PKMI! RUN AT FULL LAOD
TIME WAVE MEASURED VERTICAL ON THE
CVLINDPrR
,
... __. __ ..L._
= .... 77
"- ur_d:
fun load with PKME
Results Discussion and Conclusions I 93 .
St ion; OFFROUTE. "-chin.: OFF
-t-
i .. 1 .I.1
.... a 0
Tiro. _ i ~ l
DIESEL OIL RUN AT FULL LOAD
T1ME WAVEFORM RADIAL ON THE
_ CVLINOER PE RP TO CANKSHAFT
Fig. 5.45. Time waveform collected radial O!l the cylinder head when engine
running at full load with the diesel oil.
St:at: lor.: OF'F'fIOUTE. "-c:::hi ..... : OFF ROUTE,
---j
0_
-0.6.1. 0
Full !clad Re-achne.on the
coyllnde.r heOld,perp crlk
......... r-ad: 23-D..c-2004
Fig. 5.46. Time waveform collected radial on the cylinder head when engine
running at full load with JME
0_
-o . a 0
MME AT FULL LOAD RUN
nME WAVEFORM RAOIAL ON
THE GYUNOER. PERP TO THE
CRANK
Fig .5.47. Time waveform collected radial on the cylinder head when engine
94 I Bio-diesel
Ti._ .. 1 ___ 1
5 ..
Ti_ 0.-
.......,.l.t...... 0.08 0
Fig. 5.48. Time waveform collected radial on the cylinder head when engine
Phase Analysis
The phase of vibration is an important measure to identify the mode of
vibration concerning the order. The first order phase measurements are
taken at two strategic positions on the cylinder viz. vertical and radial for
the engine run with the esters and diesel oil (Fig. 5.49 & 5.50). The phase
of vibration for the MME is different in the ra,dial direction to the
cylinder as observed in Figure 5.49. The phases measured vertical on the
cylinder as shown in Figure 5.50 are different for the esters when
compared to the diesel. This indicates change in mode of vibration for the
first order. This may cause undue increase in the amplitude of vibration
at other non-synchronous frequencies. This phase difference may affect
the lower frequencies to generate higher amplitudes of vibration creating
an impression that the combustion with the new oils is different. But the
vibration signatures indicate that the esters tested gave reduced vibration
levels when compared to the diesel oil. Hence a conclusion can be drawn
. that the effect of phase change is the representative of the reduced delay
period, which can be observed from the Figures 5.19:'5.22. The phase
diagrams in the case of MME indicate early start of combustion.
Phase Of Vibration In Degrees (First Order)
Radial Perp.To Crank On The Cylinder
Diesel
~
MME PKME
Load 0% 9.6 4 353.1 7
Load 25% 3 2.9 354.9 9
Load 50% 3 3 355.5 8.1
Load 75% 3.9 6.7 356.3 9.9
Load 100?/0 5.3 7.3 359.7 13
PHASE OF VIBRATION (FIRST ORDER) MEASURED RADJALL Y ON
THE CYLINDER PERPENDICULAR TO THE CRANK SHAFT
-r--------------------------------------,
l:i" -- ---
~ " ' - - f-----
~ .. - __ _0-
ill' ----0- ---
L.
r---- --
____ 0-
_____ _0- 0_
-
- -- --
0_-
to ---- -- 1----
~ .... ..& .. ---""''' .. ----L-''''' ... --........... ".--""''''"",. _ --
WAD %
Fig. 5.49. Comparison of first order phase of vibration measured radial to the
cylinder
Phase Of Vibration In Degrees (First Order)
Vertical On The Cylinder
Diesel JME MME PKME
Load 0% 6.3 335.8 333.1 343.4
Load 25% 31.1 352.5 339.4 344
Load 50% 21.8 2.1 342.5 345.4
Load 75% 5.5 338.4 336.4 1.8
Load 100% 35.9 340.1 338.7 355.4
PHASE OF VIBRATION MEASURED VERTICAL ON THE CYLINDER IN DEGREES
400,------------------------------------------,
350 l----r---c - t=
~ 3 0 0
~ 250
1!
z:: 200
'"
~ 150
lE 100 --
50 f---
--
---
0'-- '- J '-
LOAD 0% LOAD 25%
----
n
--- LOAD 50% LOAD 75%
LOAD %
Fig. 5.50. Comparison of first order phase of vibration measured vertical on the
cylinder
I Bio-diesel
ssessment of Engine Trend with the Use of PKME, JME, MME and
ieselOils
e data collected indicates that the vibration trend of the engine with
e usage of diesel oil is severe as observed in the Figure 5.51 given by the
-Time software for vibration analysis. There is a sharp jump in overall
lue of vibration in the piston slap direction as per number '2' line from
J tropha to the diesel. Same increase holds good for the foundation
bration also. The overall level generated by the MME further increases
. the direction mentioned above. Except this unexpected behaviour of
MME, diesel predominates in vibration in all directions on the cylinder
and at the foundation.
Date-wise succession of experimentation with the oils is as
mentioned: PKME, JME, DIESEL, MME.
Trend curves are demarcated by colours from upper one to bottom
one with the vibration readings and curve designations are as follows:
I.Vertical on the cylinder
2. Radial on the cylinder perpendicular to crank shaft
3. Foundation
4. Radial on the cylinder in line crankshaft
The Figure 5.52 depicts the vibration acceleration levels (spectrum
averages) in the limited spectrum range of 3200 Hz with respect to the
point of measurement on the engine test rig. Whereas earlier plots
indicate the vibration levels based on the total spectrum averages at
various loads. It can be observed that the vibration transmitted to the
foundation is minimum and almost same for all oils as shown in the
Figure. The amplitudes of vibrations in vertical and radial directions are
complimentary for individual oils.
Accelero.bon Measurements

;Por.t '17-\1etbc.a1 on cytheod"
I
IM""-V_M .............
,Tlen
'",,",

.-''-------L.
iD4IIe
1\l1.ILe
2._.
l

I
----
j
7
'"
3 1
2

-
1(5"1< l>lMlMttCUilG
4
11".1 0..".-
-- --
HE!
S ...... __
!
,
--,---
1
1
4
0
;j
I
D.
I i
l l
PKME JMEDlESEL MME
Fig. 5.51. Engine vibration trend when run with oils under consideration at full
load
Limited spectrum Average Vs Loeatioa or the EDgiae
3.5...---------------------,
3
: ... 2.5
.!!
i 2
I!
-! 1.5
t
< 1
0.5
o
Vertical on the cylinder Foundation
Locatio.
Radial perpendicular to
crank
[]
DIESIlL
a.
a_
a\'DIE
Fig. 5.52. Limited spectrum average of vibration acceleration when run with oils
under consideration at full load
5.7 CONCLUSIONS
1. Fuel consumption in the case of diesel run is comparatively lower than
any other ester tested on the same engine. Except in the case of
mechanical efficiency, diesel excelled in almost all parameters for
981 Bio-diesel
which graphic evaluation is made. The reason can be assigned to
the structure of the esters and oil lubricity because of which the
frictional wastage of power might have been reduced.
2. The brake specific fuel consumption is an important parameter that is
rated whenever engine performance is evaluated. In our
observation, diesel oil's BSFC is comparatively lowest in
comparison. The reason can be assigned to the inferior calorific
values of the esters under consideration.
3. There is an increased vibrational severity of the engine with the usage
of the diesel oil when compared to the esters tested. This is due
to relatively higher power development in the case of diesel oil.
4. The noise emanation from the engine with the usage of diesel oil is
more at all loads when compared to the esters. JME succeeds
followed by PKME in the decreasing order of noise levels. This
trend basically depends on the power generation in the cylinder
by the usage of the independent oils. However, the aspects of
knock and detonation for all oils are conspicuously absent as can
be assessed from the P-8 plots.
5. Vibration phase measurements indicate that there is a phase difference
for the first order which exceeds even 55. This will give an
additional support to the conclusion that the diesel oil gives
higher vibratory trend than other methyl esters and also the
phase difference in the first order is indicative of the ignition
delay.
6. In the light of the above said conclusions, even though the power
development suffers to some extent, the esters can be
recommended to be implemented to run the engine without
changing the basic design of the engine because of the reason
that the esters are affordable and renewable and also in view of
on-going trends in the increase of prices of petro-diesel. The
vibration point gives strength for the implementation in lieu of
the petro-diesel.
7. Cost Audit: Edible oils are costlier than the non-edible oils. The non-
edible oils are abundantly available in Indian forests. Some of the
ethnic oils like Mahua are available in our forests and their usage
are limited. It is a known fact that the palm kernel and Jatropha
oils are available throughout the world. The cost of procurement
and production of esters of these oils is comparatively less per
litre. Additionally, the by-product glycerine that is obtained from
the esterification process is costlier and has more market value.
Future Scope of Work
As a part of future scope of work, the pollutants like Nox, CO and
unburnt hydrocarbons can be studied.
The same methyl esters can be tested using variable c.1. engine in order
to fix the most useful compression ratio.
Adiabatic engines can be tested with these methyl esters and the
performance can be evaluated.
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combustion with high pressure fuel injection. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1991 Paper no. 91-0489.
V. Rocco, R Montanari, M.V. Prati, A. Senatore. "Analysis of Particulate
Emitted from an IDI Turbocharged Small Diesel Engine Fuelled with
Diesel Fuel, Biofuel and their Blend." Fall Technical Conference. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1995. Volume 3.
Varaprasad, R Rao. Experimental investigation on the performance,
Combustion and Emission Characteristics of an Alcohol Fuelled Single-cylinder
S I Engine Ph. D. Thesis. Chennai: Indian Institute of Technology, 1986.
Vellguth, Gerhard. Performance of vegetable oils and their monoesters as fuels
for diesel engines. Warrendale, Pa: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1983
Paper no. 831358.
Venedaal, R, U. Joergensen, and C. A. Foster. "European energy crops: a
synthesis." Biomass & bioenergy Vo1.13, no. 3, (1997): Pages 147-185 First
citation in article.
Zubik, J., S. Sorenson, and C. Georing. "Diesel engine combustion of
Sunflower oil fuels." Transactions of the American Society Agricultural
Engineers, 1984: pp.l252-1256.
Appendix A
The vibration signatures at other loads not mentioned in
the chapters have been appended below for verification.
a tat ian: OFl=ROUTE, IIaeh ine: or:F ROUTE. Point:.OO6
__ ..... _._._._

I
:
SPCctlUl1 radliil to
IX 16 01 ihe er .. ksh tft
.. _. __ ........ -+ .... _ ... _._ .... _ ............. ,.- ,,____-1
J
;
:
i :
: i
...... -... _ ... - r'- .. - .......... ---;. -,_.-.- ...... -.-.. .... -. _._._ ..... , .... __ ... _._.
! ! I i
! I :
! I
:
!
:
IH- .. ,,_- j ...... -.-.-... -.. ..... _ -..... - ..... - ... - _ ..... i .... ___ ... _ - -
i i : :
i .
Frot = 41:1 Hz:
Fig:(A-l) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
the axis of the crankshaft.

,
..... _-- 1- ....... - .------+
. ,
1
i
!
I ' I
_ ..... _ ...... - i__- _ ..... ! ..... - _ .. '1- . __ .... _.OHO .,_._-- - -
. , . .
. ..
j
i
;
!
:
:
-- r"
Fig:(A-2) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
perpendicular to the crankshaft.
"""'S.5
Appendix A I 107
ttatian' OFFFllJUTE. .. IbIchin.' OFF ROUTE, .[X1'7
F 0 I1Z
AftQJltUde 0.04 "I'"S.5
Dl9:5e1 fttl ,if no IO:J';
Ylbn110ns-pectrum on the cl!lnder heed
In fU,,"CtJon
Frot = &4.'6 ttz
Fig: (A-3) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
Itet ionl OFFROUlIi:. "-cthinel OFF ROUTE.. Point: Wl.1&
-----.i ..
,
- -
,
;
.. -< .............. .
l
Fig: (A-4) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
108 I Bio-diesel
S ta t Ion; OFFAOUTE t1aCh lne; OFF ROUTE I
...
. .
-...... -- --,._.- -------.-- _-------t----- - ------.... "---
i
Ylbra1ion 3pectrurn to the cylrd:Jr
INlne the 'Ill1S': at thllt
._u ___ - ,._-- ------- -- ------- _ f' ---._-- ---.------ ---T-- __ .......... u
: I :
,
__ ________ ._. __ __ __ .... _____ ._. ____ __ ___________ .,. __ .':' __ u.n ___ _____ ._
i j
Fig:(A-S) Diesel run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
It:.tianl OFFAOln. ltachine: ROUTE. Pointl woo.

3 ...... " ...... " .. i ...... .... .... .... 'r
a.tplituct_
0.04 "" ....
Die , Run iIl",_.
VibratIOn spech"m 01"1 the
1000001100 or lhe "elM
Frot: ... 14.95 ....
Fig: (A-6) Diesel run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
300 __
Appendix A I 109
3tat:lon; OFFROUTE. ttachlne; (FF ROUTE. Polnt; tI01::1i
Aut'OSDe!C t..,..,
Run M IJoI.th lo;;}[J
s: pectrum en lhe q tillde r
't'eonlcal Cflrec1i:rl
Fig:(A-7) Diesel run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
Statlon. OF'FflDUTE:. tIiIIchlne. OFF point 0118
AUtasaect rUM
.t lJ41h bod
Yibntion ::S:p:dlUm on ihc
fcum:lQl11on of tl'la qine
_0 ---_0_- _ .. _______ 0 .. _. _____ ----r----- ---__ .0 __ 0 ___ 0 ____ :
i
:
:
J i
-_--_ .. .---+1----- .. ----_ .------ ------- - ---+-- -".---- _0 ._-.00
I i
i
:
Fig: (A-B) Diesel run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
110 I Bio-diesel
statian: OFFftOUTE .. "-=hinez OFF flDUTE.. Point:: 1101.,
:D.:el Rut'! at bai
.00
800
100
o
;VItJf:attrl'SP8C1II.rn to 1tecyllnder
:Iollne 1hc 1he
- ....... _ ...... ........................ \ ... -......... - .. ..... --.- ....... -.-... t - - _ ... - .. -... -
Frequency 0 Hz
AHplitude a.3S ... 0 F"ot as. D.1 Hz
Fig:(A-9) Diesel run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
nO
OFFROUTE. naehtne: OFF RUUTE. P01nt: .,18
0(8$8t Run attl.ol1 fOQ:t
Vlbrttion speotlU'1l rUl.1 to1he .,1....,....
the .' .. k .... lt
.... _-- ... - "--"1-- .......... _ ..... OH.!_ ................ nf- .......... _ ... __u .. y _t
Fig: (A-lO) Diesel run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 111
s:tat lan: OFFR1tUrE .. M;;a,ehina: OFF no.rrr::. Paint *lJ.'9
Au tuspe!c t run
___ .l _________ ._ , _______ __ ____ __ .J .... _._ ..... _____ _
3.02 t1G Frot = 24.9"1 Hz:
Fig: (A-H) Diesel run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
Station: E. ac ne:
AUtD5pectrut'll
1nt: Oil
lbJooiiltion of h enc:,"!!:
,
! :
... - - - . ~ .. ---.- --_ ... _-- - - t---_- - ----.. ----- ~ - _ ... ------.- ---------1- ... _----- ... _-
! ! :
.. j ..
AnpJit:ucle S . S ~ nO f:"rot: = 24.9G HI!:
Fig:(A-12) Diesel run at half load Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
112 I BiD-diesel
S t at ion: OFFROUT I Nach!ne: OFI=' ROUT E ..
: Dllnl j:;U-, ::.1 314 th b;d
spl!!!C1Jl.1'n rh!!!!
!CYII'l:le'
1mllne the: eXI:i of 1he cnnksheft

: :
i
4 -.
Fral' ':: 24_ 94 H:r
Fig:(A-13) Diesel run at 3/4
th
load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
inline the axis of the crankshaft.
EJO ch ne:; on
AutD$o..-cil;rUM ______ ______________________________________
-----_._ ... -._ ... _ ....... _._- _._._----_ ..
P, I Run ot 3/4111 bal
YlIoNh:J1 S'pectlU'Tli1d1t1 to the
c,llnder
pcrpendo..lfil'kl the crankshaft
i
;
_ _ - __ " _ ... _ __ __ _ ._ W" ____ ._ _ _+ ... _ .... _ ... _ ... _.
! ! !
;
:
...... - .... _ .... .. _._._ ...... _ ... _. _ .... ___ ...... _ .... :._ .......... ___ ...... __.. + .......... _ 0 _._._.
Frol "" 25 .14 H:t
Fig: (A-14) Diesel run at 3/4
th
Appendix A I 113
OFFROUTE. Machlne: DFF ROUtE. Potnt: .W!7
D_' RU/\., 314th
,,'lbr..rD"l s:peCHU'l'I Q",1he
In ':011 et. rectlon
Fig:(A-lS) Diesel run at 3/4
th
load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
""
S.tatlon: OFFROLnE. r1ach1ne. OFP ROUTE. Point; 110&8
.. -....... '1' ... -..
Aulu!l9cct r1.Jn
D If'sel Rl.n ::.14 tn hold
','I bt etlon pec11Y11 on the
found9tO'l 01 the a-gma
i -
Fl""Ct = 35.1.1 Hz:
Fig: (A-16) Diesel run at 3/4
th
load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
1141 Bio-diesel
station: OFFROUTE. ""chi",,: OFF ROUTE. Point: .om
_ .. __ .. - ................. [
FreQuency
AMplitude
i i
, ,
, ,
I :
: :
Run at I'lO baci
E::pectrwn red I 81 to the oyllrder
txt:S of "tie crenk$'left
Fig:(A-I7) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the
axis of the crankshaft.
nO
OFFROUTe, Madhlna! OFF
1
j
,
tk.Jt:aApIIII:!tru,",
JNE ot no Io:od
................ i
.".,..Irum rad,o! 10 the
cylndor perpsrdlcuJar 10 1he
cr.nk.shef1
... _u._ .. ___ ._, ................ _. __ .'u __ __ ... _._ ... _ ..... _
Frequency!
Anplituda
I .
01tZ
1.0.58 nO
1 ..
,
HE
Fig: (A-18) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 115
Stat.lon; DFP'fICIUTI!. OFP'ROUTe:# Point: Il00:1
,
............. i_ ....... -.-............
,
_l
i
!
Hz
UJ .86 nO.
Fig:(A-19) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
AutOSPeClt ""'"
!NE /U! 01 "" bod.
Y,bra/I)II $lleCloum on'"
i _.1 lnaerclre'
i .
... -........ _._- ... - ":"'--"-- ._ ... _ .....
0 Hz
_lIt.- 15.76 lOG
: :
: :
: :
Fig: (A-20) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
116 I Bio-diesel
Station: OFFROUTE. Mach.ne: OFF ROUTE. Point: _007
JME Run at 114th lo<Cl
VlbrQtcn s.pectrum to 11"e cplnder
tnline tlc .xi.:!: of the crEnK311ft
_ ........... ..... .l ..... ................. i __ ................... .
1 ............. f- ............. T-- .. -.- .. -............ -.
:: :
!
,
,
Fig:(A-21) JME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
Statian! "adhina! OFF ROUTE,
AUt: OSPE!!Ct rUtt
-_ ....... __ . --t .. _- .... __ a ._. "'-i---- ----._- ...... _-
JME Run .ll/4th lOad
radtalfo 1rIe c,YHnr:ter
perpendicul;.rto"'. cranUhdt
,
..................... + ......... _ ......... f
Hz
____
Artpl :itude 5.86 ...0
Fig: (A-22) JME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 117
Station; ClFFROUTE, I1achlne; OFF ROUTE, Polnt;

o Hz
4.0. nO
AutOSQectrut'l
:JME Run 1/4th b;,d
:VLbt8ton :po:::tll.ffl on the
;11'\ dlt'Pr::fIQI"I
Fig: (A-23) JME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
Salon: ne;
AUt OSIlec t"-'"
o n
AU'\ J/4tn fo:za
VlbretDl.::lpectn.rn en the
i found::rt en af ttle en&lre
;
----4--.
,
1.
...... ---. _0- .. _--:-_ .. --- .. - "'-----r- ., ......... _ ... _ .. TO- ......... _,0
! : :
: : :
AI"Ipltt'ude 13. '97 I1G
Fig:(A-24) JME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
118 I Bio-diesel
nil
stat lon: OFFNJUTE. nachlne: OFF fIOtJIE. Potnt": 11C114
AutOl!SPOCt rLa1
JME Run " h,W Iood
Vibr.tion ~ m filthl 10 1h:' c,Ylinder
petperdiculer to the cnnkdl 111ft
_.1-\ ..................... +_.- ... _ ........ _ ..................... _ ..........
I :
!
i

-- ... .j. ---- -.- ------- ._-, ... __ .. ---
Freta.JenCu 0 Hz
AnpIJtwe 6.as nO Frot ::. 1::100 tu
Hz
Fig:(A-2S) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
~
-- .- ---.--. ---r--- _ .. ____ .u. -- -- -t-----_,-- -_.-
i i
! j
: :
i
IIfI1111 -+___:t
i
Fig: (A-26) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 119
St.tiun: OFFHOOTE, Hac:hinl!: OFF ftOUTEJ
JME at h.W Ic,d
11o ration pectn.m on the cyllndct he td
'l1e rtlcel dlreot IOn
;
----T-----------l-----
Fraquency
AltDlltude Frot = 1300 tiZ
Fig:(A-27) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
AUtOSP8Ctrura
. .
JIAE Run at hott 10""
spelctlU'11 on h
foundatIOn of the qre
........... - i___,_ _ ... - -...... , ........... - __.___-1
1.. __;_- ..... _ ................. .
...
__
PreQURIICY
AMplitUde 4.:H nil Frot = 1.:JOO Hz
Fig: (A-28) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
120 I Bio-diesel
tt ... t ian: OFFROUrE .. Machina: OFF ROUTE. Point: e019
l2.85 MO
JME'RI..n it Ioid
YlbratlOl1 spectrum r;ctJal to the cylinder
mllne the 8.(1$ of ihB
Frot ::::: 25 I-b:
Fig: (A-29) JME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
St:ationl tFFAOUTE-I Hachine: OFF Point: tKJao
AMplitud. 2.89 ..0
JIItf lUI,t lo,d.
Vlbfltion z:J,'8Ctrum redtal to the c)llmde,
pRrpandlCUlQr to ...
- _. _ .. - - t __ .. -r"" .. _. -..
Frat = 25 H2
;
;
Fig:(A-30) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 121
OFF'ROLR. OFF ROLnE. Point: .021
Autcapec t '-1A1
m\ll:rtll;fldlrcctJon
{ -
_1 .......... .
3.48 .. 0 Frot = 25 Hz
Fig: (A-31) JME run at 3/4
th
vertical direction.
.. 0
stat ion: Kachine: OFF ROUTE. Po int: Mla8
I:
Al'WJIlltUde ia.4.l 116
AU tcspac: t 1""1 "1
ME Run at 314th Iood
: \!Ibrttaon zrocetnrn Q'l t'C
:tOWl(lallon or tile
1
:
--.I:tl--llI'jI" ------- -- ------- -- ---.--.
Frot = a::. Hz
Fig:(A-32) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
122 I Bio-diesel
OFFRtIUTE .. Haehine: OF'F' ROIII. Il001
:
,
" ... --r
Qtn;) bQeI
I. the
1he '01Il:: 15: 011t'1e crll1l1sh;d't
---r- -------.... -
.............. , ............. --,-r - ........ - -- -r--- .... -.-.-... .... _.- ... _ .......... ..
Frat = 24 . la
Fig: (A-33) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
,
!
i I
-.- .. -_ ... _-- ... :--.... --_ ...... --
! i
i 1
j :
! !
....... _ ........... L ...................... i .. .
AlI'IJllit:uda 5.1fi MO
liME Run "''''' laod.
Vibration $IlI!CI""" '10101 to the CYII'lIe'
pcrpcru.llcu\erto the cnricshet1.
---1".---- ---.
il- __ , ..
Frat = 24 9'9 Ha
Fig:(A-34) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 123
AUtosoectrlM
MME Aun it no bid
IlIbratcn (J'1 ihe cylmder hCid

300
Anplitude 7."113"0
Fig:(A-35) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
,,0
Etat ion: t'l;;;aahine: OFF ROUTE:# PCllnt: 1100l1li
Run et ro bid,
Vlbreban speotMTIon 1he
1DunOQttcn or thlf qlne
........ -- ....... .................. ... ........ . ......................................... _ ..
!
Anp) i.tude: 1.5 .1& nO Frol ::: 24.'5 Hz
Fig:(A-36) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine
124 I Bio-diesel
nO
Steticm: OFFAOUTE. "echine:: IJF'F nOOTE.. Point:.aD?
__________________ ________ ________ __________
.00
.,
,
MNf Run at load
YlbtatlOt"l spectrum rtdlel to the C J"!ll"IdBr
1nl ne tfote Ji\{I$' of the C IG:n k6:t'I
----. _____ ----.'T-.-.-------.. -- ______ _____ ._._. ________ .....h __ -- ----. __. __ ._.'-
. . .
i 1 i

AnJJ 11 tutle
o H%
11.64 t'IO Frot = 24."8 IiZ
Fig:(A-37) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
Stet::Lon: CFFROUTE, "-="i"o: OFF ROUTE.. Paint: 11009
Aluta.paotru ..
Fl.n Jilt lf4.th baj
:\llbnilDn ndlill tD h
':1:: 'cylrderperpendlcular'to the

---------']'--------_-_-----------i--------------.-.. .. -----.--.
: I
...................... + ........................ ! ......................... , ........................ ; ............... ..
! I
................... , ......................... ; ........ _.,.
Frnt = 25,115 I-b
Fig:(A-38) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 125
Station: 0 Uf, Kach i ne: R . Point:.OO9
Aut.ulISpelC.trUl"l
MME Run lilt l/q.th load
V Ib ration IU"Tl on fla c he td
In 'le rtlC e! dl 'lSetlon
-- j __ ._-_ .. , _-_ . -.. -. --. _ . -------- -
Fig:(A-39) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
ttatsan: OFFROUTE, Mae:hil1Q: OFF ROUTE. POlnt: fIOLO
Auto:!lflectruf'l
MME Pun 1/4th
... _ .... -r .- ........... -.... f'----
............ __ ..... L ._ ........ -....... _. L ... .
___ .. L __ ....... _. _ ... 1. .... _ ._ ........ _.
f ! ! f
Fig:(A-40) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
126 I Bio-diesel
St.tiont l1IIIchine: OFF'ROUTE, f'lalnt: Ml13
Autc:::lSpaetrLIM
MNf IU1 ,t h,lf
Y Ibrat IOn &: pectr\lm r8:lli.1 to 1he c yllt'ldar
hllne In.
....... _- .0 ------ _. ---A-A._of _._--- -"""'. -----r-----'---" ""----T _. __ ..... - 0
; ;
: :
................ , ........ -......... ; ...... _ ...... -... J ........... -....... , ................. -..
Fig:(A-41) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
-St;:at ien: OF'FFlOUlIE:". fIIachin.: OFF ROOT,".. Point: 8014
Autoc;PClCtruM
;
f,ilClLQI to 1he
pe'pen."ul.,tOh
_ '" . __ . __ \ --_ .. _. __ . -.- .. _-------- '-"'- -_---- ----<- -_ ..
: ! i
. . .
. . .
..... __ . !-_. __. -_ .. _---t __ -- ... --.----._- --+ ... ----.. -----_.- _t ------._. _ ....
:
1
""T
:
Frot = &4. 88 tU:
!
!
... l .................. .
1
!
Fig:(A-42) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 127
Statton: Machtne: OFF ROUTE.
AMplituda 3.15 MO
MME Run :a
Ytbra1lon spcch .. rn Cf"I t.hc cyhnderheEd
In o"enlcall1trectkm
l
....... --+_ ... -_ ... _ ... -.
Frat :::' 24.'98 H2
Fig:(A-43) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
at an;
AUtQ5PlICtr"",
oSn.
IIME QIon It hel1 la eel
1I'1DfQtJon$peetrumon 1he
1ounda1 D'"I 01 the ena:ne
.. '" ........ ; ..................... L .............................................................. .
, : 1
i
.. - .- -.. - ..... ... _.-.- ....... -_ .. t .. .-.-.. t- -_.-.- .. _--- i- .--.... ---. ""-
!
2.05 RG
Ob
Fig:(A-44) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
128 I Bio-diesel
[FFFWJtUE, "achu-: Q=F ROU1E. Palnt' *ot9

............... ; .......... --.. t- ............. -.. ..................... , ... .
, __ +f .......... ; ................... .
Fig:(A-4S) MME run at 3/4
th
load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
St.t:jan: OFFAQU1E. II.-ehl".: DFF ROUTI. Point: eo:ao
Auto.ec:tru ....
1
t,.d 11110 the c1' bndc r
: po 'I,Md",," I,,, t. the c .."k.h.tt
i I
........ _ ............. ...... _. __ ._ ... _ .. "1' .... - _ .... _ ... _._,
;
:
;
1 !
! !
:
.... Hf-.. _ .. .. - ... ...... -.... - ...... -., .. .... -- _ .... _- .. ,- -
: :
i
,
,
i
i
." .. . .i. __ .. _ ... _ _ ._L ...... .
,
Fig:(A-46) MME run at 3/4
th
nO
Appendix A I 129
Station: (FFROLRE .. Machin@: lFF ROUTE. POlnt: 1021
ftt1p li tuda a. '15 ftG
ftutospac:trUfoll
1I314th load
bnh:n ;,pectrum 0"11he cyl,,,der he;':;
o lr'8c1 0""1
Frot = 24.0? Hz
Fig:(A-47) MME run at 3/4
th
vertical direction.
St.tion: CFFRDUTE, "ac:talrw: OFF NXJ1'E, Point: It022

MMERUnot3l4th_

foundatIOn of .... eft8t"11!
.. - - .. - ........ j ............ -......... f .. - ............ , ........................ , ..... - - .. - - -
.. f' .......... _ .. -1 ....................... ............. "-
Fig:(A-48) MME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
130 I Bio-diesel
OFFROUTIi .. It;u!hin.: OFF fKlUTE... .crn
fIIut:Qspa:.trun

300 .. _ .... _ .. __ . _ ..... __ .......... _ .0 _ _
, .

PKME run It no laid
SpoC1rum rad,,' to tne clIIrder
nine 1t'"e txb: of h creotkl5heft
.. __ _ - - _0 __ _ _ _ 0 , '1" _-
.. ..---ne ..
AN:Illtudit
o Hz
LIl.OS nO
Fig:(A-49) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
PKNE rul'l :11 no lom
II1brt1ion5poo1rum r .... ltDtho cylinder
pe rlllflllCUltr 10 11'10 eranft.halt
--- _ ..... _ .. j ... __ . -... .. __ 0 _.0 _ ....... + ................ _ ....... 1
- ..... 0 __ --.. _ _ .:. _0 ..... 0 __ .' __ F : ____ _ _ __
: :
Fig:(A-50) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 131
St.t:ivn. OFFnDUTE .. tt-=hirw; err ACUTE.. '--'int;: .003
Ru to!iP!Ctr ....
: P I ( ~ E run ~ 1 no load
''tlbntion spec.tlUT1 en tre tylrdcrh=ild
,If'IlJerhcaldll''lCt1ot1
....... -....... ; ....... , ..... -........ ~ ....... -.... _ ..... ,;" .......... - .......... _ ... _._ ... -
.... 1 It udR
Fig:(A-S1) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
! ..
ifound.11on of .... "",me
i
i
.. .. 1 .................. + .................... f ... + .. .. , .. .. ,-.... 1
i
!
:
i
.. ~ .
Fig:(A-S2) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
132 I Bio-diesel
S tat ion: OFFAOUTE .. Machina: OFF ROUI'E. Point: .037
AutaspectrU"l

",,".t 1l4ih lotd.
300
aou .
100
:--
:
"1--
o Hz
10.4 I1IIl
1
iVlb'3ttonspeC1rum ra(JJaqo '!he
:oyllnlMr r'Ilneh txh,;of tha
jerankSI1:;.ff
-1
!
Fyot = 24.82 Hz
Fig:(A-53) PKME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
"0
Stilltian! OFFRWT," .. "'aehl .... : OFF RWTE .. Po 1 nt tI028
Auto.ectrWt
.. --------.,
:PK!lE "'" et 1.ld
; \llbn1lDIl S pec11l.n1 rad. III I to 1ht
!c)'ln:;Ier pcflilendbJl'f kz th"

: :
'OD ......... w ;_ _ - _ t ................ _ ...... t- _ .. -.- -- .. -.- ... ......... -....... " .... _.
zoo
!
l
;
--.--.. -... ... _._.;_._._ ... __ . __ . __ .! .. _ ........... _ ..... __ ._. ____ ._ .... .:__ ................... _
Fr-.-..,.,
..,litwMo
, : : '
o Nz
1.112 ... G
: :
: :
!
!
:
'---";
Fro. ::: 25 Hz
Fig:(A-54) PKME run at 1/ 4th load, Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 133
Si:et ion: OFFAOUT .. tlachinel OF=F Point: 110:19
AUtOSDectnm
run :l/4'1f-; IOid
'\llbnilon spectn.lm 00 1he C,kndOf he,d
In Ijll1!dm
, ,
......................... -................... ......... - ... _ ... -
.. _ ........ r ..
:
.......... "1"'"
!
F'rot =:. 8S Hz
Fig:(A-55) PKME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
S tat 1on: OFAWIUTE.. 1ne: ..=F IlUUTE, potnt: WD40
....
. .. -......... + .. _ ..... ,. ....... -i-__+_ __ _,.- _,_.,__'__1
i l!
!
l
AlClttUde Frot = 4I4w" ttt
Fig:(A-56) PKME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
1341 Bio-diesel
Staticm: OFFAOUTE .. HoC!hine: OF=F ROUJ"E, Point: HQ43
PKME IUrI ethel1 !otd,
; IItb,Qtlon rOdlQltD h
'C1!lnder In line the 8);1501 1he
:ertnh:::ihtft
Fig:(A-57) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline
....
Stat Ion: OFRIOUTE .. OFF NJUTE. PoInt': tI044
AutosQectrun
runotYlOI1 O:;a
i\ltbyt1iOftspectnm fecllllio ihe
lPerrordiculQr to th.
, . . ,
__ .;, _ o ! ....... _ ..... _._._ ... .... _._ .. _._. __ .. _ .. ..... _ ......... "
,
!
i
_ .. o. - .... r ...................... .
!
!
,
... -.-.. , ...... r ___r ..
i
""pl:Hw:ftI: a.5 nU
Fig:(A-58) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 135
St:ilt ion: OFF'ROUTE ... "ach 1"0.1 OFF ROurs::.. Point: .045
Autospec.t rUl1
run Qrrlalf lOad
!V(b'9ton spectun en the cyl nder
;tl8ad 11'1 ' t e r t ~ a l dIrectIOn
. .
.......... _ ...... j .......................................... i. .............................. _ ....... _ ..
ANJil.t ..... Frot = :13.1. Nz
Fig:(A-59) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in
vertical direction.
Point; "46
!
"""1. ...... _ ....... _ ..... ; ....................... ,._ ..... _ .. 1 .... _ ... , ............... - ...... " ............... ..
Fig:(A-60) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
136 I Bio-diesel
OFFROUfE" Mamt,.., OFF Paint! .049
n ....
ME IU"I 11 10 ad
:'{'br:rtlor. 1(1
:CyllMdcr mllfle the or the
:oTmll&:"'cft
: :
............. - .. ": .... -_ ...... - ---'''''r----''_-'-'- ----:- -- - ." .. - - -'-'r- - -- ----
itudll 9.21 MG Frot 24." J.lz
Fig:(A-61) PKME run at 3/4
th
....
Station: OFFADUTC. Ilachlne:1 (FF' ADUI'E. Pai.nt: 4IOS0
!
i
-j"_.-
I
, "." --- ._ .. - .. ----. _-,.HiIo+
OtlZ.
I"OI:1MI tol"e
oe,,,,,I1dio<.I,, 10 the
-------'-'--1"" .--.----...... -
.- ... --t-- .. -
;
i
!
I
AMpI 4.IIZ .... PrDt :: z ". tb
Fig:(A-62) PKME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder
Appendix A I 137
,statIon; DFFPlOtnE. nachlne: nFF ROUTE, f"olpl:
A,..,11tude
Autaspect n,,"
Ph 'AE nm et ,/4.1h '1IIJI1
... llon m' 'h" c.,l.-der hl!'oiId
.. erlIMf cllIectloM
I'IIU.a.NI"Ill"ll'!Il'I\.'" Hr
Frot .:. 24.8& Hz
th
vertical direction.
....
F1. - Hl!lp
a t.t ian: OPFftOUTE. ts.c:hin.: OPT" ftOUTE. l'alnt: 1KJ58
M:: - ERlt
PkME Nn t13/41t1lold
! ",br,tu;" 3p:1;tnrn on the
!tolJt'ldatCllolhqlllt
!
i
... r ............ _ .... 'T'--
-- i -
th
load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the
engine.
Appendix B
The time waveforms measured at various points on the
engine at various loads have been appended below.
OFF RWTIi:. Pasnt' tKD2
______________________________________________ -.
!DiC$Cf run it no loci
mm: ""'''t'Cfbtm vcrtc.1
its cylnoerhead
,
: , 1
'!Ill -- _ . _ - - -i---'-.. _- -_ .. __ ...... ,+ ....... __ ._-_._ ..... _+ ... _ ......... _ .. _.- -:-------.. ---.. ----... .
i
-:10 ______________ _
_. __ ..i.. _._._._ ___ . _. __
1 .
i
!
j
__ ----" ..
Ti.,. 0 ...
*"-1&..... D.!I" ",11
_ as ..
Fig:(B-l) Diesel run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
",5
______ ______ ______ ______ ______
:oesc, ..... ,1 ncI bC.
iTirM ""M1atm !'del
,CJ'l tho oyIlIdor
lp:letpIttdCultrto .. cr.,k hft,
.... _. __ ._ .. _ .. ----1---- __t- __ - }_-___-T_ __
i
-20
-.-.. - ..... - ;_t ................... t__
f
_ ........... _ ..
1 !
t 1
! !
__ __ 13
T1Ma 0 NI
"'-Jibdlt -a,la ..,;" . s Frot as He
Fig:(B-2) Diesel run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
G
Appendix B I 139
aFFRout"E. nachtna: OFF' RDIJITE.
TJN! s,.,al
D.ei.! run et ltlth
llme
;J!"I fho:cylnz,r
! perpencllOU!lr 1(1 the cr1nk sneft.
a __________________ _
_ ........... _ .. _.J_ ....... _ ...... _ .. -i.
\/\1
-8 _______________________ _
:
.. ..
0_
T .....
""",1 i tude
-0." Q
Fn:Jot .. 85 Hz
Fig:(B-3) Diesel run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
o
... ttlAJll:.. I'IiIChIAII; nuult:, 1"'0 1nl. ffU.1.,I:;
________ ________ ________ __________________ ,
:DIe-' Nn :111 1/4., IO:lld
... ,_.
:Tlme 9I!welOrm yertt;Q1
=on the cyfinderheld
I
....... .

!
I
-s "-"'-- .. -.... - .. .. -- ........... - .............. _ ... ...... -...... _ .... _ t-... _ ....... -._ .. _
! 1 : i
! i i i
; ; 1 :

0_
-D.::' a Fret = 25 Hr
Fig:(B-4) Diesel run at 1/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
140 I Bio-diesel
stab",,' OFFROUTE. """hin": OFF ROUTE, Point: _mu
Ti ... lIlignal

5
-5 , ................... , .............. ..
1
Dtes:el ru" 1oQC!!
Time -It .. efvrrn verT
", it'le I!ylrrl:;,t

Tine
AMplitude
0""
o 19 G Frot =: 25 H'2'
Fig:(B-5) Diesel run at half load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
a
I:t:,at ian: OFF' ROUTE.. Paint' 11022
Dlec;et nm .t h,11 load
Tme wO/.bm rGdual
on the cyl,roor
! perpenllculorlO tne cr",k sI1811
a ...................... .. _.- ..................... r-' .. ---_. ____ A _.J _.- -- -_._._.-
-2 __ ........... _ ... ... i .. ___ . __
:
""

Q MS
-0.04 B
Tl".
Anplituchl Frat = 2S HE.
Fig:(B-6) Diesel run at half load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
Ii
Appendix B I 141
OFFROUTE. Machine; OFF ROUTE,
Tine !.Jgnal

;Oes;el run Ylitrt
frl'1'le tJ' .. Itl1 'oE'r '- ..11
iO::1' I"." ,:ylfTl"f
10 ............ _ ....... + ............ .
r-- __ ... _'-'-.'
: :,
. .
;
. f .
........... _ .... _ .. j ...................... f ..... ' ............ + .................. . ..l. ............. .
..
0_
Tine
Anplitude 0.01 [] ::. 25,08 t1z
Fig:(B-7) Diesel run at 3/4
th
load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
o
OFFftWTE. ftacntne: OFF NJUTE. point: 1KJ30
Tl ... signal
____ ____ ____________________________ --,
111 314-th wiild
TIt'r'e .... rad!al
on iJ"c cyhndcI
perptondtcular to the cr..nk shaft
2 ... - ...... - -i ... _ ......... "

0_
0.'" 0 rrot. .:. 2:1 HZ
Fig:(B-S) Diesel run at 3/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
1421 Bio-diesel
OFFRmITE .. (FF R[lJTE. Paint- .,01
__ __ --------__
-3 ,_",,_, _0. __ .. ___
JME.., it no Iood
Time wilrc:fonn vertllOaJ
on m. c y Itna3r h a
I'IS

T11'1C!:
","Dlitude
c .. ,.
0,28 G
Fig:(B-9) JME run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
G
TUte S19J1iU

;JME ..... al no loaa
=- .. _- -- -- ...... ...... -.-.--... --.. -. --1- -- - -- __ _
I
l
I
I
r
;imewavefoml
:onthoeJAndo,
;pcrpcnch:utI ia the crenk :ihtft
-a ........ -.- ..... .. -.-.-.. -.. -.. -... -i-.. -.. - .. - - .... -.-.. +----.--.... -.. -.. .... -.... -.. -- .......... .
I : : :
! :
I
;
!

Ti.... 0 MC
Aft,,) itude -0.04 G
Fig:(B-10) JME run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
a
Appendix B I 143
S t at lon ; OFFROUT E Mach 1 ne , OFF FlJUTE, Point; .0.11.
________ -. ________________________________ __________
5 ..................
-5 ..... _ ........... .
Til'4lQ
CI .. pJit:uda
. .IME Ilr. d1 1/4tl"llOal
.Tmc wlyc1atrT1
'on the cylndElt heed
. ,
_ .................. r_ .- --...... ..................... -.: --... -

a_
0.1"1 G
Fig:(B-ll) JME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
G
Station: :ina:
tnt: _2
________ ______________________________ __________
!

a ............... : .. .
-2 ._l_ ...... .
i
JME Nn .1 1I41h bid.
TIme 'AatlltoltTl rO::llal
on ....
PMP!lnJIr.Ulor to tie crank "".n

0 ....
-O.S? G
Fig:(B-12) JME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
1441 Bio-diesel
G
Station: IFFROUtE. "_ine: IFF ROUTE. POint: so17
tiNe si9nal
______ ________ ______ ______________ --,
, .... -.. -.-.-.-.... ....
-$ .................... , ... .
JME "'" et htll bed
TimeNI'I'efotm...eri:bel
on h cylirdsrh d
__ _-_-t-___-__r---
: :
: :
; i
i :
: 1
I :
:
;
:
:
:
:
... .0 ...
:
f
:
:
: ..
..
Tt... 0 ...
A .... Utu. -0.l1li a = 1I:iOO Ho:
Fig:(B-13) JME run at half load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
a
Ti ...... ianaJ

11
JI1AE run .t h.w 1.00.
Tme nwcfotm rldllll
D'l1he Cllllf'C1er perpendb.dar to tile

-- - t ......... . ....... .
... __ 0_"_", j ........ __ .... _ ... _ ..... _._ .... _ .... _
:
i
:
-
.. ..
0_
C.?8 IJ P'rot ::. 2:' Hz
Fig:(B-14) JME run at half load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
o
Appendix B I 145
St:.attan: OFPImUJE ... ftachln_: OFF RoutE... Point: .nz:a
TiMe si'!lJ1.1
____ ________ ________ ________ .-________
iJME run .13141h I.""
;Tme w.,e1arm Mribll
101 the cvll'lderhe.d
i
10
---1--- , ... , ... - .*
1
i
l
...................... , ... _ .. _ .. _ ......... ............ __ ..... [_ .................... .j. ....................... .
1 !
i i
..
TlMe 0 "5
0 .13 G Frat =: a5 Nz
Fig:(B-15) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
G
li .... i ... '
______ ________ ______ ________ ______ --,
J ME run :lit 3,. .... loa:'f.
""... lAiye10lm radial
on tte cylInder
porgenU:ulerb the crtnk
a ..... .
!
! 1
---1----------- t_-- --- _ ..
i
,

Tine 0 "5
,"-litue -0.8 0 Frot = es Ik:
Fig:(B-16) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder'
1461 Bio-diesel
G
St.tion: OFFAOUTE, Machine: OFF ROUTE, Puint;; .DOS
T Ifta soll3na 1
____ ------..,
!hWf It.f1 at "0 loa:!
lTi-nc wiiN'!foml'l1!:ri'tci!
l 100 the cylil't:t!rhearJ
! !
! i
... < --- .- r .. -- .... u_ ........... ..;- .--
!
5 ........... __ i--
1
1
,
-5 ...................... , ....................... ..,. ......... --.-----.. -.f ... --....... - ... --.---.:. .. -.--.... --.---.... -.
- __
0 ....
0.$6 Q
........ t " 84.'8 Ha
Fig:(B-l7) MME run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
St.tion: CFFADUTE .. ltachinal OFF ADlITE, Point:.aoc.

iMME nTI at no bid
a ._ ... _ ....... ..
iTme wiVCfolt11 reclt,1
!at\I'Ie,;:,ltnCII!r
!penoondlC", .. tD1heeronklhllt.
, . i
---t __ __ __ __-t-.... ---'---'.'-
: . i
i i
i
i
!
,
j. r.
i
i
i
i
i
I
i
-a ._ ... _ ... _. ... ...... --.. --.-..... .. - .. --- ___ ._. __ .... ____ .-o-. __ ... d
i i i i
i i i i
! 1 j I
! j!
i i! ..

Ti_ 0 .. &
0.16 D
FrDt :: 24.92 ab
Fig:(B-18) MME run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
..
Appendix B I 147
St.at.lon. OFFROUTE
J
Hachlne; OFF flDUTE. Point.; _01.1

MNE tun at lIo.tn 10QCf
Thle waYeki It'TI 'ie rtle I
(J'1 the
5 . n_, ______ ._. ___ _._ .. ____ ... __ .;. __ ..... ____ .. ..
: :
!
1
:
!
-s - ....... _ ..... _ .... .j. _ ..... - _ ..... - -f- _ .. ___f _ ............... j .......................
!! :
!
!
:

0_
Tine
AMPlitude -0.56 0
Fig:(B-19) MME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
G
2 ... ___ . _ . ,; __ .. __.. _ .. ___
Ti .....
.MIiIE"" 0111411"1 ....
!TI", .. ,ollOlo,"", ",1101
10"l the c'ybnder'
!perpendcular ID 1he cr<nk <hOlI
!
,
'r"- .. _. __.. _ .... n. r'__ .. : -... - -_ .......... - -
!
-z ................ . -..... .. _.-
i
!
i
1
-

Tu.. 0: ...
_Ut...... -1.ft Q
Fig:(B-20) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
148 I Bio-diesel
&
st.tian: OrFN)UTE .. "-chin.: OFF nourE
J
.... int: tI01.'f
Tine signal
__
MM E "'" ., hollloQd
TI'!e ""'I6101l'l'1
cri , ...
5 ... _. ___ .-- .. .... -... -. n - -i-.. --. _ .. _ ...... ... _ .. _._._._. ___ ._+_ _ .0.
-5 ..... .
Tl ....
AnD I I tu ....
Fig:(B-21) MME run at half load. Tune waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
o
..... ,
n'
TiMe si .. ,

a __ .... _._ .. _ ..
-z .. _
!
,
;
!
,
!
: :
. .. ;_ .... _._!_._-._._ ........ _._._ .... _.-
: I
. i
i
I
!
MM!! run at halT
Timo .. _oon raiI,1
I7lIhaClllMer
pol]OOl'1Cliculeru. ...... ",k .... It
i
!
:
.... __ . __ 1 .. __... _ ........ ___ .. .
:
!
:

:

0"5
0
Frot :; &4. ". tU
Fig:(B-22) MME run at half load. waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular
to the crankshaft.
G
Appendix B I 149
Tt ... Signal
__ --------__ --------__
MME ... et 3/4'" laod
:r.,.,. __ .. rtJcll
:""thoo,lindorheod
, ,
. . .
. __t .... _ .... _-- -i___- .. _+ __-_'1-_ __ - ... _--
! I I
! !!
-10 , ........ , .. " ....
-
Tt... 0_
_UC.- -0 a !'rut " .4. ttz
Fig:(8-23) MME run at 3/4
111
load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
a
Station: IFFIIOU1E. _i_: OFF fllUTE. Point:'"
.. ____ ..... _-i-_- --.-.. -
TiftII a l
1 MME"", at3l4-th iO.i
i Tlm ...... ""'" tool.
i on hi D)l1h:ler
i pel'plndtoullrtotiwcrenll;ettlfl
i
-.
TUte iI _
_ lit_ -0.54 G
Frot " 2 .......
Fig:(8-24) MME run at 3/4
111
load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
150 I Bio-diesel
&
Station: OFFROUTE: .. Machine: OFF" AOUtE:.. Point: .,35
T1f'111! siGnal
________ ________ .. ____________________
n.lYI:;,tfllll,;t.;aj
'TIme wwelDtm
al1heCyllMe,head
5 .. _________ ' __.... " _.j ___ . u _. __ __ __ L ...... ______ ..... n __
-5 ... ' _ .......... ' .. i ... -... _ .. _ ..... --.. +.-....... _ ... _ ........................... -, ........... '-"'."'.

0_ T ,Ma:
AftPlitude O.L G F'rot = a5.oe Hz:
Fig:(B-25) PKME run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
G
It.t ion: OFlTIOUTE ... n-::hi ... : OFF IKIJTE. re inU 4I03fi
TI.,.. .. tanal
________________ ____________ ____________ -,
Pl<ME """ et nD bed.
2 ... ___ . ____ _
.... --j ..
o
lime "'I\lCfom t'8dill
on \he oylhllcr
pcrperdicwl.r to 1he orenk .shl1t,
.. +
!
i

..!
- "0" -_r' ____ wo r
u
....... _ ... -_oo-lo. -.. -. __-l--_ __
u
.. _ .... ..
! !
! !
! l'"
__ ----..
riMe .; "5
AMlPlitud. -0.8'" G
Fig:(B-26) PKME run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
a
Appendix B I 151
station; OFPROUTE. tladllne; OFF ROUTE.. Point; 41041
T i"Q s:;i" .. 1
__
5 _
:p ,ME"", et bed
TmewN:fOfTltvertctl
Pl c;:! bnzr hcild
-5 .................... , ......... _ ............................... _ ............ _ .. .

D ns
-0.79 G
Fig:(B-27) PKME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
t. Ion: jne: jnt:
finl! si'!llll'Ml
4
PKME run 011"11110011
r .... waveform ,odla!
01111110)'1"_
10 t1e crmk $l.t
2
.+
..
o
;
,
-2 " .-....... -..... ... -.- ._ ... _ ....... ..
_ 0# .... __ -_. ----1'--'"
j I

TU. 0 ns
_110.- 8
Fig:(B-28) PKME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
152 I Bio-diesel
G
Station; OFFROUTE. tlach1 ..... ; OFF RcurE. point; R04?
Tl .... t:.lgnal
l0r---------__ --------__________
! PKM[ nn.1haI1l.1d
I
!
Tlme ...... larn ... rtlc.1
on tie oylrldo, hcocl.
5 : , j
--------------------1---- .. _._-_. __ ._-_.-!--_. __ ..... __ ..... _._--[-_._- -
-:I .... _ ........ _ ......... .
!
i
i
i
i
____ 0_ .0. _ __ __ 0 '0 __ _ __ !_ ... __ .... _ ... _ ... J. __ .. _.,._ .. .. _.
i i

,
-
1"..... 0 ....
A_Uta'" 0.1. 0 ...... 1: 114.'. Ho:
Fig:(B-29) PKME run at half load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.
on.
I
!
i
i
i
....
TiMe sia.t_l
PHME ..... 01 half bocI.
Ti",.. _otol1l rodI.1
onthc clli11der
parpenclltul .. to .... ... tt.
.. -.. -... -.... -.-.-.. .......... -.. -
i

!
;
!
TI_ D ....
AlilpJ I tI.HM -0 z. Cl
D n
;
... _t-_ .... _-_, .... _
j
i
...
:I
Fig:(B-30) PKME run at half load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
o
Appendix B I 153
Station: OFFRIlUTE. "ad'tine: OFF FIOUTE. Point:_3
______ ______ ______ ______ ______
; Pl<Mf "".t :;\14th b;o;l
... cfolt'T1'1'OrttCel
the cyhnder head
............ - ....... ; ......... - .' ........ --1- .................. + ................... _ ....... _.- ......... .
1
--_ .... _ .. -- .. -... .-.. -.... -.. - _._ ...... __ ... + ................. -
I
1
,
,
;
-2 :
Ti... 0 .....
AooPU<.- -0.&6 8 Prot = .4."1" ttz
........... - ............. .
!
Fig:(B-31) PKME run at 3/4
th
load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder
8
a .. ........ .
-a ___ ._. _______ ._.
TU. a .,.,.1
; PKNE run It told
i r ......... 1""''''.101
1 cm tM cyft'der
i pe",."d",ulor" 1hf Cl'",t sIlott
i
_ . ........ _.- _ ... ____ ",.
!
1
I
.... - . -'-"T" - ... -
:
..

Tt... 0 ....
,...lit..... 0.43 a
Fig:(B-32) PKME run at 3/4
th
load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder
AppendixC
The pressure- crank angle diagrams for other loads not
mentioned in the chapters are appended below for
verification.
100
:
i 10 ------------r------- ----1------- --: ----------j----------"["-----------
20 ----------+-- ------+-------- -1-- ------t----r--------
.20 no
IMEP (BAR) : 1.3
PEAl( PR_ (BAil) : 'IB_7
PEAK PR. Ill1r Toe (0"0) :.. 'I
OP MAX (BAI1/0,,0): 1.5
OP I1AX IJIlT TOC (0"0) :.. 'I
100
INDICATED POIlEI1 (KW): 0.93
SPEED (I1PI'\) : 1500
::::::::::T:::::::::-:r:"::::::::r::::::::-:r:::': .:::r::::::--::
.... +!1r ... ......... .
--... --- i---+--j---t--t ..
No.: 1
o ...
r,l" : BUO.pO
.. ...
Fig:( c-l) Combustion Pressure Vs-Crank angle for Diesel oil run at no load.
Engine Indlcatlng System
'00
:::::::::::r:::::-::r:::::::::r::::::::::F::::::::r::::::::::
t--i_. it ..
: : : i !
........ --. .;. ......... .... - .... 4 ........ +- } .
1 i ..... --I.-..... -! \
120
210 """ ....,
no
er ... N'91-
II1(P (BAA) ,2.0
P(AK PA. (BAil) ,52.3
P(AK PIl. IJIlT TOe (Deo) , .. 'I
OP MAX (BAI1/Deo), 2.1
OP MAX UIlT TOe (Deo) : .. "
INDICATED POIJE:Il (KIl): 1.39
SPEED (IlPM) : 1500

:
i :
o .-.
No.: 2
r,l" , BUO.pO
..
....,
1188
Fig:(c-2) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for Diesel oil run at 1/4th load.
Appendix C I 155
EngIne IndIcatIng System
120 240 360
erank 1'In9l.
INDICATED POWER (KW)
1.85
-
600 720
lOO
IMEP (BAR) : 2.7
PEAK PR. (BAR) : 51.8
PEAK PR. WRT TOC {09g) : 1
DP M/lX (BAIl/Ol>g): 2."
UP I1AX WRT TOC <01>9) : + .,
SPEED
(llPM) :
1500
80
........... + ............ ............ :... . .. _ ........... _ ...... _ ... .
60
.
a
... r; __ j ;t
40
:
o!:
_0, .. i ........... '1 ........... .
20 ..... : .. t! ... - ...... .
No.: 3
o ....
fll" BlIO.pO
o 98 196 294 392 490
Volu. (cc)
Fig:(c-3) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for Diesel oil run at half load.
EngIne IndIcatIng System
100
. . . . .
80 -----------r .. ------f--------T .. -------r-----T--------
i :::::
- dO ----.----.j' ...... -- .. '[".-----.... : .. ----Y'---------r----------
i
10 .... u i............. . ........ -- .;.
:: ::
:; ::
/i. 20 + ............ ! .......... iu .--- -
! i i 1 1
. . ....... 1'-_..... .
o 120 no
IMEP (BAR)
PEAK PIl. (BAil)
PEFIK PIl. WilT TOC (0"9)
UP "AX (BAIl,o..o)
UP MAX WilT TOC (089)
3.3
59.0
.. B
2.7
.. 1
lOO
INDICATED POWER (KW) 2.26
SPEED (IlPM) : 1500
No.: '1
fil" BlIO.pO
j :
i 10 .. - --. ..+ ..... --.--.+-----.. ---+ ...... --.. -+ ......... --+ .......... ..
4t 20 : ......... j ............ L ........ u.j. ............ ........... .
: 1
o
o 98
-
Fig:(c-4) Combustion Pressure Vs-- Crank angle for Diesel oil run at 3/4
th
load.
156 I Bio-diesel
EngIne Indlcating System
.00
90' .. ,tt .. t ..... .
60 t;'t f'(
.. " .... ........ --:-.. ........ tt
20 rr:::::::.:L:.::::rr ....... .
o .20 720
It1EP (BAil)
PEAK PII. (BAil)
PEAK PII. WilT TOC (0"11)
OP t1AX (BAII/O"II)
OP t1AX WilT TOC (0&11)
APEX
0.7

.. B
1.1
.. 0
INDICATED POWEII (KW)
SPEED (IIPt1) :
0.48
1500

'00
eo rrrrr
60 ttij .. t

i

: : ! : !
.. --t
o

on

: : : : :
_. . .. rr .. yu .. r'H ....
20
8raph No. : 1
o
F.l .. JATN.pO
o 98
Fig:(c-5) Combustion Pressure Vs Crank angle for JME run at no load.
Engine IndIcatIng System
APEX
.00
eo t: .. j .... :-r
60 j .... (; .. t .. .j ........... .
i 40 tt: ......... 1" .......... '( ......... .
20 tt 'j'" .. yr
It1EP (BIIII)
PEAK PII. (BAil)
PEAK PII. WilT TOC (0"\1)
OP t1AX (BAII/O"\I)
OP t1AX WilT TOC (0"\1)
1.6
51.4
.,. 8
1.7
.,. "
o
! : 1 l 1
r .. ..
.20 240 3<!0 1&0
er .... _.
'00
I NO! CA TEO POWEII (KW)
1.11
.. -... ur .. ..
1 1 1 i 1

........ t ............ t ............ t ............ t ............ r.n ........ .
......... ; .......... + .......... +-......... + ......... + .......... .
SPEED
(IIPI1) :
1500
eo

60

I
40

20
. .. .
8raph No. : 2
0
F.I"
JATN.pO
o 98
Fig: ( c-6) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for JME run at 1/ 4th load.
Appendix C I 157
Englne Indlcatlng System
100
eo .. ' t(;-;. t
60 t!-j-Tt
i 40 T"["" ................ , ..... 1 .......... .
: r!::::::.T:.::::T r
o 120 240 360 .. eo no
er ... 1InqI.
100
IMEP (BAP) : 2.3
PEAK PP. (BAP) : 5i.8
PEAK PP. IJPT TOe (0"11) : 8
!JP MAX (BAP"O"II): 2.1
DP MAX IJPT Toe (0"11) : .. .,
1500
eo

60

::::::::::r:::::::::r:.:::::::r::::::::::I::::.::::::r::::::::::
SPEED (RPM> :
40

-- ... ru .. r .. rr--r ....... .
20
..... : ---t- .. .. -tut- ... .
Brap,", No. 3
0
nl" JATN.pD
o 98 .. 90
Fig:(c-7) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for JME run at half load.
Englne Indlcating System
100
. . .
j : ........... -...................... T .......... r ........ r ..........
- -.. t .. f .. t .. fu
! ill
i 40 .......... r .......... r .......... ......... 1"' ......... -: .......... ..
t 20 ........... +_ ....... _ ............. ... -..... .......... -. .;. ..... -.. ---.
o i i ....... \........ i i
o 120 720
IMEP (BAP)
PEAK PP. (BAP)
PEAK PP. IJRT Toe (0"11)
op flAX (BAP/O"II>
OP MAX IJRT Toe (0"11)
2.7
58.7
.. B
2.5
.. 1
100
INDICATED POWER (KW)
1.B5
SPEED (RPM> : 1500
.,
JATN.pO

i

eo
60

40
OH ...... ; ........ u ; _ _ ... u .;.
1 i 1 1
20 .......... \ .......... 1 .......... t ...... .... 1" ...... ..
o
o 98 .. so
Fig:(c-8) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for JME run at 3/4
th
load
158 I Bio-diesel
Englne IndIcatIng System
100
.
.
80 .......... + ......... ............ ! .......... ; ......... .......... .
60 .......... + ........ \ ........... I ........ + ....... .. i .... ....... .
i ....... .. : ............ 1 ...................... ; ........... -r-- ........ :
:iF'j ..
0 120 210 360 180 600 720
er_ Anglo
100
It1EP
(BAR)
PEAK PR. (BAR)
PEAK PR. WRT TOC (0"0)
OP MAX (BAR/O"o)
OP t1AX WRT TOC (0"0)
0.6

+ "
1.6
+ "
SPEED
(RPM) : 1500
80
......... _.+ ......... ___ .. __ . ___ .. _:. __ ._. __ .... ... _0_ .. -.:- ........... .
60

10

. . , , .
...... .... f .. ...... ! .. .. .. .. : .... .... .. r ........ ........
.. r--i--_-t---ur--r

.\:
20 ... ! .... .... + ........ + ...... .. t .......... --r-.. ........
Sr"ph No. : 1
0
"I ..
t1f1HNLpO
o 98 196 294 3!12 490 1588
e;,llndor UoI_ (cc>
Fig:( c-9) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for MME run at no load.
100
o
o
Engine Indlcating System
.. .-:-...!-----..i..+u ..... -f-.-_ .
: : : ! !
t .. .. -.. t .. t
u

........... .;. _____ ; __ ............. u ... .f. .;. ......... u.
:!
:!
... _ .. __ .. .... --.... -.i. __ .. --_ .. i ........... L ........ n.J .......... ..
! ! ! l !
: ..... .. 1 ........ : :
120
1I1EP
(BAR)
PEAK PR. (BAR)
PEAK PR. URT TOC (0110)
OP I1AX (BAR/O"O)
OP t1AX WRT roc (0"0)
-
1.6
53.0
+ 8
1.9
+
100
INDICATED POWER (KU) 1.13
SPEED
(RPM) : 1500
8raph No.: 2
"I" MAHN 1. pO
80 ........... .;.. ........... : ............ , ............ '-........... .:. .......... ..
i dO ; ; i ;

o
o 98
Fig:(c-10) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for MME run at 1/ 4th load
Appendix C I 159
100
80 ...... .,. ... , ......... ; ...... .,. ...... .,. .
I
.!: 20 . , i .j ........... .......... .; ........... .
o : ! ....... + ....... : !
120 :I0IO
-
720
er_ AntjIo
100
INDICATED POWER (KW) l.-iB
IMEP (BAR) : 2.1
PEAK PR. (BAR) : 53.5
PEAK PR. WRT TOC (0"9) : .. -1
OP MAX (BAR/0"9): 2.1
OP MAX WRT TOC (0109) :.."
1500
eo
<10
.
i
:::::::::T::::::::::C::::::::T::::::::::L:.: .. ........... .
SPEED (RPM) :
-IQ
.l:
..... -riT .. rr ...... .
2(1 .. ": ........... ! ! .. ......... .
Br"ph No. 3
Fil" MAHNl.pO
196 332
CylincJe.r Uoll (cc)
Fig:(c-ll) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for MME run at half load.
100
! !
: ::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::::r::::::::::r::::::::r::::::::::
i -IQ ..t ............ i ...................... j ............. ........... .
i 1 , j 1
.!: 20 ... + ............ ........... ! ... .. r
! ....... ;. . . ... ...! !
o 120 720
IMEP (BAR)
PEAK PR. (BAQ)
PEAK PR. URT TOC (0"9)
OP MAX (BAR/0"9)
OP MAX WRT TOC (0"0)
2.9
58.2
.. -1
2.7
.. "
100
SPEED (RPM) : 1500
Br;aph No.: "
r.l" MIIHN 1. pO
i : ::::::::::t:::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::t::::::::::r::::::::::
i -IQ ........ .
.!: 2(1 rrr-r
98
Fig:(c-12) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for MME run at 3/4
th
load.
160 I Bio-diesel
Englne Indlcatlng System
100
110 .t ..... .. .. t .. ...... j... .... t .. 1 ....
i i i i i
i : :::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::i:'::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::
d: 20 ... nruTu. -r -rr ..
o
I 1'........ .
o 120 no
IMEP (BAR)
PEAK PP. (BAP)
PEAK PP. UPT TOC (000)
OP MAX (BAP/Ooo)
OP MAX UPT TOC (000)
APEX
1.0
51.3
.. 1
loB
.. 1

INDICATED POUEP (KU) 0.72
SPEED (PPt1l : 1500
: ::::::::::T:::::::::r::::::::::j::::::::::::r::::::::::r::::::::::
s 10 ... n .. -t. u;-_iu .. ni .. . u ... ..;. ... -....... .
i i j
et 20 . f .. ii1 ......... .
: : ! !
Br"ph No. 1
o
Filo PMN.pO
o 98
Fig:( c-13) Combustion Pressure Vs-Crank angle for PKME run at no load.
100
110 t-tjtt-
i :!:! i
v <SO ftttf
: i . : :
10 t-i-. tt
.. ---f--u.--.. ... -...... A .. +-----f--
i
.!: 20
i : : : i
o
. ..---.ur-- .
o 120 210 3<SO
-
no
Crri AnQI.
100
IMEP (BAP)
PEAK PR. (BAP)
PEAK PR. UPT Toe (0"0)
OP MAX (BAP/OoO)
OP MAX UPT TOC (0"0)
!
APEX
1.5
51.B
.. 8
1.8
.. '4
l.05
1500
eo
.... _ ..... + .... _. __ ... ! .............. ......... + ............. + ... _ ....... .
INDICATED POUEP (KU)
SPEEO (QPM) :
<SO

i
10
.!:
20
! : : ! :
: : : : :
.. r .. .. r .. __r- .. T .. 1..-_ ..

No.: 2
ril" PMN.pO
o 88
Fig:(c-14) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for PKME run at 1/ 4th load.
Appendix C I 161
EngIne IndIcatlng System
100
eo .1-..., .. .... .; .. ..+ ... f
'" ; 1 1 l l
60 . + ........... , ............ ; ............ .,.-- .... ""'-;"""""'"
1 '!!
i 10 -rt -1-[
a: 20 ... .;. ........... , .. j .......... .;. ............ ; ...........
o : l ....... j ......... : :
120 210 360 180 720
er_ AnQI.
100
INDICATED PDIlEIl (KIl) 1.7B
II1EP (BAil) : 2.6
PEAK PIl. (BAil) : 55.0
PEAK PIl. !JilT TOC (0"0) : ..
DP I1AX (BAIl/D"o): 2.2
DP I1AX !JilT TOC (0"0) : "
1500
80
60

SPEED (IlPI1) :
10
=
a:
20
.0 0 ..... i ............ i ............ +- ............ .......... u
! ! : ; :
..... ; ........... ............ ............ +.-.-....... + ........... .
. . : : i
Br;aph No. 3
fil" PI1H.pO
o 180
Fig:(c-1S) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for PKME run at half load.
Englne IndIcatlng System
100
;
eo _tij .. (t
j 60 . + .......... + ........... j ........... -+ .......... + .......... .
:: 1:
.ut __ .... .. i
ao
.......... tt
u
.
-.... .. i---t
: : : : i
o
: : 1, :
o 120 210 360 180 720
er_ Anql.
100
1l1EP (BAil) : 3.2
PEAK PIl. (BAil) : 57.B
PEAK PIl. !JilT TDC <0"0) : + ..
OP MAX (BAIl/O"O): 2.6
OP tlAX !JilT TDC <0"0) : + ..
2.20
1500
eo
j
60
::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::l:::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::
INDICATED DO!JEIl (KU)
SPEED (IlPM) :

10

a:
20
! : ! : :
"0 t ............ f ............ i ............ t ............ f ........... .
...... -. .; f-j-jt ..... .
Braph No.: .,
fll" PI1N.pD
o 98 IS<! 392 180
Uoh ... (cc:)
Fig: (c-16) Pressure Vs-Crank angle for PKME run at 3/4 th load.
Index
AP. Gill, 33
Accelerometer is mounted, 61
Adiabatic engines, 99
advantages of biodiesel, 1
Aliet,32
Alkali metal hydroxides, 53
Alkaline metal alkoxides, 52
alternative to petroleum-based fuel,
4
American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2, 43
Babu etal,8
Barbella et, 33, 34
Baseline Ordinary diesel fuel, 20
Bechtold,8
Bills supporting the use of biodiesel
and ethanol, 3
Biodiesel as an Option for Energy
Security in India, 4
biodiesel from rapeseed oil is, 42
Biodiesel is a chemically modified
alternative fuelfor diesel engines,
41
Biodiesel is an alternative, 7
biodiesel is suitable for replacement
for petrodiesel, 49
Biodiesel reduces carbon monoxide,
7
Biodiesel requirement for blending,
5
Brake Power, 20
brake specific fuel consumption, 47,
78,98
brake thermal efficiency, 22, 25, 48
burning bio-diesel turns a waste
disposal problem, 3
C.I. engine, 99
carbon-dioxide, 3, 7
Characterization of biodiesel, 49
Chemical engineering department
of AD. College of Engineering,
55
Clean Air Act, 1
Combustion Analysis, 34
combustion pressure data, 71, 72
Conradson value, 42
Cost Audit, 98
Crank angle is measured, 61
Cummins N14-4I0 diesel engine, 34
Czerwinski, 34
DJ. Compression Ignition Engine,
55
Danish National Transport Plan
Trafik,42
Data Logging Equipment from the
engine cylinder and software, 69
Derivative of Pressure with Respect
to Crank Angle, 36
diesel fuel, I, 2, 14, 34
Direct Injection (DJ.) Diesel Engine,
63
Dulger,18
Economics of biodiesel in THE US,
6
Economics of Jatropha biodiesel, 6
Eddy Current Dynamometer
Details, 66
Edible oils are costlier than the non-
edible oils, 98
effects of fuel and engine
parameters on diesel exhaust
emissions, 33
energy consumption is very low, 4
engine by using diesel oil as base,
71
Engine cycle analysis (ECA),33
Engine Loading System, 63
engine performance with the
rapeseed methyl, 10
Engine Vibration Comparison, 85
engines and fuel injection
equipment, 1
Equation for Transesterification
Reaction, 51
Ester of Mahua, 79
Esterification is a process, 44
Exhaust gas temperature, 28, 29
Experimental set up, 61
Experimentation Procedure, 69
Feasibility of producing biodiesel, 5
FFT Analyzer Details, 67
Free Fatty Acid Methyl Ester, 3
fuel consumption for all the esters,
70
fuel excise tax exemption, 3
fuel injection analysis (FIA), 33
Future Scope of Work, 99
Gatowski et, 56
global warming, 3
glycerin, 4, 99
glycerol, 4, 7
haulage rates, 1
Hayeset, 56
Heat Release Equation, 57
higher thermal efficiency, 44
higher viscosity, 50
highest peak pressures, 79
high-speed direct injection, 18
Hydrocarbon, 4, 28
ICengine,53
improve the combustion process, 18
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure,
36
Jatropha curcas, 5, 6, 7
Jatropha oil Methyl Ester, 25, 72, 78,
85,98
Kaltschmitt, 41
Karanja oil, 25
Karim,57
Kernel palm, 53
Kernel Palm, 71
Kevinet, 8
Kirloskar Company, 63
Kittelson, 33
Knothe,42
Krieger et, 56
Kumar,25
Index I 163
Linseed oil methyl ester, 43
Linum usitaissimum, 43
Lovelace Respiratory Research
Institute, 1
low-sulphur diesel fuel, 2
Mahua oil methyl ester (MME), 47
Making Vegetable oil Methyl esters,
53
maximum differential pressures, 78
mechanism of the base-catalyzed
transesterification reaction of, 52
Methanol, 41
methods for computation of heat
release rate from cylinder
pressure data, 56
methyl E'ster, 50, 71, 99
methyl tallowate, 32
Mineral fuels, 3
MME,72,78, 79,84,94,96
mono-saturated fatty acids, 7
Murayama, 10
mustard biodiesel, 7
natural rubber compounds, 2
net heat release rate diagrams for
three different operating
conditions, 14
Niehaus et, 34
noise emanation from the engine,
98
non-edible oil-seeds, 5
On-Time software for vibration
analysis, 96
operated in any diesel engine, 1
operation of the engine is smooth
on,28
Organic fuels are derived from
plant and animal fats, 3
Original Engine Manufacturers, 2
Palm oil methyl ester (POME), 20
Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia, 20
164 I Bio-diesel
performance curves of the engine,
78
performance of biodiesel, 1
performance of diesel engine with
biodiesel, 49
performance of the engine and
combustion parameters, 28
Perkins,8
Perkins et, 8
Petro-diesel, 78
petroleum diesel, 1
petroleum diesel (HSD), 4
Phase Analysis, 94
Piezo electric transducer, 61
Piezo Electric Transducer, 66
PKME, 72, 78, 98
PKME, IME, DIESEL, MME, 96
Pollutant emissions reduction from
dieselengines,33
pollutants, 99
POME,21,22
Po,!gamia Pinnata ('Honge' or
'Karanja'), 5
pose a waste disposal problem, 3
potential of rapeseed oil methyl
ester, 18
power and torque curves for, 8
power development suffers to some
extent, 98
Pressure vs Crank Angle, 34
problems of diesel engine operation
with biodiesel, 8
Process employed for making the
methyl esters, 53
process of utilizing biodiesel in the
IC engines, 41
production of 36 million gallons, 3
production of biodiesel from non-
edible vegetable, 54
properties and performance of the
hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels,
51
Proposed Jatropha Plantation, 5
Pure biodiesel, 1
pure methyl ester, 14
quick yielding plant, 5
Raising Jatropha plant, 6
Ramesh et, 57
rapeseed methyl ester, 8
rapeseed oil, 25, 34, 42
Rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME), 7
Rate of Heat Release Vs Crank
Angle, 38
reflects the combustion process, 56
replace fuel filters, 2
rice bran oil, 25
rise in energy demand, 4
rise of petro diesel price, 50
RME, 18
seeds of Jatropha, 6
Senatore, 11
Shundoh et, 34
single-cylinder diesel engine, 28
SME is an alternative to diesel fuel,
19
SME operation, 19
soaring petrodiesel price, 50
solvent effect, 1
Sound pressure levels at one-meter
distance, 71
Southwest Research Institute.
Biodiesel, 1
Soya diesel, 7
Soya oil, 6
Specific energy consumption, 48
Specific fuel consumption, 21
specific fuel consumption is higher,
28
Stanadyne Automotive Corp, 1
Straight biodiesel, 8
substitute of mineral diesel oil, 44
succession of experimentation with
the oils is, 96
Sunflower oil methyl ester (SME),
18
superior lubricity, 1
Tenth Plan Working Group, 4
The diffused combustion phase is
synonymous, 79
thermal efficiency and brake
thermal efficiency, 78
Time Waveforms of Vibration, 91
torque, 1
Torque,21
transesterification of oil, 7
transportation, storage, 2
U.S. Congress in 2001, 3
U.S. Department of Agriculture, I, 3
U.S. Department of Energy, 1
UK,42
Ulf Schuchardt{45l, 52
UnitedStates,42
use of biodiesel in existing diesel
engines,2
used in pure form, 2
Using organic fuels, 3
Index I 165
Varaprasad Rao, 57
variation of peak pressure and the
rate of pressure rise for, 29
Vegetable Oils, 51
Vegetable oils have comparable
energy density, 40
vibration, 71
vibration acceleration levels, 96
vibration data, 72
vibration levels, 79
Vibration of the engine on the
cylinder, 71
Vibration phase measurements, 98
vibrational severity of the engine,
98
Viscosities of POME at various
temperatures are, 22
waste vegetable fats used, 3
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