Study of Slug Flow Xtics and Corrosion Inhibitor Performance

STUDY OF SLUG FLOW CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF CORROSION INHIBITORS, IN MULTIPHASE FLOW, IN HORIZONTAL OIL AND GAS PIPELINES
A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Fritz J. and Dolores H. Russ College of Engineering and Technology
Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Master of Science
Ashwini Kaul March, 1996
5
6
. CONCLUSIONS ................................................. 78
.
REFERENCES
..................................................81 7. APPENDIX A ................................................... 86 8. APPENDIXB ................................................... 88 9. APPENDlXC ................................................... 90
LIST OF TABLES Table 3.4.1 Table 3.4.2 Table 3.4.3 Table 4.2.1 Table 4.2.2 Table 4.2.3 Table 4.2.4 Table 4.2.5 Table 4.2.6 Table 4.2.7 Table 4.2.8 Table 4.3.1 Test matrix for the shear stress experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 Test matrix for the slug frequency experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Test matrix for testing the performance of inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Corrosion rate data in full pipe flow for imidazoline. 1iq.velocity= 1.5 d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Corrosion rate data in full pipe flow for polyamine salt. 1iq.velocity= 1.5 d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Corrosion rate data for imidazoline in slug flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Pressure drop data for imidazoline in slug flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Average void fraction data for imidazoline in slug flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Corrosion rate data for polyamine salt in slug flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Pressure drop data for polyamine salt in slug flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Average void fraction data for polyamine salt in slug flow . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Corrosion rate data for various slug frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
LIST OF FIGURES
Flow patterns in gas-liquid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Flow regime map for water-carbon dioxide system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Idealized slug unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Comparison between a real moving slug (top) and a stationary hydraulic jump(bottom) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 . Hydraulic jumps in open channel flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Layout of the experimental system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Testsection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Data acquisition system for the wall shear stress : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 20 cm from the slug front. Froude number 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 40 cm from the slug front. Froude number 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 80 cm from the slug front. Froude number 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 20 cm from the slug front. Froude number 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 40 cm from the slug front. Froude number 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 80 cm from the slug front. Froude number 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 20 cm from the slug front. Froude number 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 40 cm from the slug front. Froude number 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Variation of instantaneous shear stress for 40% water cut. 80 cm from the slug front. Froude number 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Corrosion rate Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut. with imidazoline . . . . . 57 Corrosion rate Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut. with imidazoline . . . . . 57 Pressure drop Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut. with imidazoline. 30 cmfrom the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Pressure drop Vs . Froude number for 80% water cut. with imidazoline. 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Pressure drop Vs . Froude number for 40% water cut. with imidazoline. 30 cmfrom the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Pressure drop Vs . Froude number for 40% water cut. with imidazoline. 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 Average void fraction Vs . Froude number for 80% water cut. with imidazoline. 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Average void fraction Vs . Froude number for 80% water cut. with imidazoline. 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut. with imidazoline.
at the bottom ofthe pipe, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.2.10 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with imidazoline, at the bottom ofthe pipe, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.2.11 Average void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with imidazoline, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.2.12 Average void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with imidazoline, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.2.13 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with imidazoline, at the bottom ofthe pipe, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2.14 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with imidazoline, at the bottom of the pipe, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2.15 Corrosion rate Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt . . . 67 4.2.16 Corrosion rate Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt . . . 67 4.2.17 Pressure drop Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.2.18 Pressure drop Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.2.19 Pressure drop Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.2.20 Pressure drop Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.2.21 Average void fraction Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.2.22 Average void fraction Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.2.23 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt, at the bottom ofthe pipe, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.2.24 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 80% water cut, with polyamine salt, at the bottom ofthe pipe, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.2.25 Average void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.2.26 Average void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.2.27 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt, at the bottom of the pipe, 30 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.2.28 Void fraction Vs. Froude number for 40% water cut, with polyamine salt, at the bottom of the pipe, 60 cm from the slug front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Corrosion rate Vs. slug frequency, Froude number 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.3.1 4.3.2 Corrosion rate Vs. slug frequency, Froude number 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 C. 1 Layout of the slug control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 C.2 Circuitry of the valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
One of the frequent and major problems encountered in the long distance transportation of oil and gas is the internal corrosion of the pipelines. The corrosion related problems result in losses due to repairs, loss in production, replacing the damaged equipment and drop in efficiency. These losses run into millions of dollars each year. In the early stages of a well, the flow is mostly oil and natural gas. But, as the well gets older, the pressure inside the well decreases and enhanced recovery techniques have to be used to maintain the production. The most common method involves the addition of sea water and carbon dioxide to the reservoir. These fluids are also produced along with oil and gas from the well. Many oil fields are located in remote areas such as Alaska or subsea. Hence, it is usually uneconomical for each well to have its own separator. It is a common practice to transport the multiphase mixture (oil, water, gas) from several wells, through large diameter pipelines which can be several hundred kilometers long to a central gathering station. Here it is separated into single phases and transported m h e r . Carbon steel is the most economical construction material for the pipelines. This multiphase mixture causes many problems in the pipelines. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a weak carbonic acid. The reactions involved are discussed in the next chapter. This acid is corrosive in nature and can lead to high corrosion rates in carbon steel pipelines. The resulting corrosion product is mainly iron carbonate, which is formed by the reaction of ferrous ions with carbonate ions (from the dissociation of carbonic acid).
Depending on the composition of the water used, other products such as chlorides and sulphides may also be formed. The extent of corrosion of the pipe walls is governed by the concentration of the various reacting species and factors such as pH, pressure, temperature, and flow conditions @e Waard and Milliams, 1975, De Waard and Lotz, 1993). As mentioned earlier, many oil fields are located in remote areas such as Alaska or subsea. Therefore the pipelines are, in general, in deep water or covered with snow, thus making the maintenance, replacement, and clean up of the pipelines expensive. Also, there is an extensive use of carbon and low alloy steels for the manufacture of pipelines because using stainless steel or other expensive corrosion resistant materials is not economical. The low alloy carbon steels for many reasons are ideal materials of construction but usually exhibit poor corrosion resistance. All corrosion processes involve interaction between a metal and a fluid. Relative motion between the fluid and the metal surface also affects the corrosion rate (Sydberger 1986). The corrosion problem has triggered the consideration of many corrosion control programs in various oil fields around the world. These programs include methods such as, selection ofthe pipe-wall thickness with sufficient corrosion allowance, the use of corrosion resistant alloy materials, internally coating the pipe wall, dehydration of the oil-water mixture and the injection of corrosion inhibitors into the pipelines. Of all the methods, the injection of corrosion inhibitors is most widely adopted. Corrosion inhibitors play a vital role in controlling corrosion associated with oil and gas production and transportation. There is a strong dependency on the inhibitor deployment for achieving cost effective
corrosion control. The inhibitors have organic polar molecules that adsorb to the metal surface or react with the corrosion products there to form a protective layer on the inside of the pipe wall. The inhibitor is injected into the pipeline either by a continuous process or in a batch mode. In each process, it is hoped that the existing flow in the pipeline will redistribute the inhibitor around the pipe and along its length. To facilitate the right choice of the inhibitor, laboratory testing has become a critical step. The success of the laboratory tests depends on having a clear understanding of the operating conditions such as temperature, pressure, fluid properties, solution pH, and the flow conditions under which the inhibitor is expected to perform. There is also a need to understand what conditions can be reproduced in a test facility and how well they relate to the actual field conditions. A limited understanding of the field conditions can lead to gross errors in estimations. The effectiveness of inhibitor films is usually tested in the laboratory using bubble tests, rotating cylinder electrodes (RCE), autoclaves, film persistence wheel test, and small diameter flow loops (Mercer, 1985). Only single phase systems consisting usually of water are used in the tests. These techniques do not simulate the actual field conditions involving the multiphase flow of oil, water, and gas, and also do not take into account the various flow regimes associated with it. Hence, the effectiveness of the corrosion inhibitors from the above tests can be grossly under-estimated. When extrapolated to field conditions, many failures of pipelines have occurred due to the poor performance of corrosion inhibitors that were effective in the above tests. McMahon et al. (1995) carried out single phase tests with Inhibitors in the rotating cylinder electrodes and have shown that the inhibitors reduced the
corrosion rates to negligible values at all concentrations. They also performed experiments in small diameter flow loops and found that the RCE overestimates the performance of the inhibitors. Co-current flow of liquid and gas in a pipe results in various flow patterns. These patterns depend upon the flow rates of the liquid and gas phases. Figure 1.1 shows a schematic of the flow patterns of a two-phase gas-liquid flow in a horizontal pipe 10 cm in diameter. At low liquid and gas velocities, a stratified flow regime exists. In this regime the gas flows as a stratified layer over the liquid. At very low liquid and gas velocities, the interface between the two layers is smooth and this regime is called smooth-stratified flow. With further increase in the fluid velocities, two kinds of transitions can occur. At higher gas velocity, regular two-dimensional waves begin to form on the liquid-gas interface. This regime is called wavy-stratified flow. With further increase in the gas velocity, the twodimensional waves grow further in height and the front of the wave begins to roll over. This regime is called rolling wave. At higher liquid velocity, there is a transition from stratified to an intermittent flow pattern. The waves on the liquid layer now begin to grow and bridge.the pipe. Intermittent flow is of two types, plug flow and slug flow. At low gas velocities the waves form lumps of liquid called plugs. The plugs flow over the liquid film intermittently between elongated gas bubbles, with very little turbulence. At higher gas velocities, the fiont of the plug begins to overrun the liquid fl and in the process assimilates it into its structure. This results in im acceleration of the slug front and a highly turbulent slug flow is formed. As the gas velocity is increased even further, 1 a . ethree-dimensional roll waves start to appear on the liquid film
between slugs. The slugs become highly aerated at this point. This regime is called pseudoslug flow. As the gas velocity is further increased, the slugs are no longer able to hold the gas. At this point the gas starts to flow in the central core of the pipe with a thin layer of liquid flowing in the annulus around it. This regime is called annular flow. Figure 1.2 shows a flow regime map for a two phase water-carbon dioxide system in a 10 cm diameter pipe in which the various flow regimes are plotted as functions of gas aid liquid velocities. The flow patterns become more complicated when oil is added to the system. There is currently very little understanding of three phase flow. Recently, research has been initiated to extend the mechanistic knowledge of two-phase flow to three phase gas-liquid-liquid flows (Jepson, 1990). Of all the flow regimes, slug flow causes severe corrosion problems. Oil and gas pipelines often operate in the slug flow regime when high production rates are required. The mechanisms involved in slug flow are very different from those in plug flow.
An idealzed slug unit is shown in Figure 1.3. It consists of four zones. Ahead of the
slug is a slow moving stratified liquid film with gas flowing above it. Waves form on the gas-liquid interface that grow to bridge the pipe. This causes the liquid to be accelerated by the gas. The front of the slug overruns the slow moving liquid film ahead of it and accelerates it to the velocity of the slug. A mixing vortex is created in this process. When the front of the slug scoops up the slow moving liquid film, it also entrains considerable amounts of gas, thus creating a highly frothy turbulent region behind the slug front, which is called the mixing zone. The gas is released into the mixing zone at in the form of pulses of bubbles (Jepson, 1987). Visual observations show the release of gas to be a closely
periodic phenomenon. These gas bubbles are forced towards the bottom of the pipe and can impact and collapse there. The turbulent mixing and the impact of the collapsing bubbles produce high shear at the bottom of the pipe. In the slug body, the level of turbulence is reduced and the gas starts to move towards the top of the pipe due to buoyancy. Eventually a point is reached where the liquid velocity is no longer sufficient to sustain the bridging of the pipe, and the slug falls off. This is called the slug tail. The liquid is shed from the slug tail t o a trailing film which moves slower than the slug body. This liquid mixes with more incoming liquid to form a film. The film height increases, waves are formed on the surface, and the next slug is initiated. Slug flow can drastically reduce the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitor films in the pipelines. This is due to the highly turbulent nature of the mixing zone of the slug. It has been shown by Jepson (1989) that there are regions of high shear forces in the slug which can destroy the boundary layer close to the wall. This makes the formation of a stable inhibitor film difficult, and any protective layer present is also removed by the slug. This leads to increase in the corrosion rates. The exact mechanism for the removal of the film is
still unclear. Very little data is available on the slugs. Hence, an understanding of the cause
and subsequent treatment of the corrosion problems in multiphase flow is of extreme importance. This work utilizes a stationary slug or hydraulic jump to carry out experiments under slug flow conditions. Jepson (1987) suggested that the slugs are hydraulic jumps
propagatimg along a pipe. He hrther showed that stationary slugs are similar to true moving slugs of the same Froude number. Due to high velocities and transient nature of the slug
flow regime, it is dfficult to acquire accurate experimental data from real moving slugs. The flow in the case of stationary slug is not intermittent. Hence, they are very usefbl in studying various aspects of slug flow. With the hydraulic jumps it is easier to measure the wall shear stress, pressure drop, liquid fractions, and corrosion rates at different locations in the slug body. This work is divided into three parts. The first part involves the study of fluctuations in wall shear stress at the bottom of the pipe, in slug flow. A hot film sensor is used to measure the wall shear stress. In the second part of the work, two generic inhibitors, one oil soluble and one water soluble are tested for their performance in multiphase flow. Tests are performed in full pipe and slug flows. In each test, measurements of corrosion rate, pressure drop across the slug, and gas fractions inside the slug are taken. The measurements of pressure drop and gas fractions show the effect of the inhibitors on the physical properties of the fluids. In the third part, experiments are performed to study the effect of slug
frequency on the corrosion rates.
FLOW DIRECTION
SMOOTH STRATIFIED
'
WAVY STRATIFIED
0
SLUG
ROLLING
FLOW
ANNULAR
Figure 1.1
Flow patterns in gas-liquid flow
1
SUPERFICIAL GAS VELOCITY
(d)
FSgurr! 1 3
Flow regime map for watewarbon dioxide system
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter discusses the previous works carried out by the researchers on corrosion and its inhibition in multiphase flow in oil and gas pipelines.
2.1
Flow regimes and slug flow Earlier, the various flow patterns were discussed for a two-phase liquid-gas mixture
flowing in a horizontal pipe. These patterns depend upon the velocities of the different phases. One of the very first studies carried out was by Baker (1954). He presented the maps of various flow regimes occurring in two phase gas-liquid flow. The central position in Baker's map is occupied by slug flow. Later, Govier (1962), Mandhane (1974), and Acikoz (1992) studied the characteristics of gas-liquid flow in horizontal tubes and provided various flow regime maps for flow in horizontal pipes. Each showed that slug flow occurs over a wide range of gas and liquid velocities. The first realistic model of slug flow was put forward by Dukler and Hubbard (1975). They performed experiments in a 3.75 cm horizontal pipe with air and water as the working fluids. They were able to determine the physical mechanisms involved in slug formation and formulate a mathematical model to predict slug flow characteristics. The model was illustrated as a fast moving slug which overruns a slow moving liquid film. This process creates a mixing vortex at the front of the slug. A new film is shed behind the slug which
12
decelerates with time. The gas pocket flows in a stratified layer over the liquid film between slugs. Jepson (1989) suggested that slugs are formed as a result of hydraulic jumps propagating along a pipe. He introduced the concept of 'stationary slugs'. He showed that
n a mixing vortex was present i the fiont of a stationary slug, and the flow of gas-liquid inside
the slug body is similar to that in true moving slugs. Figure 2.1 shows the comparison between a stationary slug and a true moving slug. The front of a moving slug has a translational velocity V,, the slug body moves with a velocity V, and the liquid film in front of the slug has a velocity of V, A stationary slug can be visualized as a moving slug seen from a frame of reference moving with a velocity equal to the translational velocity (VJ of the slug. Therefore, the translational velocity is zero for a stationary slug. Jepson and Kouba (1989) showed that there are different kinds of slugs, and the 'strength' of the slug depends on the Froude number calculated in the liquid film ahead of the slug. The Froude number is calculated as follows:
where,
Vt
Vf
=
= =
translational velocity of the slug. velocity of the liquid film. effective height of the liquid film, defined as the wetted area of flow divided by the width of the film.
h,,
the acceleration due to gravity.
They also showed that the stationary slugs are similar to the moving slugs of the same Froude number. Chow (1959) showed that the strength of a hydraulic jump is governed by the film Froude number as shown in Figure 2.2. It is seen that as the film Froude number is increased, the jump entrains more gas. Higher Froude numbers produce steady and strong jumps. The increase in gas entrainment increases the mixing and also the level of turbulence inside the jump. Jepson (1987, 1989), through experimental measurements and observations, showed that the profiles of hydraulic jumps in open channels and circular pipes, at the same Froude numbers, are similar. Fan, Jepson, and Hanratty (1992) confirmed from pressure drop measurements that the front ofthe slug is a hydraulic jump. They also developed a simple model for stationary slugs. Lee and Jepson (1993) performed experiments for oil-water-gas flows using two oils of viscosities 2 cp and 18 cp, and carbon dioxide as the gas. They showed that flow patterns and flow regime transitions in three phase oil-water-gas are different from those obtained for gas-liquid and oil-water systems. The models for two phase flow did not predict the three phase flow transitions. Further, the liquid film heights for both oil and water could not be calculated from these models since they do not predict the effect of a second liquid phase. Neogi, Lee, and Jepson (1994) presented a model to predict the liquid film thickness for three phase oil-water-gas stratified flow in the horizontal pipelines. The model was found to be in good agreement with the experimental data. Also, the gas had a significant
effect on the thickness of the oil film.

2.2
Corrosion mechanisms
Corrosion processes involve interaction between a metal and a fluid. Sydberger (1987) showed that the relative motion between the fluid and the metal surface also affects the corrosion rate. Ellison and Wen (198 1) proposed three different corrosion mechanisms, namely, convective mass transfer, phase transport, and erosion-corrosion. In convective mass transfer controlled corrosion, the corrosion rate is affected by either the convective transport of corrosive materials to the metal surface and/or the rate of transport of the dissolved corrosion products away fiom the surface. The phase transport controlled corrosion depends on the wetting of the metal surface by the phase containing the corrosive material. The phase distribution is strongly affected by the multiphase flow. Erosioncorrosion occurs when high velocity, highly turbulent fluid flow and/or flow of abrasive materials prevent the formation of protective film, allowing fiesh material to be continuously exposed to the corrosive environment. King (1981) outlined the possible types of mechanisms affecting the internal corrosion of pipelines. These include carbon dioxide corrosion, sulphide corrosion,
microbial corrosion, acid corrosion, and erosion corrosion. Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which water behaves as a conducting medium. Thus, one factor common to all the cases is the quantity of water present in the system. Carbon dioxide corrosion may occur separately or in combination with oxygen or sulphide. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a corrosive carbonic acid. Hydrogen sulphide also provides a strong corrosive environment even when present in small traces. This is referred to as 'sour corrosion'. In the
15
absence of hydrogen sulphide, it is called 'sweet corrosion'. De waard and Milliams (1975), Ikeda et al. (1985), Ogundale and White (1986), Videm and Dugstad (1989), and De Waard and Lotz (1993) have investigated the mechanisms of carbon dioxide corrosion on carbon steel under different conditions of pH, temperature, pressure, and oil-water compositions. They also have proposed various models to predict the corrosion rates. The types of products formed on the pipe wall depend on the experimental conditions. Iron carbonate, iron bicarbonate, iron carbide, and a variety of iron oxides are the primary corrosion products on the inside of the pipe wall. The various reactions are listed below. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid:
co,
&O
* qco,
The carbonic acid dissociates to form a carbonate ion:
De Waard and Milliams (1975) performed experiments using brine in stirred beakers. They used weight loss methods to determine the corrosion rates. They suggested that the undissociated acid molecule in Equation 2.2 is adsorbed on the metal surface and reduced there. Based on the results obtained they proposed the following mechanism for the cathodic reaction:
&C03
e-
Reduction
H + HC0,-
16
This is the rate determining step and the corrosion rate is directly correlated with the concentration of the undissociated carbonic acid in the solution. The anodic reaction is given by:
The anodic dissolution reaction was found to be the same as that of Bockris, Drazic, and Despic (1962). They showed that the rate controlling step depends on the pH. The overall reaction is given by:
De Waard and Milliams (1975) hrther showed that the solubility of iron carbonate decreases with an increase in temperature. They also indicated that most of the dissolved species is not iron carbonate but iron bicarbonate. temperatures. Iron bicarbonate decomposes at higher
The iron carbonate dissolves into the solution until it reaches the solubility limit at that particular temperature and thereafter precipitates on the metal wall. Iron carbonate may form a protective film on the pipe wall depending upon the pH of the solution, temperature, pressure, and flow rate. Different products may be formed if there is sulphide, oxygen, or chlorine present in the system.
17
Dugstad (1992) found that precipitation rates increased at higher temperatures, thus resulting in low corrosion rates. He reported fiom his solubility experiments that the amount of iron carbonate in the solution when steel corrodes may be five to ten times the value calculated using the thermodynamic data. The level of supersaturation of iron carbonate was found to be dependent upon the water volume to steel ratio and temperature. Also, under supersaturated conditions, it takes 20 to 40 hours to cover the surface with a protective iron carbonate layer. Efird and Janiski (1989) carried out studies in autoclaves and showed that although crude oil does not participate in the corrosion of steel, it does have a significant effect on the corrosion of steels in crude oil-brine mixtures. Janiski (1986) observed that the degree of protectiveness of the corrosion product films in crude oil-brine mixtures is dependent on the crystalline size of the corrosion product. The results obtained fiom the experiments carried out in only brine environments can therefore lead to gross errors when extrapolated to the field environments.
2.3
Measurement techniques and experimental systems Various techniques are available to monitor corrosion rates. These include weight
loss measurement using coupons, electrical resistance probes, linear polarization resistance probes, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and electrochemical noise techniques. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and electrochemical noise techniques are better suited to provide information on the type of corrosion. The linear polarization resistance method can be used to measure corrosion rates in a short time. The disadvantage of electrochemical techniques is that they cannot be used in the environments where high
18 concentrations of oil are used. This is due to the low conductivity of oil over the surface of the probes. McKenzie and Vassie (1985) suggested the use of weight loss coupons and electrical resistance probes for the measurement of corrosion rates. The use of electrical probes is a simple method and is best suited for short term measurements, while the use of coupons is best suited for long term measurements. The coupons can also be used for the surface characterization using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and auger spectroscopy techniques. The disadvantage of the weight loss coupons technique is that they cannot be used for continuous in-situ monitoring of the corrosion rates. Various systems have been used by the researchers in the past to estimate the corrosion rates obtained in the fields. These include the bubble test, stirred beakers, rotating cylinder electrode, jet impingement, and small diameter recirculating flow loops. De Waard and Milliams (1975) measured corrosion rates in stirred beakers in carbon dioxide systems. Nesic and Lunde (1993) performed similar experiments in recirculating flow loops. Their results on the effects of temperature and carbon dioxide pressure were similar to De Waard, Lotz, and Milliams (1991). They also showed that the corrosion rate increased with an increase in the liquid velocity. Efird et al. (1993) performed experiments using flow loops, rotating cylinder electrodes, and jet impingement systems. They found that the corrosion rates obtained from the rotating cylinder were much lower than those obtained from the flow loop. Sun and Jepson (1992), Zhou (1993), Kanwar and Jepson (1994), Vuppu and Jepson (1994) and Menezes and ~ e ~ s (1994) showed the importance of large diameter flow loops on
19 to study corrosion in pipelines. They conducted experiments in a 10 cm internal diameter flow loops under several full pipe flow and slug flow conditions. They also showed that the results fiom small diameter (2.5 cm and 5 cm) flow loops cannot be extrapolated to the large diameter pipelines. This is because the flow mechanisms differ in both the systems.
2.4
Corrosion rates
Sun (199 1) and Menezes (1994) performed experiments using 15 cp and 96 cp oils,
respectively, under several full pipe flow and slug flow conditions. They found that increasing the liquid velocity increased the corrosion rate. Also, under slug flow conditions, the corrosion rate increased with increase in the Froude number. Further, they showed that the corrosion rate increases with decrease in water cut. Sun (1991) also showed that the corrosion rates at the top of the pipe were lower than that at the bottom of the pipe. This was due to higher shear stresses at the bottom than at the top. Menezes (1994) found that the corrosion rate increases with decrease in water cut, up to 40%, and then decreases with further decrease in the water cut. Zhou (1993) performed experiments using a 2 cp oil under full pipe flow and slug flow conditions. The results obtained were similar to those of Sun except that the corrosion rate decreased with decrease in water cut. It was found that the average shear stress increases with decrease in water cut. Also, the average and maximum shear stress increase with the increase in Froude number and decrease with increase in distance into the slug.
2.5
Predictive models De Waard and Milliams: logi,

=
-(1.3)(pH) + B
where,
1,
corrosion rate (mm/yr) pH of the solution constant
pH
The pH term incorporates the effects of temperature and carbon dioxide partial pressure. This model predicts an increase in corrosion rate with increase in temperature and carbon dioxide partial pressure. This model does not take into account the influence of flow rates, oil and, the presence of corrosion products on the pipe wall. De Waard et al. (1991) later modified the model to predict 'worst case' corrosion rates for systems saturated with the ~ e corrosion product. They applied correction factors ~ ' to account for the various environmental parameters and the formation of iron corrosion product on the wall. 1% v,,,
= 5.8 - - + 0.67 log) ''lo , P (
Where,
vnmo
corrosion rate (rnrnlyr) temperature (K)
Pco,
partial pressure of carbon dioxide (bar)
The temperature at which protective scales begin to form on the metal surface is given by:
where,
'scale
=
=
temperature at which scales begin to form (K) hgacity of carbon dioxide (bar) then corrosion rate obtained from Equation
fco2
If the operating temperature is more than T,,
(2.9) was multiplied by a correction factor F,,,,, given by:
FSc,, has a minimum value of one.
The De Waard et al. (1991) model had a major drawback. It did not account for the
flow and predicted the same corrosion rate at different velocities. De Waard and Lotz (1993) revised the model and introduced the effect for the effect of flow velocity. The new model had a mass transfer term that accounted for the flow velocity and a reaction term that accounted for the chemistry of the system.
Where,
VCOR
corrosion rate (mm/yr) corrosion rate due to the chemistry of the system ( d y r ) corrosion rate due to the flow constant
Vmact
V,,&
C
The mass transfer term is given by:
where,
diffusion coefficient (m2/s) liquid velocity (mls) concentration of carbonic acid hydraulic diameter (m) kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
u
[H,CO,I
d
v
The reaction term is given by:
logv-,
= 5.8
- - + 0.67 log (f,) T
(2.14)
Efkd et al. (1993) in their model showed that corrosion rate can be calculated using the wall shear stress, as follows:
where,
&OR
corrosion rate (mm/yr) shear stress at the wall (N/m2) constants
Tw a, b
The results fi-om Equation (2.15) for small diameter pipes can be extended to larger diameter pipes. However, the constants are for brine only and hence, different values of a and b are required for other systems. Kanwar and Jepson (1994) performed full pipe flow experiments in a 10 cm diameter pipe. They used a 2 cp oil and a 18 cp oil in the experiments. They modified Equation (2.15) and came up with a relationship, given below:
where, CR
= =
corrosion rate (mm/yr) partial pressure of CO, ( m a ) shear stress (N/m2) constants
P
t
b, c
This model does not take into account the protective scale formations at temperatures greater than 60 C and therefore cannot be used above 60 C.
24
2.6
Corrosion inhibition The corrosion inhibitors adsorb to the pipe wall or react with the corrosion products
on the wall to form a protective layer. King (1981) suggested that the thickness and quality of the protective layer depends upon the concentration of the corrosion inhibitor in the bulk phase. Below a certain critical concentration, the metal surface is not adequately covered, and a poor inhibitor film is formed which is not able to inhibit the corrosion reactions. Harrop (1993) classified the different corrosion inhibitors available in the market based on the mechanism, environment to which they are added, and the metal to be protected. Some of th.e commonly used inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic,
passivating, oxidizing, film forming, organic, vapor phase, and volatile. Depending upon the application, the basic constituent in the inhibitor can be a chromate, nitrite, phosphate, sulphite, amine, imidazoline and quaternary. Harrop (1993) also outlined the various methods available to study the performance of corrosion inhibitors in oil and gas pipelines. These include the bubble test, rotating cylinder electrode, jet impingement, and recirculating flow loops. The bubble test, rotating cylinder electrode, and jet impingement are used for the initial screening of inhibitors. The main disadvantage ofthese tests is that they don't imitate the actual flowing conditions in the existing pipelines, and therefore, the results from these tests can lead to gross errors in estimating the effectiveness of the inhibitor. Pettus (1974) suggested that the amount of oil-water present in the system and the type of flow are the primary factors for proper selection of inhibitors for the fields. These
25 factors play an important role in deciding whether to use an oil soluble, water soluble, oil dispersible, or a water dispersible mhibitor. He showed that the presence of as much as 10% oil in the system can reduce the effectiveness of a water soluble inhibitor by as much as
80%. The drag reduction phenomenon in turbulent flow was examined by Virk (1975). He
showed that the skin fiction in turbulent flow of a liquid is reduced significantly by the additives. Menezes (1994) used a 10 cm internal diameter flow loop to examine the perfbrmance of five commercial inhibitors under slug flow conditions. A 2 cp oil and ASTM standard sea water and carbon dioxide were the working fluids. Visual observations showed that the inhibitors changed the color of the oil-water mixture, forming emulsions. They also affected the physical properties, such as pressure drop and void fraction. The results show that the inhibitors reduced the corrosion rates to less than 0.13 rnmlyr at a Froude number of 6. However, only three inhibitors were effective at a Froude number of 12. Vuppu (1994) performed experiments under slug flow conditions using a 2 cp oil in the system. A drag reducing agent and corrosion inhibitors were tested in the experiments. Coupons were also inserted into the system in all the tests for surface characterization. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies on the coupons showed thin inhibitor films in all the cases where the inhibitor was effective. In the cases where the inhibitor or the drag reducing agent was ineffective, circular bubble impact regions were found on the surface of the coupons. These impacts tear holes in the inhibitor films, thus making the inhibitor ineffective. The analysis showed evidence of corrosion inside the impact regions, even when low corrosion rates were recorded.
m
zone
4 vt v s
Mixing zone
vt
vg
vt
- vo
Figure 2.1 Comparison between a real moving slug (top) and a stationary hydraulic jump (bottom)
e
d
-s ,
F, = 1-1.7 Undulor jump
7/////////////m//////////m//////m
C-
F,= 1.7- 2.5
Weak jump
F,=2.5-4.5 Oscilbtinq jump
- ---
/ / / 1
F,= 4.5-9.0 S teody jump
F, >9.0 Strong jump
Figure 2.2
Hydraulic jumps in open channel flow
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
The description of the experimental setup, procedure and the techntques used are discussed in detail in this section.
3.1
Description of the flow loop The schematic layout of the system is shown in Figure 3.1. It is similar to the one
designed by Jepson (1987). The system consists of a 1.4 m3 3 16 stainless steel tank and a 10 m long, 10.16 cm internal diameter plexiglass pipeline. A 2 cp Oil, ASTM artificial sea water, and carbon dioxide are the working fluids. The liquid from the tank is pumped into
7.6 cm PVC pipe D by a centrfigal pump. The flow rate of the liquid is controlled by a
bypass line and is measured by calibrated orifice meter E. The liquid is then forced under a gate into the plexiglass pipe where it forms a fast moving liquid film. The carbon dioxide gas is introduced into the system at port H shown in Figure 3.1. The gas-liquid mixture from the plexiglass pipeline then enters the tank. Here it is separated by a de-entrainer plate inside the tank, the gas being vented to the atmosphere through the exhaust I. The carbon dioxide gas is also used to pressurize the system. The pressure inside the tank is indicated by gauge
B installed on the top of the tank. All the measurements are taken in the test section F
located downstream from the gate. The hydraulic jump generated inside the test section is controlled by manipulating the gas flow at the inlet. This is done by using a needle valve in conjunction with a flow control system. The liquid inside the tank is heated by two 1.5
kW heaters positioned at J.
3.2
Description of the test section
Figure 3.2 shows a schematic of the test section. The probes used to measure the corrosion rate are flush mounted with the pipe wall at ports A and B. At port E, the shear stress probe is flush mounted with the wall to measure the wall shear stress at the bottom of the pipe. The pressure taps located at points D are connected to a U-tube manometer to measure the pressure drop across and within the slug body. The manometer is filled with water and meriam blue colored fluid, having a specific weight of 1.75. C is a 0.95 cm diameter sampling tube used to withdraw fluid samples from the slug body. The samples are then used to determine the voidlliquid fractions within the slug.
3.3
Measurement techniques and procedure
This section discusses the methods and apparatus used to perform the experiments.
3.3.1 Measurement techniques 3.3.1.1 Corrosion rate measurement
The corrosion rates are measured using an electrical resistance (ER) technique. This is a very direct and simple method and works well in oil-water mixtures. The principle behind the working of an ER probe is that the electrical resistance of a metal sheet is inversely proportional to its thickness. Measuring the change in resistance over an adequate
30 period of time gives the change in thickness of the metal during that time period. The corrosion rate can then be calculated. Since, these changes in resistance are of very small magnitude, it is difficult to measure them directly. The ER probe is therefore constructed in such a way that it forms two arms of a bridge network. The arms are constructed using 1018 carbon-steel. One arm of the probe is protected from corrosion by a suitable insulation
r and is used as a reference, while the other a m is exposed to the corrosive environment. This
makes it possible to measure the resistance of the exposed arm by measuring the the ratio of the resistances of the two arms (McKenzie and Vassie, 1985). Another reason for using
r a two a m probe is that the fluctuations resulting from temperature changes are compensated.
The following relationship is used to calculate the corrosion rate with the readings obtained from the probes. This method has been described in detail by Zhou (1993).
CR
A probe reading x24 x 365 x probe span A time (hours ) x 1000
where,
CR
corrosion rate (mm/yr)
3.3.1.2
Shear stress measurement The wall shear stress is measured by using hot-film sensors flush mounted at the
bottom of the pipe. The hot-film sensor works on a heat transfer technique which gives a correlation between the wall shear stress and the rate of heat transfer from the sensor to the
31
h Extreme care has to be taken to ensure that the probe is not exposed to gas pockets at .
any time during the experiments, because this causes the probe to burn-out. The voltage signals from the probe are passed to an F A 100 anemometer system which converts and stores these analog signals in digital form using a MetraByte's Model DAS20 AD converter. This data is then processed using the TSI Anemometry Software Package and an IBM computer. Figure 3.3 shows the schematic description of the data acquisition system for
measuring the wall shear stress at the bottom of the pipe. At a given location in the slug, the probe takes about 1000 data points per second. The rate of data collection can be increased or decreased as per requirement. By moving the slug to different axial locations the wall shear stress at the respective locations is measured. During processing, the voltage data is converted into shear stress data (Appendix A). Then, the change in shear stress with time at each location, and the change in average shear stress with distance along the slug are plotted. The probe is calibrated for each set of experiments (for each oil-water composition). The method of calibration is described in Appendix A.
3.3.1.3
Void fraction and oil-water concentration
The void fraction and oil-water concentration measurements are taken at three circumferential positions (top, bottom, center) and two positions inside the slug body (30 cm and 60 cm ?om the slug front). The samples are taken iso-kinetically and passed into a one meter long tube having a total volume of 220 ml. The gas-liquid mixture in the tube is allowed t o separate and the volume of oil and water inside the tube are measured. The volume of the gas is then determined by subtracting the total volume of the liquid from the
volume of the tube. The volume of the gas is then used to determine the void fraction.
Void Fraction =
220 - VL 220 V O VL
Oil Fraction =
where,
VL VO
=
=
total volume of liquid inside the tube (ml). volume of the oil phase (ml).
A weighted average of the void fraction is then calculated at each position.
3.3.1.4
Pressure drop measurement

The pressure drop is measured at 30 cm and 60 cm from the slug front. The
calculations are carried out as follows:
Pressure drop = h x g
x @ ,
- p,,)
where, h g
Pb
Pw
difference in height of the manometer fluid acceleration due to gravity density of blue fluid density of water
33
3.3.2 Procedure
The tank is filled with predetermined volumes of synthetic sea water and oil. The sea water is prepared using ASTM standard sea salt. The composition of this salt is shown in Table 3.3.2 The pump is turned on and carbon dioxide is circulated to purge oxygen from the system. The level of dissolved oxygen inside the system has to be maintained below 20 ppb. The presence of oxygen in excess of 20 ppb inside the system changes the corrosion chemistry due to the formation of oxides. Also, the level of dissolved iron inside the system is maintained below 30 ppm because it has been shown that high iron concentration inside the system leads to supersaturation and reduced the corrosion rates. The oxygen and iron levels are periodically monitored using CHEMetsa dissolved oxygen and iron test kits. The fluids inside the system are changed if the iron level shoots above 30 ppm. The
deoxygenation process is essential for the corrosion experiments. However, for the other measurements such as the pressure drop, void fraction, and shear stress, the deoxygenation process is not necessary. After one set of experiments is complete, a known volume of water is drained fiom the tank and more oil is added to increase the oil-water concentration to the next desired level. After the deoxygenation process is complete, the corrosion rate experiments are
started. For this purpose two ER probes are flush mounted at points A and B inside the test
section shown in Figure 3.2. The system is then pressurized to 0.136 MPa using carbon dioxide. The corrosion rate experiments are usually started with the full pipe flow first. These are carried out at different liquid velocities. Each full pipe flow experiment is carried
34 out for 15-20 hours. For slug flow experiments, the liquid flow rate is adjusted to a value required to give the desired Froude number and the liquid is forced through the gate. At this point gas is introduced and a hydraulic jump is created. The jump is positioned stationary inside the test section by a control system on the gas line. This regulates the gas flow into the system. Subsequently, measurements of pressure drop, void fraction and shear stress are carried out. The control system is also used for the slug frequency experiments, where, the the effect of slug frequency on the corrosion rates is examined. The details about the working of the control system are provided in Appendix C.
3.4
Test matrix
The test matrices for the various experiments are given in Tables 3.4.1, 3.4.2 and
3.4.3. The density and viscosity of the oil at 40 C are 800 ~ g / m ~2 cp, respectively. and
Table 3.4.1 Test matrix for the wall shear stress experiments
Watercut
80% 40%
Temperature [=I C
40
Pressure [=I MPa

0.136
Froude number
6, 9, 12 6, 9, 12
Table 3.4.2 Test matrix for the slug frequency experiments
Water cut
Temperature [=] C
Pressure [=I MPa
Froude number
6
Frequency [=I mim-'

7, 13 7, 13, 19, 30 7, 13 7, 13, 19, 30
Parameter
80% 40 40% 0.136
12 6 12
o o ;, ,
rate*
* The corrosion rates are measured at the bottom of the pipe
G. Flow height control gate
A. Liquid tank B. Pressure gauge C. Liquid recycle D. Liquid feed 7.6 cm PVC E. Orlfice plate manometer F. Test section 10.16 cm internal diameter plexiglass
H. C 0 2 Feed Line I. Vent wlvalve J. Heater K. Safety valve L. Back pressure regulator M. Pump
Figure 3.1
Layout of the experimental system
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter examines the results obtained from the shear stress, inhibitor and slug frequency experiments. 4.1 Wall shear stress The wall shear stress measurements at the bottom of the pipe were carried out in slug flow for 40% and 80% water cuts. The measurements were taken at Froude numbers of 6,
9 and 12, and at three locations (20 cm, 40 cm and 80 cm) into the slug body. At each
location the average, maximum and minimum shear stress were calculated and the variation of instantaneous shear stress was plotted as a fbnction of time. 4.1.1 Instantaneous shear stress fluctuations The wall shear stress at the bottom of the pipe fluctuates with time and shows large, prominent peaks at regular intervals. The peaks may be attributed to the pulses of bubbles at the bottom of the pipe, which give bubble impacts and possible collapse there. Figures 4.1.1,4.1.2 and 4.1.3 present the variations in instantaneous shear stress for a Froude number of 12, at 20 cm, 40 cm, and 80 cm from the slug front, respectively. Figure 4.1.1 shows substantial fluctuations with a regular frequency. The frequency of the peaks is about 2-3 peaks every 0.1 seconds. The average value of the shear stress is about 95 Pa, and the maximum value is approximately 130 Pa. At 40 cm into the slug, Figure 4.1.2 shows that the intensity of the fluctuations has decreased. Also, the frequency of the peaks has decreased to one every 0.2 seconds. The average and maximum values of shear stress are
41 now about 65 Pa and 95 Pa, respectively. At 80 cm from the slug front (Figure 4.1.3) there are no fluctuations. The average shear stress is 25 Pa. Zhou (1993) found similar results for the average shear stress. Figures 4.1.4, 4.1.5 and 4.1.6 show the variations in instantaneous shear stress for a Froude number of 9, at 20 cm, 40 cm and 80 cm, respectively. At 20 cm, the intensity of fluctuations and frequency are comparable to that for a Froude number of 12. However, the average (78 Pa) and maximum (93 Pa) shear stresses are lower than those for a Froude number of 12. At 40 cm and 80 cm, the average values are 30 Pa and 14 Pa, respectively, which are again lower than those for a Froude number of 12. Figures 4.1.7, 4.1.8 and 4.1.9 show the variation in instantaneous shear stress for a Froude number of 6. The Figures show a considerable decrease in the level of fluctuations and fiequency of the occurrence ofthe peaks. This is due to the lower turbulence level in Froude number of 6. The frequency decreases from one every 0.2 seconds at 20 cm to almost zero thereafter. Also, there is decrease in the average shear stress to 29 Pa at 20 cm, 22 Pa and 9.5 Pa at 80 cm into the slug body. The maximum values decreased to 56 Pa, 35 Pa and 10 Pa, at 20 cm, 40 cm and 80 cm respectively. S~milar fluctuations in shear stress were observed for 80% water cut. However, the average and maximum values were lower than those for 40% water cut. Video images of the slugs were also taken during the experiments. On close observation of the images in a super slow motion mode, the movement of the pulses of bubbles can be very easily traced. The frequency of these pulses at different Froude numbers, approximately match the frequency observed in the shear stress plots.
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
TIME (see) 4.11 VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 20 em FROM THE SLUG FRONT
'
'
'
"
'
'
'
'
I
-
Froude number 12
-
Figan 41.2
VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 40 em FROM THE SLUG FRONT
43
l ' " l ' " / " J I
I
Froude number 12
0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
TIME (see)
Figore 41.3
VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 80 cm FROM THE SLUG FRONT
0.2
0.4
TIME
0.6 (see)
0.8
Fignre 41.4
VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 20 cm FROM THE SLUG FRONT
"
'
'
'
'
"
'
'
I
-
Froude number 9
-
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
TIME
Figure 41.5
(see)
VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 40 ern FROM THE SLUG FRONT
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
TIME (see) Figure 4.1.6 VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 80 em FROM THE SLUG FRONT
Froude number 6
TIME Figure 4.1.7
(see)
"
'
"
'
'
Froude number 6
0.2
0.4 TIME
0.6
(sec)
0.8
Figure 41.8
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Froade number 6
-
0.2
0.4
0.6
(see)
0.8
TIME F i p v 4.1.9
VARIATION OF INSTANTANEOUS SHEAR STRESS FOR 40% WATER CUT 80 ern FROM THE SLUG FRONT
47
Vuppu (1994) found evidence of circular bubble impacts on the coupons during the inhibitor tests. These impacts were found on the inhibitor films formed on the coupons. Also, corrosion products were observed inside the area damaged by the impacts. The corrosion rates measured in the area of the bubble impacts have been found to be much higher when compared to those obtained from the other locations inside the slug (Zhou, 1993).
4.2
Effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors
In this section, the results of the experiments carried out with two generic inhibitors,
irnidazoline and a polyamine salt, are presented. Both of the inhibitors were tested at concentrations of 25 ppm and 75 ppm, at a temperature of 40 C and a pressure of 0.136 MPa with water cuts of 40% and 80%. Experiments were carried out under full pipe and slug flow conditions.
4.2.1 Performance of imidazoline
4.2.1.1
Corrosion rate
Irnidazoline is an oil soluble inhibitor, and is expected to adsorb to the metal surface better, at higher oil compositions.
4.2.1.1.1
Full pipe flow
All the full pipe flow tests were carried out at a liquid velocity of 1.5 mls. Table
4 2.1 shows the corrosion rates obtained in full pipe flow. For 80% water cut, a
concentration of 25 ppm of the inhibitor reduced the corrosion rate from an uninhibited value of 1.0 d y r to 0.3 d y r ; a reduction of 70%. A concentration of 75 ppm of the inhibitor
48 reduced the corrosion rate to negligible values. For 40% water cut, the corrosion rate was virtually unchanged from the uninhibited value of 0.8 d y r , at a concentration of 25 ppm. However, a hrther addition of 50 ppm reduced the corrosion rate to 0.1 d y r . For an oil-water mixture flowing in a pipe, if the oil and water separate, the velocity of the water phase is much higher than the mixture velocity, especially at low water cuts (Malhotra, 1995). Consequently, at low concentrations, the inhibitor may not disperse well through the fast moving water phase.
4.2.1.1.2
Slug flow
The change in corrosion rates for slug flow for different inhibitor concentrations for 80% water cut is shown in Figure 4.2.1. It is observed that the inhibitor does not decrease the corrosion rate at a concentration of 25 ppm for both the Froude numbers of 6 and 12. This is probably due to the high level of turbulence in slug flow. At 25 ppm concentration the inhibitor may not be sufficient to form a stable film and any film formed may be getting removed by the slug. However, at a concentration of 75 ppm the corrosion rate is decreased from an uninhibited value of 0.8 d y r to 0.4 d y r at a Froude number of 6 and, from 1.7
d y r to 0.9 d y r at a Froude number of 12. The reduction is less than 50% for both the
Froude numbers. Figure 4.2.2 shows a similar plot for 40% water cut. The results obtained are similar to the 80% water cut, at an inhibitor concentration of 25 ppm. The inhibitor works well at a concentration of 75 ppm. It decreased the corrosion rate from an uninhibited value of 0.5 d y r to 0.1 d y r at a Froude number of 6 and from 1.1 d y r to 0.8 mm/yr at a Froude number of 12. The inhibition is better (80%) at a Froude number of 6. This is due to the less
49 turbulent nature ofFroude number 6 and, since there is more oil in the system at 40% water cut than at 80% water cut, the inhibitor, being oil soluble, has better chances of forming a film. At a Froude number of 12, even though there is more oil, the highly turbulent nature and the strong impact of the pulses of bubbles may be restricting the formation of a stable inhibitor film. The reduction in corrosion rate is therefore only 30%. The corrosion rates are listed in Table 4.2.3.
4.2.1.2
Pressure drop
The addition of imidazoline had a very small effect on the pressure drop across the slug. The effect of the Inhibitor on the pressure drop is presented in Figures 4.2.3 and 4.2.4, for 80% water cut. The pressure drop measurements were taken at 30 cm and 60 cm from the slug fiont. At 30 cm fiom the slug front, Figure 4.2.3 shows little change in the pressure drop at the Froude numbers of 6 and 12, due to the addition inhibitor. For 60 cm into the slug, Figure 4.2.4 shows similar results. For 40% water cut, little changes in the pressure drops are again noted. The pressure drops for the Froude numbers of 6 and 12 are 1.4 and 2.8 KPa, respectively. This is shown in Figures 4.2.5 and 4.2.6. The pressure drops are listed in Table 4.2.4.
4.2.1.3 Void fraction
The average void fiaction for 80% water cut is presented in Figures 4.2.7 and 4.2.8. At a Froude number of 6, Figure 4.2.7 shows the average gas content was about 20% and changed very little with the addition of the inhibitor. However, at 30 cm from the slug front,
50 for a Froude number of 12, the inhibitor decreased the gas holdup by 45%. At 60 cm into the slug, Figure 4.2.8 shows a similar decrease. Figures 4.2.9 and 4.2.10 show the variation in the gas holdup at the bottom of the pipe for 80% water cut. Again small changes are noted at a Froude number of 12. Figures 4.2.11,4.2.12,4.2.13, and 4.2.14 show similar trends in gas holdup for 40% water cut.
4.2.2
Performance of polyamine salt
4.2.2.1 Corrosion rate 4.2.2.1.1
Full pipe flow
For a liquid velocity of 1.5 mls, the corrosion rates are listed in Table 4.2.2. It is observed that, for both 80% and 40% water cuts, an inhibitor concentration of 25 ppm was insufficient to reduce the corrosion rates. However, for 80% water cut, a concentration of
75 ppm reduced the corrosion rate from an uninhibited value of 1.0 d y r to 0.3 rnmlyr.
For 40% water cut a concentration of 75 ppm of the inhibitor reduced the corrosion rate from 0.8 d y r to 0.1 rnmlyr.
4.2.2.1.2
Slug flow
Figures 4.2.15 and 4.2.16 show the corrosion rates at different inhibitor concentrations, for 80% and 40% water cuts, respectively. It is observed that, for 80% and 40% water cuts, a concentration of 25 ppm of the inhibitor does not reduce the corrosion
rates significantly. It is seen in Figure 4.2.15 that, at a Froude number of 6, a concentration of 75 ppm of the inhibitor reduces the corrosion rate from an uninhibited value of 0.8 d y r to 0.5 mrnlyr. This is a reduction of only 37%. However, for a Froude number of 12, the same concentration of the inhibitor reduces the corrosion rate from 1.7 d y r to 0.6 mmlyr (a reduction of 65%). For 40% water cut, Figure 4.2.16 indicates that the inhibitor did not reduce the corrosion rate at both the Froude numbers. This is expected because of the low
.
concentration of the water phase. This inhibitor, being water soluble, has better chances of inhibition in 80% than in 40% water cut.
4.2.2.2
Pressure drop
For 80%water cut, Figures 4.2.17and 4.2.18 show the effect on pressure drop inside
the slug at each Froude number. At 30 cm from the slug front, Figure 4.2.17 shows that the pressure drop changes very little with the addition of inhibitor. However, at 60 cm into the slug body, at a Froude number of 6, there is a decrease in pressure drop from 1.8 KPa to 1.0 KPa. At a Froude number of 12 there is a decrease from 4.2 KPa to 1.5 KPa. The increase in the inhibitor concentration from 25 ppm to 75 ppm does not hrther affect the pressure drop. For 40% water cut, little changes in the pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm from the slug front are noted in Figures 4.2.19 and 4.2.20.
52 4.2.2.3
Void fraction
For 80% water cut, the average void fractions at 30 cm and 60 cm are presented in Figures 4.2.21 and 4.2.22, respectively. It is noticed that higher concentration of the inhibitor decreased the average gas holdup inside the slug at a Froude number of 12. The effect of the inhibitor on the average gas holdup is not very significant at a Froude number of 6 . Figures 4.2.23 and 4.2.24 show similar trends in the gas concentration at the bottom of the pipe, for both the Froude numbers. For 40% water cut, Figures 4.2.25 and 4.2.26 show that higher concentration of the inhibitor in most cases increased the average gas holdup at both the Froude numbers. Figures 4.2.27 and 4.2.28 show similar trends for the gas concentration at the bottom of the pipe. Visual observations showed that the addition of the inhibitor turned the oil-water mixture rmllcy. Also, liquid samples taken from the slug showed the formation of emulsions. At 40% water cut, the emulsions were stronger at higher inhibitor concentrations and the oilwater mixtures took a long time to separate into individual phases.
4.3
Slug frequency
The slug frequency experiments were carried out for 40% and 80% water cuts. For a Froude number of 6, the corrosion rate measurements were taken at the frequencies of 7
Table 4.2.1 Corrosion rate data in full pipe flow for imidazoline Liquid velocity = 1.5 m/s Water cut Inhibitor concentration [=I PPm Equilibrium corrosion rate [=] mm/yr 1 .o
0.3 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.1
---80%
25
75
---40%
25 75
Table 4.2.2 Corrosion rate data in full pipe flow for polyamine salt Liquid velocity = 1.5 m/s Water cut Inhibitor concentration [=I PPm Equilibrium corrosion rate [=I m d y r
1.0 0.9 0.3 0.8 1.1 0.1
---80%
25
75
---40%
25 75
Table 4.2.3 Corrosion rate data for imidazoline in slug flow

Water cut
Inhibitor concentration
-1 ppm
Froude number
6
12 6
Equilibrium corrosion rate [=I mmlyr

0.8 1.7 1.4 2.5 0.4 0.9 0.5 1.1 0.6 1.5 0.1 0.8
---80% 25
12 6
75
12
---40% 25
6
12
6
12 6
75
12
Table 4.2.4 Pressure drop data for imidazoline Water cut Inhibitor concentration [=I PPm Froude number Pressure drop across the slug [=I KPa
30 cm
80%
60 cm
1.8 4.2 1.4 2.8 1.6 4.6 1.5 4.6 1.2 2.9 1.6 2.9
-------
1.4 3.5 1.1 1.9 1.5 4.2 1.3 3.5 0.8 1.7 1.0 2.2
12 6 12 6
40%
25
12 6
75
12 6
25
12 6
75
12
Table 4.2.5 Average void fraction data for imidazoline Water cut Inhibitor concentration [=I PPm Froude number Average void fraction across the cross section, in the slug [=] Y o
30 cm 60 cm
80%
------25
17.4 57.0 13.0 23.4 20.4 37.5 19.3 31.3 18.0 25.0 13.0 20.0
11.3 39.2 10.5 17.0 13.4 21.5 15.8 25.0 8.4 13.0 8.4 10.5
12
6
40%
12
6
80% 75
12
6
12
6
25 40% 75
12
6
12
12 FROUDE NUMBER
Fignre 4.21
CORROSION RATE V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE
12 FROUDE NUMBER
ELgnre 4 2 2
CORROSION RATE Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE
6 FROUDE NUMBER
12
Flgnre 423
PRESSURE DROP V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE 30 w FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Flgnre 4 2 4
PRESSURE DROP V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12 FROUDE NUMBER
Fignre 4.25
FROUDE NUMBER Vs PRESSURE DROP FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE 30 em FROM THE SLUG FRONT
FROUDE NUMBER
Figure 4 2 6
FROUDE NUMBER Vs. PRESSURE DROP FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
6 FROUDE NUMBER
12
F1giu-e 4.27
AVERAGE VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT, WITH IMIDAZOLINE 30 cm FROM THE SLUG FRONT
FROUDE NUMBER
Flgnre 428
AVERAGE VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT, WITH IMIDAZOLINE 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Flgure 4.29
VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PIPE 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
FIgare 4.210
12
FROUDE NUMBER
F l g m 4.211
AVERAGE VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Figure 4212 AVERAGE VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
6
FROIJDE NUMBER
12
Flgon 4.213 VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH IMIDAZOLINE, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PIPE 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12 FROUDE NUMBER
Figore 4.2.14
Table 4.2.6 Corrosion rate data for polyamine salt in slug flow
Water cut Inhibitor concentration
Froude number
6 12 6 12
ppm

0.8 1.7 0.7 1.6 0.5 0.6 0.5 1.1 0.7 1.6 0.5 0.6
---80% 25
75
6 12
---40% 25
6 12 6 12
75
12
Table 4.2.7 Pressure drop data for polyamine salt Water cut Inhibitor concentration [=I PPm Froude number Pressure drop across the slug [=I KPa
30 cm
80%
60 cm
1.8 4.2 1.4 2.8 1.0 1.5 1.O 1.6 1.8 4.2 1.4 3.3
-------
6 12
1.4 3.5 1.1 1.9 1.8 3.6 2.0 4.0 1. O 1.9 1. O 2.0
6
12 6
40%
25
12
6
75
12 6
25
12
6
75
12
Table 4.2.8 Average void fraction data for polyamine salt Water cut Inhibitor concentration [=I PPm Froude number Average void fraction across the cross section, in the slug [=I Yo
30 cm 60 cm
80%
----
6 12
17.4 57.0 13.0 23.4 24.6 62.3 17.8 19.8 23.7 22.2 29.3 20.2
11.3 39.2 10.5 17.0 23.4 34.0 18.0 22.4 17.7 12.6 27.1 32.9
40%
---25
6 12 6 12 6
75
12 6
25
12 6
75
12
12 FROUDE NUMBER
Fignre 4.215
CORROSION RATE Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT
12 FROUDE NUMBER
Figure 4.216
CORROSION RATE Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER C W WITH POLYAMlNE SALT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
FIgnre 4.217
PRESSURE DROP Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER C W WITH POLYAMINE SALT SO an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
Finnre 4 2 1 8
0
PRESSURE DROP Vs. FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Figure 4.2.19
PRESSURE DROP Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NCiMBER
Ftgore 42.20
PRESSURE DROP Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
6
FROUDE NUMBER
12
FIgnre 4.221
AVERAGE VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
FROLBE NUMBER
F@re 4.222 AVERAGE VOID FRACTION Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 60 an FROM TFIE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Elgore 4.223 VOID FRACTION Vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER C W WITH POLYAMINE SALT, AT THE BO'ITOM OF THE PIPE 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Fignre 4.224
VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 80% WATER C W WITH POLYAMINE SALT, AT THE BO'lTOM OF THE PIPE 60 cm FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Flgwe 42.25 AVERAGE VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 30 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUlCWER
gore 42.26
AVERAGE vom FRACTION vs FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
12
FROUDE NUMBER
Flgwe 4.227 VOID FRACTION V s FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT, AT THE BO'ITOM OF THE PIPE 30 a FROM THE SLUG FRONT n
12
FROUDE NUMBER
FLgnre 4.228 VOID FRACTION V6 FROUDE NUMBER FOR 40% WATER CUT WITH POLYAMINE SALT, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PIPE 60 an FROM THE SLUG FRONT
74 and 13 per minute. For a Froude number of 12, the measurements were taken at frequencies of 7, 13, 19 and 30 per minute. A slug with a Froude number of 6 has a slow movement and therefore it is not possible to obtain high slug frequencies in a given section of the pipe. Due to this restriction, the experiments were carried out only at two frequencies for a Froude number of 6. However, for a Froude number of 12, the maximum frequency that could be obtained was about 30 slugdmin. Jepson and Taylor (1988) found similar results in a 30 cm internal diameter pipeline. They observed that the frequency of slugs for a Froude number of 12 that could be obtained in a given section of the pipe is in the range of 30-40 slugs/min. The corrosion rate data is listed in Table 4.3.1. Here, the corrosion rates from the slug frequency experiments are compared with that obtained in the stationary slug. It is observed that an increase in slug frequency increases the corrosion rate. At higher
frequencies, the mixing zone of the slug passes over the probe more frequently. This enhances the corrosion process and causes an increase in corrosion rates. For 80% water cut, the corrosion rates obtained for a Froude number of 6 were 0.4 d y r and 0.6 W y r , at the frequencies of 7 and 13 per minute, respectively. For a Froude number of 12 the corrosion rates obtained were 0.6 d y r , 0.7 mmlyr, 0.8 d y r and 1.1 d y r for the frequencies of 7, 13, 19 and 30 per minute, respectively. For 40% water cut, similar increase in corrosion rates was noted at both the Froude numbers. Figure 4.3.1 is a plot of the corrosion rate as a hnction of slug frequency for a Froude number of 12. It is observed that for 80% and 40% water cuts, the corrosion rate increases linearly with slug frequency, the rate of increase being similar in both the cases.
75
Also, it is seen that at these rates of increase, the stationary slug corrosion rates will be reached at about 58 and 44 slugslmin for 80% and 40% water cuts, respectively. These are shown by the dotted lines. Figure 4.3.2 shows the corrosion rate-slug frequency relationship for a Froude number of 6 . For 80% water cut, the rate of increase of corrosion rate from 7 slugslrnin to
13 slugslmin is similar to the rate of increase for a Froude number df 12, for the same
frequency range. Assuming that the increase in corrosion rate with slug frequency is linear, it is seen that the stationary slug corrosion rates will be reached at about 19 slugslmin for
80% water cut and 25 slugslmin for 40% water cut.
Table 4.3.1 Corrosion rate data for various slug frequencies
Water cut
Froude number
Slug frequency [=] min-'

stationary

0.8 0.4 0.6 1.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.2 0.3 1.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8
7 13 stationary 7
80% 12
13
19
30 stationary 7 13
40%
stationary 7 12 13 19 30
l I " "~1 " " l- .
--+- 80% water
cut
:
.
\
-+stationary slug (80%water cut)
40% water cut
stationary slug (40%water cut)
-.-- - -.
0 0 0.-
1 : I 1.
I.
-.----;
I I I I I I I
I I. I
I ' I '
, , I > , , , .
I ' I
I1.
10
20
30
40
(&I)
50
60
SLUG FREQUENCY
Figan 43.1
CORROSION RATE V . SLUG FREQUEN,CY s FROUDE NUMBER 12
I " " I " " 1 " '
I " "
"
"
- 0
80% water cut 40% water cut
*# *
a 1
5-0 :
I
-+---;
, # I ,
I I
I . I . , I
, ,
60
10
20
30
40
(miri1)
50
SLUG FREQUENCY
Figare 43.2
CORROSION RATE V. SLUG FREQUENCY s FROUDE NUMBER 6
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
It was found that slug flow severely affects the corrosion rates in multiphase systems.
Wall shear stress In slug flow, the instantaneous shear stress at the bottom of the pipe fluctuates with
time and shows large prominent peaks at regular intervals. The peaks may be attributed to the pulses of bubbles at the bottom of the pipe, which give bubble impacts and possible collapse there. The intensity of the shear stress fluctuations and the frequency of the occurrence of the peaks increases with increase in Froude number and decreases with increase in distance into the slug. This is due to the decrease in the level of turbulence at lower Froude numbers and also with increase in distance into the slug. The maximum values of shear stress are much higher than the average values. These values increase with increase in Froude number and decrease with increase in distance into the slug. Due to higher turbulence and higher fiequency of the pulses of bubbles, the corrosion rates also increase with increase in Froude numbers.
Effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors

Inhibitors behave differently in rotating cylinder eiectode, full pipe and slug flows. The inhibitors are more effective in full pipe flow than in slug flow, the effectiveness in full pipe
79
flow being close to 100%. The high levels of shear stress and turbulence in slug flow reduce the effectiveness of the inhibitors. The reduction in corrosion rates in most cases was less than 50%. The turbulence and the impact of the pulses of bubbles may be restricting the formation of a
im stable inhibitor f l .
In slug flow, imidazoline works well at a Froude number of 6, for 40% and 80% water cut. This is due to low level of turbulence at a Froude number of 6. The polyamine salt is ineffective in most of the cases. Very little changes in gas holdup and pressure drop were observed after the addition of imidazoline. Higher concentration of the polyamine salt increased the gas holdup at 40% water cut. This is due the formation of strong emulsions in the oil-water mixture. Little changes were observed in pressure drop within the slug, after the addition of the polyamine salt.
Slug frequency
The corrosion rate increases linearly with in slug frequency for both the Froude numbers. The rate of increase is similar for 40% and 80% water cuts. The increase in corrosion rate is because, the mixing zone of the slug passes over the probe more frequently at higher slug frequencies, thereby enhancing the corrosion process. It is seen that for a Froude number of 12, the stationary slug corrosion rates will be reached at slug frequencies of about 58 and 44 slugslmin for 80% and 40% water cuts,
80
respectively. For a Froude number of 6, the stationary slug corrosion rates will be reached at 19 and 25 slugslmin for 80% and 40% water cuts, respectively.
REFERENCES
Acikgoz, M., Franca, F., and Lahey Jr, R.T. (1992). An Experimental Study of Three Phase Flow Regimes. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 18(3), 327-336. Baker, 0. (1954). Simultaneous Flow of Oil and Gas. Oil and Gas J., 53, 185 Bockris, J.Of.M.,D. Drazic and A.R. Despic (1961162). Electrochemical Acta, 4, 324 and 7, 293. Chow, V.T. (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics, New York: McGraw-fill. De Waard, C., Lotz, U., and Milliams, D.E. (1991). Predictive model for CO, corrosion engineering in wet natural gas pipelines. Corrosion, 47(12), 976-985. De Waard, C., Lotz, U., and Milliams, D.E. (1993). Prediction of CO, corrosion of carbon steel. Corrosiod93, 50, 6911-69117. De Waard C., and Milliams, D.E. (1975). Carbonic Acid Corrosion of Steel. Corrosion, 3 1(5), 177-181. Dugstad, A.E., Lunde, L., and Videm, K. (1994). Parametric study of CO, Corrosion of Steel. Corrosiod94, 14, 1411-14115. Dugstad, A. (1992). The inportance of FeCO, supersaturation on the CO, corrosion of carbon steels. Corrosionl92, 14, 1411-14113. Dukler, A.E. and Hubbard, M.G. (1975). A Model for Gas-Liquid Slug Flow in Horizontal and Near Horizontal Tubes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 14, 337-347. Efird, K.D. and Jasinski, R.J. (1989). Effect of the crude oil on corrosion of steel in crude oiYbrine production. Corrosion, 45(2), 165-17 1.
82 Efird, K.D., Wright, E.J., Boros, J.A., and Hailey, T.G. (1993). Wall Shear Stress and Flow Accelerated Corrosion of Carbon Steel in Sweet Production. 12th
International Corrosion Congress, Houston, Texas, September 19-24, Technical Paper TS 14 194. Ellison, B.T. and Wen, C.J. (1981). American Institute of Chemical Engineering Symposium Series, 77, 161.
Fan, Z., Jepson, W.P., and Hanratty, T.J. (1992). A Model for Stationary Slugs. Int.
J. Multiphase Flow, 18(4), 477-494. Govier, G.W. and Omer, M.M. (1962). The Horizontal Flow of Air-Water Mixtures. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, June, 93- 104. Harrop, D. "Chemical Inhibitors for Corrosion Control," BP Research Centre, Sunbury-On-Thames, Middlesex TW 167LN, U.K. Harrop, D., S. Webster, A.J. McMohan and G.J. Partridge (1993). "Corrosion Inhibitor Selection For Oilfield Pipelines." Corrosion 93, NACE, New Orleans, Paper 109. Ikeda, A., Ueda, M., and Mukai, S. (1985). CO, behavior of Carbon and Cr steels. Advances in CO, Corrosion, 1, 39-51, NACE, Houston, Texas. Jepson, W.P. (1989). Modelling the Transition to Slug Flow in Horizontal Conduit. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 67,73 1-739, October. Jepson, W.P. (1987). The Flow Characteristics in Horizontal Slug Flow. 3rd International Conference on Multi-Phase Flow, Hague, Netherlands, 18-20 May, Paper F2.
83 Jepson, W.P. and Menezes, R. (1995). The effects of oil viscioity on sweet corrosion in multiphase oil, water-gas horizontal pipelines. Corrosiod95, 10611- 106116. Kanwar, S. and Jepson, W.P. (1994). A model to predict sweet corrosion of multiphase flow in horizontal pipes. Corrosiod94, 2411-24112. King, R.A. and Gearey, D. (1981). Internal corrosion of subsea pipelines. Offshore Oil and Gas Pipeline Technology, Oyez Publishing Limited. Kouba, G.E. and Jepson, W.P. (1989). The Flow of Slugs in Horizontal, Two Phase Pipelines. Pipeline Eng. Symp., 20, 37-4 1, Houston, TX, January. Lee, A. H., and Jepson W. P. (1993) : "Study of Flow Regime Transitions of OilWater-Gas Mixtures in Horizontal pipelines," Proc. 3rd International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Singapore, 159-164. Madhane, J.M., Gregory, G.A. and Aziz, K. (1974). A Flow Pattern Map for GasLiquid Flow in Horizontal Pipes. Int. J. of Multiphase Flow, 1, 537-553. Malhotra, A. (1995). Oil-Water and Oil-water-Gas Flow Characteristics in Horizontal Pipes. Ohio University, Athens, M. S. Thesis. McMahon, A J., Webster, D. P., Moros, T., Harrop, D. (1995). Experimental Comparison of the Rotating Cylinder Electrode and Full Pipe Flow for Evaluating Flow Induced CO, Corrosion. Corrosion 95, NACE, Orlando, Paper No. 107, 10711 107114. Mckenzie, M., and Vassie, P.R. (1985). Use of weight loss coupons and electrical resistance probes in atmospheric corrosion tests. British Corrosion Journal, 20(3), 117-124.
84 Menezes, R.J. (1995). An experimental study of the corrosion inhibitor performance and the slug flow characteristics in horizontal multiphase pipelines. Master's Thesis, Ohio University Russ College of Engineering and Technology. Mercer, A. D. (1985). Test Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors," Corros. J., Vol. 20, No.2, 61-70. Neogi, S., Lee, A H., Jepson, W. P. (1994) : "AModel for Multiphase (Oil-WaterGas) Stratified Flow in Horizontal Pipelines," SPE 28799, 553-562. Nesic, S., and Lunde, L. (1993). CO, corrosion of carbon steel in two phase flow. Corrosion/93,49, 64011-640117. Ogundele, G.I. and White, W.E. (1986). Some observations on corrosion of carbon steel in aqueous environments containing carbon dioxide. Corrosion, 42(2), 71-78. Pettus, P. L. and Strickland, L. N. (1975). Water soluble corrosion inhibitors help solve internal corrosion problems. Pipeline and gas Journal, February, 27-29. Sun, J.Y. and Jepson, W.P. (1992). Slug Flow Characteristics and Their Effect on Corrosion Rates in Horizontal Oil and Gas Pipelines. 67th Annual Techcal Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Washington, DC, October 4-7,2 15-227, SPE 24787. Sydberger, T. (1986). Flow dependent corrosion: mechanism, damage
characteristics, and control. British. Corrosion. Journal., 22(2), 83-89. Videm, K. and Dugstad, A. (1989). Corrosion of carbon steel in an aqueous carbon dioxide environment. Part 1: Solution Effects. Materials Performance, March, 6367.
85
39)
Videm, K. and Kvarekval, J. (1994). Corrosion of carbon steel in CO, saturated aqueous solutions containing small amounts of H,S. Corrosion 94, 12, 1211- 12115.
40)
Virk, P.S. (1975). "Drag Reduction Fundamentals," AIChE Journal, Vol. 21, No. 4, 625-656.
41)
Vuppu, A.K. and Jepson, W.P. (1994). Study of sweet corrosion in horizontal multiphase, carbon steel ipelines. Offshore Technology Conference, 7494126574941276.
42)
Vuppu, A.K. (1994). Study of Carbon Dioxide Corrosion of Carbon Steel Pipes in Multiphase Systems. Master's Thesis, Ohio University Russ College of Engineering and Technology.
43)
Zhou, X. (1993). Experimental Study of Corrosion Inhibitor Performance and Slug Flow Characteristics in Multiphase Pipeline. Master's Thesis, Ohio University Russ College of Engineering and Technology.
APPENDIX A
Calculation of Froude number in a hydraulic jump
The Froude number is defined as
Fr,
vt
- Vf
Jgh,
where,
vt v,
=
=
translational velocity of the slug velocity of the liquid film effective height of the liquid film, defined as the wetted area
hEFF =
(A3 divided by the width of the liquid-gas interface (T)

g
=
the acceleration due to gravity
A stationary slug or hydraulic jump can be visualized as a moving slug seen fiom a frame
of reference moving with the translational velocity (V,) of the slug. Hence, substituting
V, equal to 0, Equation 2.1 gives the Froude number for a stationary slug. The Froude
number for a stationary slug is therefore given by the equation:
Fr,
v r
, I -
The negative sign indicates that the direction of flow of the film is opposite to that of the slug front. If r is the radius of the pipe and h is the film height (equal to the gate height), then W T gives the effective height (h,,) of the film, where
Using the mass balance we have
where, A, V, and Q are the cross-sectional area of the pipe, velocity of the fluid in the pipe, and the volumetric flow rate, respectively, the film velocity is calculated. Then, using Equations A. 1, the Froude number for a stationary slug is calculated.
APPENDIX B
Calibration of the hot film sensor to measure the wall shear stress
The hot film sensor is calibrated under fill pipe flow conditions for each oil-water composition. During the operation of the hot film sensor, the sensor temperature is maintained constant by a standard anemometry circuit. A laminar thermal boundary layer grows on the probe in the direction of flow. The instantaneous average heat transfer coefficientfor the probe is proportional to the square of the voltage drop across the sensor. In an ideal developing boundary layer, the heat transfer coefficient for the probe is proportional to one-third of the wall shear stress. Since the temperature of the sensor is high enough, the variations in the ambient temperature have a small effect on the calibration. So, knowing the values of the constants A and B and the bridge voltage V, in the relationship
where,
7,
mean wall shear stress anemometer bridge voltage
the wall shear stress can be calculated. These constants change only with the fluid composition.
For a hlly developed flow within a smooth pipe
where, vs
P
-
superficial liquid velocity density of the fluid moody friction factor

-
0.0791
the fiction factor is valid for
2100 < N < lo5 ,
T is calculated in full pipe flow for different liquid velocities and then substituted in ,
Equation B. 1. A linear plot of (2,)'l3 with V2 determines the values of the constants A and
B.
After calculating the values of the A and B, the changes in the bridge voltage are recorded and substituted in Equation B. 1 to calculate the wall shear stress in slug flow.
APPENDIX C
Principle and working of the slug control system
The control system comprises of two pressure transducers, an on-off solenoid valve, two proportional valves and a manually controlled needle valve. These valves are used to regulate the supply of gas into the system. Figure C. 1 shows how the valves and transducers are connected to the system. PI, P2 and P3 are the pressure taps connected to the pressure transducers TI and T2. TI and T2 have a range of 0-2.8 KPa and 0-9.0 KPa, respectively.
C 1 and C2 are the proportional valves, S is the on-off solenoid valve, and N is the needle
valve. C1 and C2 require a dc input power while, S is operated by an ac power supply. PI is connected to the high side of TI, and P2 is connected to the high side of T2 and the low side of TI. P3 is connected to the low side of T2. X is the ,gas inlet into the system.
Working of the proportional valves The valves C1 and C2 are powered by a 24 volts dc source and their response is controlled by a 0-10 volts input. The input to.the valves is controlled by the pressure drop across the slug. Figure C.2a shows the schematic of the circuitry. T1 has an input pressure range of 0-3.0 KPa and an output range of 4-20 mA current. The current fiom T1 is passed through a variable resistor R1. The resistance of R l is used to fine-tune the gas flow at X to maintain the slug position. The voltage drop across R1, given by V1, is sent as an input signal to C1 and C2 and the valves open accordingly.
91
Working of the on-off valve Figure C.2b shows the schematic of the circuitry. T2 has an input pressure range of 0-9.0 KPa and an output range of 4-20 mA current. The current from T2 is passed through a fixed resistor R2. The voltage drop across R2, which is V2, is sent into a comparator. This is used to compare with V3 described below. Figure C.2b also shows a pressure sensitivity selector for the on-off valve. It consists of a variable resistor R3,which receives its input power supply from the mains. The voltage range across R3 is 3.5-8.5 volts. The resistance of R 3 is can be set manually using a knob. The voltage drop across R3, given by V3, is sent to a comparator. The comparator compares the voltages V2 and V3. Whenever V2 becomes equal to V3, the comparator sends a digital signal to a solid state relay, which then triggers the on-off valve S to be open. The valve S is either totally open or totally closed.
Stationary slug control Initially, the slug is moved into position between the pressure taps P1 and P2 using the needle valve N. The control system is then switched on and the control valves are automatically opened. The variable resistance R1 is set to a value required to keep the slug between P1 and P2. When the slug drifts upstream, the pressure drop into T1 increases, thus increasing V1. An increase in V1 causes the valves C1 and C2 to open some more, thus increasing the amount of gas flow. This pushes the slug downstream. The inverse is also true. When the slug drifts downstream, V1 decreases and the valves C1 and C2 start to close thus, causing the slug to move upstream. The movement of the slug is restricted to within
5-10 cm from the original position of the slug.
Moving the slug back and forth For the slug fiequency experiments the slug has to be moved across the probes A and
B, within the test section. For this purpose the slug is initially moved into the test section.
The resistance R1 is set to zero so that there is no gas flowing through'valves C1 and C2. The control system is then switched on. The resistance R3 on the pressure sensitivity selector is set to the value at which S is supposed to switch on. The needle valve N is totally closed. The slug now begins to drift upstream. When the slug crosses P2 and is moving towards P3, the pressure drop into T2 increases, thus increasing V2. When V2 equals V3, the comparator turns the relay on, which in turn triggers the solenoid valve totally open. This pushes the slug downstream. The timer circuit controls the time for which valve S is open. The value of R3 is high for low frequency slugs and vice-versa. For the high frequency slugs, the valve S is open for a very short interval. For low slug frequencies, valve S opens when the slug just reaches P2, and remains open for a longer time period, thus driving the slug into the pipe section beyond the test section. This is achieved by manipulating R3 and the timer. In some cases, such as for higher Froude numbers, to achieve a lower fiequency, C1 and C2 are also used. This is because, in case of high Froude numbers the slug has a tendency to come back faster as soon as S is closed. Maintaining a small voltage across R1 keeps the slug from coming back fast because, as soon as the slug crosses P2, C 1 and C2 open slowly thus, slowing down the movement of the slug.

Study of Slug Flow Xtics and Corrosion Inhibitor Performance

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STUDY OF SLUG FLOW CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF CORROSION INHIBITORS, IN MULTIPHASE FLOW, IN HORIZONTAL OIL AND GAS PIPELINES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Master of Science

Ashwini Kaul March, 1996

..................................................81 7. APPENDIX A ................................................... 86 8. APPENDIXB ................................................... 88 9. APPENDlXC ................................................... 90

frequency on the corrosion rates.

Flow patterns in gas-liquid flow

Flow regime map for watewarbon dioxide system

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

the acceleration due to gravity.

effect on the thickness of the oil film.

The carbonic acid dissociates to form a carbonate ion:

Predictive models De Waard and Milliams: logi,

corrosion rate (mm/yr) pH of the solution constant

corrosion rate (rnrnlyr) temperature (K)

partial pressure of carbon dioxide (bar)

If the operating temperature is more than T,,

(2.9) was multiplied by a correction factor F,,,,, given by:

FSc,, has a minimum value of one.

The mass transfer term is given by:

- - + 0.67 log (f,) T

corrosion rate (mm/yr) shear stress at the wall (N/m2) constants

F, = 1-1.7 Undulor jump

F,= 1.7- 2.5

F,=2.5-4.5 Oscilbtinq jump

F,= 4.5-9.0 S teody jump

F, >9.0 Strong jump

Hydraulic jumps in open channel flow

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE

Description of the test section

Measurement techniques and procedure

3.3.1 Measurement techniques 3.3.1.1 Corrosion rate measurement

A probe reading x24 x 365 x probe span A time (hours ) x 1000

corrosion rate (mm/yr)

Void fraction and oil-water concentration

A weighted average of the void fraction is then calculated at each position.

Pressure drop measurement

calculations are carried out as follows:

Pressure [=I MPa

Table 3.4.2 Test matrix for the slug frequency experiments

Pressure [=I MPa

Frequency [=I mim-'

80% 40 40% 0.136

* The corrosion rates are measured at the bottom of the pipe

G. Flow height control gate

Layout of the experimental system

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

TIME Figure 4.1.7

Effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors

Full pipe flow

4.2.1.3 Void fraction

Performance of polyamine salt

4.2.2.1 Corrosion rate 4.2.2.1.1

Full pipe flow

Table 4.2.3 Corrosion rate data for imidazoline in slug flow

Equilibrium corrosion rate [=I mmlyr

Equilibrium corrosion rate [=I mmlyr

Table 4.3.1 Corrosion rate data for various slug frequencies

Slug frequency [=] min-'

Equilibrium corrosion rate [=I mmlyr

l I " "~1 " " l- .

--+- 80% water

-+stationary slug (80%water cut)

40% water cut

stationary slug (40%water cut)