Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 1(1), 2008

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 1(1), 2008 ISSN 1943-2429 2008 Ozean Publication

Ottoman Modernization And Literature: A New Approach towards the Transformation Process from Empire to the Nation-state
Ali BUDAK1, Hsamettin NA2
2

Yeditepe University, Faculty of Arts and Letters, Istanbul, Turkey Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Political Science Department, Kutahya, Turkey

______________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract: The first movements towards the modernization in Ottoman thought have been witnessed at the beginning of the 18th century. In this period when the new western values have been shaped under the military, political and executive targets, the tendency for the positive sciences has been crystallized and many essential books have been translated respectively. The first decades of the 18th century, which has been depicted as the wakening in Turkish Enlightenment, naturally, has been the beginning of the process which penetrate many European components from the architecture to home garden decoration, from the food and beverage to the wearing. Thus, firstly Court and the street have been confronted with the gradual transformation. This great transformation is supposed to be reflected in literature as the mirror of the life. Especially the poetry has exceeded the traditional boundaries since the Tulip Revolution. In this study, firstly, modernization process will be analyzed within the extent of Europe and Ottoman comparatively and the explained its reflections on the literature with different dimensions. Key words: Modernity, modernization, Europe and modernization, Ottoman and modernization, literature and modernization, Enlightenment, west, reform ______________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION Modernity is a child of enlightenment that trusts man and reason. That is, it has come up from the basic belief that reason of man can grasp the operation (mechanism) of nature and social order, and that the man can provide the happiness of people with the laws and rules developed by reason. From now on, the man himself will know and determine what is good for him, in other words, he will himself weave the rope of his destiny. In this respect, we should think of modernity as a philosophical movement that developed against the dominance of church, which is strictly dependent upon the sovereignty of reason (Demir 1992: 27). Along with modernity, science has replaced the position of God in the centre of society, thus religious beliefs were allowed only in the private lives. Therefore, transition to modernity which has become deeper with the meanings of secularization and laicism, is accepted to be eventuated with four major revolutions. First of them is the Scientific Revolution. Mechanist and determinist world view has appeared as the main criterion of scientific revolution and pioneered the other stages. Second one is the Political Revolution. According to this revolution source of government is accepted to be the people. Hereafter, the government is by the agency of people and for the sake of people. This is called democracy. Through this revolution democracy has become the mere rational form of the state. The third one is the Cultural Revolution. Laicisation of the thoughts and the rationalisation of all the criteria in every field have been enabled by this revolution. The 89

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fourth one is the industrial and technical revolution. Henceforth, labor process became dependent upon the machinery instead of producing man (Jearniere 1994: 16-21).

I. Europe and Modernity Mere defining factor until the modern period is Christianity in Europe. Geography of Europe whose borders are not certain yet, is as if the other name for a Christian Country. Islam that is growing and spreading rapidly in the Minor Asia, with its the other position, reinforced the Christianity to become one of the most important elements in European identity. Yet in Europe of modern period it is observed that consciousness of nation-state is the most distinctive one among common social identities. Nation-state models that have started to emerge in West Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries seriously harmed the traditional authority of religion during their development in the course of time. Nation-state is defined as a centralised authority unit that domains the monopoly of internal and external sovereignty on a certain geographical land. In medieval Europe, Papacy and Empire are effective, comprising and universal meta-authority and identity units. There are numerous various authority units beneath these. In this case, the individual sees the local authorities such as prince, lord and baron closer to himself and as the universal authorities sees Papacy and Empire distant to himself. In Europe of modern period, at first an integration process took place and through uniting local authority units constituted the kingdoms which will later be replaced by nation states. On the second stage, the ascendancy of universal authority units namely Papacy and Empire has been removed. So as a natural outcome of getting rid of the pressure of both local and universal authorities, individuals started to direct themselves on their own and absolute state tended to gain a national quality from the 18th century. This will continue; social relation forms in local context will totally be overcome, nation identities will be more and more improved for broader and wider relations. Undoubtedly, in such a structure that consists of equal individuals who have broken off their traditional relations and who can evaluate what is good for them, justification of administration will only be able to be established through relying on democratic processes as well. This means the redefinition of mans himself in the world in the direction of new acquisitions. Nevertheless, the crucial element that shaped this great evolution and is primarily effective especially in the universal authorities losing their ascendancies has been that man-centred rational order after the Enlightenment took over the authority of God-centred religious order. On one hand have emerged new bosses called Poppoli Grossi in distant Italian cities away from the influence of Pope and Empire ( na 2005: 27); on the other hand, mercantilism aroused after the Discoveries with the accumulation of means, trade has been reshaped and bourgeoisie emerged. While scientific studies were penetrating into a devastating improvement in order to increase the commercial means of these new classes, national denominations such as Anglicanism, Calvinism, Jesuitism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism and Puritanism emerged. Meanwhile, The Holy Bible was translated into national languages from Latin, afterwards it was distributed to the whole Europe through print, consequently sanctions like excommunication, interdicts, and indulgences happened to have never existed and faith in the Church was thoroughly shaken. During this period, while church was losing its importance and efficiency, the faith of man on himself and his mind was on the rise. The transformation from the passive understanding of no rule can be changed and no mystery of the earth can be solved to the active understanding of everything can be dominated has begun. From then on, there lies the human being at the centre of all cultural analysis and humanism was up surging against the church as a new universal identity. It is for this reason that Christianity is not seen as a determining factor in nation-states, which emerged from city centres, founded by the individuals who took place as different experts in city centres and defined their statues through their earnings. Because general and abstract Christian state has fallen and instead of it new concrete and laic nation-states have been founded. Nonetheless, while nation-states have been defined in the treaties of Westphalia (1648) and Utrecht (1713), an understanding of administration has been underlined on which individuals within those nations agreed in the frame of mundane principles. Laicism, the outcome of Renaissance and Reformation which emerged as a result, while reducing the authority of the Church and increasing that of nation-state on one hand, on the other hand gave way to an understanding of Europeanises which includes the pride of having all these earnings. Namely, even though 90

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it seems to be inconsistent at first sight, the arousal of separate and governing nation-states enabled the formation of a common European identity. Undoubtedly, the overseas spread of Europe has major role in this formation. Overseas expansion of Europe, consequently causing Europe to have global ascendancy, affected the European identity and consciousness profoundly, as well. Expansion of Europe, which started with the Discovery Age in the midst of 15th century, nearly covered the whole world through colonialism afterwards. There lies the role of European societies of the period and their economic conditions, rivalry among the kings, politics devoted to political and economic developments, ambition of honour and victory, and adventure instincts. Secondary but a more crucial reason is that Europe has no other chance. Europe that lost its accommodations in the East with the expansion of Islam totally lost its control over the connections with East due to the rise of Ottoman Empire. The Mediterranean Sea is a Turkish lake till the end of 16th century. Europe has no other chance to try but the ocean. Nonetheless, this is what Europe did and also what took Europe to dominance on global scale. Therefore, expansion of Europe, finding itself on different climates and lands was indeed a result of coercion of Islam and not allowing Europe a survival right in the known world. Overseas expansion of Europe, while it was reinforcing the European identity in the nation-states, simultaneously, gave rise to the exportation of the created values and components to the whole world. However, this was expected to be done in the effect and depth that was reminiscent of emotional and cultural ties provided by Christianity once. That is; Europe presented the values found, adopted and internalized to the other nations as parts of a large project that will always keep itself in the centre. Therefore, there will be a permanent Europe dependency for them. And civilization is given as the name of the project. Europeans started to distinguish themselves as civilized when they met with the other peoples of the world. Definitions of Christian and European, in the 18th century, left their place to the concept of civilized, which covers, together with the previous definitions, all the social, scientific and technical developments. As a consequence, theory of cultural evolution steps integrated with evolutionism and ideology of improvement. 19th century is the age when the nation-states become real nations and Europeans identified themselves with civilization in such a degree that they even formulated a civilization standard eventually with which the other societies were tested: These standards, which in the beginning included enlightenment, rationalism, and scientific revolutions; still continues with the ranges of laicism, humanism, democracy, and industrialisation.

II. Ottomans and Modernity: Western Modernisation process has not been actualized with the same processes in eastern societies. First of all movement has not emerged out of nations own dynamics, but from Europes taking place in the centre of the world as a fast-moving and determining power. Since it had started with the direct or indirect effects of the winds blowing from outside, naturally, it had not been able to blossom properly with the continuous military interventions and under the politic and military suppressions of the European Nations who had already occupied the corners and weaved their dominion webs. Moreover, eastern societies have passed through this stringent and painful adventure in various processes. The Ottoman State is accepted to be the most developed example of empires before modernity and industrialization. It was able to be organized in a very vast geography, was able to keep peoples of different beliefs in order, more importantly, and was able to keep all of them in the same welfare status. If we make a panoramic evaluation of transition to modernity by considering its European phases, presumably, these findings will be able to be made.

II. 1. Scientific revolution and the Ottomans: While the positivist science and philosophy were preparing the Europe to the Age Enlightenment, and while it was growing rich with rational expansions, the same leap was not able to be actualized in the Ottoman State, on the contrary, it went into a retrogressive constriction and dwindling process. In the 16th century, the graphic of science learning and writing of scientific works point out quite the contrary

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direction than that of the Fatihs era. Alteration of direction in the line had become clearer in the first half of the 17th century. There is truly even no trace of remark in the handwritten manuscripts of the period about the positivist science winds appeared in the Europe and about the huge ideological movement that had radically shaken the Ancient Greek based scientific acceptance and understanding. Beginning from 17th century, interest to the rational thinking and positivist sciences retrogressively decreased in the madrasahs and studies were reserved a fortiori to canon law. Although the lessons such as mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy were not disappeared totally, it gives the impression as if they were in secondary consideration. As it can be clearly understood from the works entitled as Layiha given to Murat IV by Koi Bey, and from the Miznl-Hak fi htiyril- Ahakk at the beginning of the 17th century and insomuch that even in the 16th century a throwback in the fields of scientific and spiritual studies in the Ottoman Turkish Madrasahs draws the attention (Advar 1982: 126-127). In this period some of the important medicine books were translated. However, word-of-mouth information or arbitrary quotations, made the trustworthiness of these works controversial. It can be said that these books are important since they indicate the presence of the western medicine. Ideas of Ibn-i Sina (Avicenna) and Galenos (Calinus) were still dominant in those works that had no discussion about great developments of European medicine of the 17th century (Ibid: 135). In the last quarter of the century, in 1685, a geography and atlas was translated with the signature of Ebubekir bin Behramd- Dmk. Most important part of the nine volume work, which were written by a father and a son and translated as Nusretl- slam vel-Srr fi Terceme-i Atlas Mayor, was its inheriting information about the sun centred universe system of Copernicus. In other words, with this work, known shortly as Corafya- Kebr or Tercme-i Atlas Mayor, system of Copernicus had tangled with Turkish knowledge accumulation 142 years after its introduction (Ibid: 154-155). 17th century had been the period in which the Ottoman State started to descent militarily and politically. Yet, this change of statue in the Empire government had been able to be recognized a hundred years later, after the sign of the Karlofa Peace Treaty in 1699 and Passarowitz Treaty in 1718 (Tacan 1999: 29;Lewis 1984: 36-46). Well but why the changing values of the west and developments in the field of the positivist sciences were not become aware of, before the deficiency in the military field emerged? In other words, why the loss of lands and wars had been waited to take a look at what goes on in the west? Because, the reason of the mentioned a-hundred-year delay is resulted from this waiting. If, at an earlier period, the changes taking place around, developments in scientific and technical fields had been recognized and if the indifference about these issues would affect the states military and political power negatively one day would have projected, a recovery movement would have started much earlier. Loss of power would not have waited to boom on the faces with the defeats at battlefields. The crucial question here is, whether the important developments taking place in Europe had never seen or heard, or if they have not been adequately cogitated over, or nothing was able to be done although everything was known and dwelled on or nothing was able to be done? Albeit at the start, the opinion that excessive confidence in military and economic power overshadowed the glance of periphery and consequently repressed a serious evaluation in time comes into prominence more. The Ottoman State reached the apex of its power in the 15th century. Overconfident to herself, to her culture, and to her sociologic structure, being in the position of worlds superpower. Under this superiority psychology, statesmen, savants, and scholars who saw themselves in the centre of the world, were not able estimate that there were different developments taking place in different regions and that they would grow very large in the course of time. Since there were no military or economic needs, they did not concern themselves with scientific or technical researches. Thus, they were not able to know about Renaissance, could not comprehend its importance, and they were not able to turn the great developments in the fields of science, technology, and industry to account. However, oddly, in that period of the history of the Ottoman Empire, factors which would be singly answers to other questions can be encountered too. a. Turks time of contact with western culture goes down even to the centuries of 7th 9th when they first reached to Mediterranean Sea. Both cultures, - after the 11th century mainly Turks represent the eastern 92

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culture- had always been in cut-throat struggle and fight. Crusades continued for many decades. At first the balance went wrong in favour of eastern culture. However, together with Renaissance, went into a new revival period, in a short period outbalanced and succeeded to turn the balance to their pims. Because, the Ottomans, who were the only representative of eastern culture, because of the traditional enmity those have been going on for ages, were not able to evaluate the ongoing developments properly. Perhaps, they did not believe to obtain good and beneficial things those were harmless to their own values. According to lken, continuing of the understanding that the science and technique of the west should be taken but cultural values even in the 19th and 20th centuries almost after a thousand years, is a sign of the continuation of this understanding. b. This approach, indeed, is able to explain the fanatic manners and shufflings of the 18th and 19th centuries. However, when the history of Ottoman Empire is considered wholly, some connections between the two cultures stand out those cannot be explained with the traditional enmity. Many examples can be counted about Ottomans adopting a thing that they do not have when they thought it is useful and beneficial without any hesitation. Ottomans became the heir of Western Roman Empire in the first remove, while they were taking the Anatolia and Rumelia completely under their control. Ottoman-Turk History, with the saying of Halil nalck, from a to izzard; is a renewal and modernisation history over against the exigencies. In all periods, especially during the rising epoch in which they had no fear from outside, from the west; that is, from Christian Europe, while carrying out any technical or cultural the transfer, Ottomans did not exhibit any sort of abstention. Quite the contrary, they found their accomplishments in adopting the novelties which stepped up their material power from the outset. Moreover, especially the reformist Islamic erudite had not seen any fault to expand limits of weapon-tool concept which they used to permit in line with the verse against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power. It included all the tools, science, and technique those are beneficial to and assure the future of Islam and Islamic society. According to this principle, Ottoman State, from birth, went into a strong acculturation process over against Europe. Ottoman rulers did not hesitate to adopt the enemy weapon and tactic in 1444 during the Crusade invasion when there was a total regression and evasion in Rumelia. War tactic of Wagenburg that is called rifle and battalion battle had been adopted in that period and became one of the most important factors of Ottoman conquests. On the other hand, as a result of the close contacts some customs had been adopted and affectionate relations were developed from time to time. Shaving grew into fashion and became a problem in society even in the early 19th century. Anonymous Tvrih-i l-i Osman that reflects the public point of views commented on the Yldrm Beyazds defeat of Ankara as; Ottoman Princes during his time set about imitating the foreigners, started to shaving, and all these happened because of this. Faith the Conqueror did not mind to host Italian painter Gentile Bellini in the palace and have his picture painted (Uzunarl 1988: 150). Yet the speed and creativity that was shown in 15th century acceptance of the invention of artillery is evident and created remarkable results (Lewis 1984: 26). If these transfer had not been done in time, such as if the firearms had not been taken, who knows, maybe today, not only Trkiye but also whole Islamic world would have been in totally different situation. By courtesy of this early awakening, Ottoman, even in the 16th century where the regression period started indistinctly, had the technology potential to a degree that is enough to let her build her own ships and arms. ( nalck Ibid: 53). c. In line with this development again, there some examples encountered about Ottomans not abstaining totally indifferent to the outer world scientific developments. Even in the 16th century, an observatory was founded but could not be perpetuated. Because, societys socio-psychological and material conditions prepare the transfer of modern scientific method as a cultural factor. If the quotation of the needed method is the first level, To dispose and to guarantee the remaining of that method in the society are the second and the third levels which are more important than the first one. If the society is not ready or does not have a socio-cultural frame to internalize and develop such a method, the application does not have the chance of means. During the aforementioned period of the Ottoman positivist scientific methods were not able to grown up, were not able to penetrate into social and economic life and thus were not able to result in technology( nalck 2005: 270). d. Meanwhile, we have to consider some ineluctable external reasons for sure. As a result of geographical explorations the world got larger far and away, together with different regions and climates new conditions emerged, and the diachronic flow of history has changed its direction. In 1492 Christophe Colombo while 93

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looking for India found a new continent and Magellan circulated the Pacific in 1502. With the passing of large seas control to Europe, the Mediterranean-India route had become dull and on the way countries, Trkiye as the leading and her subjects, have lost their economic significance. New merchant countries that have coasts to Atlantic such as Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, France, and England superseded the large old merchant sites of the Mediterranean Sea. In contrast to the development of these nations that have huge economic sources, near and middle-eastern countries gradually declined. Now, in such a condition, holding the present situation for Ottomans is dependent on doing the job they know best, winning new battles and actualizing conquests even greater than the past. Keeping the political balance will be possible only in this way. e. However, the Empire reached her natural borders of expansion in the 16th century and was faced with unsurpassable obstacles. In eastern border, in spite of the victories of Selim I, and Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman armies were not able get into the lands of Iran; consequently, possibilities to reach Middle East and India disappeared. Equally, they confronted with the great and well-built Portuguese vessels in eastern waters. Ottoman vessels which were especially built for calm seas were not able surmount these vessels, which were made for rough waters of the oceans and equipped with heavy arms. Ottomans were also stopped in Crimea and in further lands in the north by Russia. On the other hand, desert, mountain and climate conditions formed obstacles that are not possible to exceed easily. In Mediterranean Sea, after a short while, sea dominance shifted to the mariner countries of the west. More important than all the aforementioned is that Ottoman Armies reached a border from which they can not go further in Europe. Yet Europe is the main axis of Ottoman expansion. Europe has been the promised land of the Ottomans after the first crossing of the Istanbul strait in the midst of 14th century. But now, regression is point at issue not proceeding in those sacred lands. Many things have changed, new war, especially supply and transportation techniques were developed in Europe. According to Lewis, Ottomans not being able to proceed into Europe is a phenomenon that has devastating effects in itself. When we come to the reason, Ottoman state was born in between the border of Islam and Byzantium Christianity. Her leaders and armies have been the frontier warriors in the Holy War who carry the sword of Islam to new countries. Ottoman gazis (one who fights on behalf of Islam) and dervishes believed they were conveying the true belief and civilization to the peoples who were drown to infidelity and barbarism. Border provides recompense and occupation to her swordy stalwarts and also to her ecclesiastics and in a sense forms the reason of her real existence of her state characteristic for the Ottoman state. It is true that, in the 16th century, this state had become an empire out of a frontier warriors principality, but border customs and traditions stroke deep roots in Ottomans military, social, and religious lives. In view of these circumstances, it is impossible for them not to get affected from the closure of the borders for more expansion and colonization. Military organization, civil administration, tax and territory administration systems had always been organized according to conquests, colonization and according to a social structure that expands towards infidel countries. When the regressions started from the older borders apart from forming new borders, all the gaps in these fields had become impossible to cover. f. Another reason for Ottomans incremental regression as of 17th century in the race she was leading and her failure to recognize the scientific movement that started a new period in Europe is related with the general culture and understanding of the society. Ottoman intellectuals, let continuing the present traditional manners go at, did not go at acquiring new knowledge methods. Present knowledge acquiring methods have also been used employed until 16th century in the west. These were; Aristotelian Logic, Close Observation and Experiment, and looking at the Holy Book the Holy Koran. Aristotelian logic, since it only used to teach the needed principles to let the brain work properly, it was not able to be used to produce new knowledge. Likewise, Muslim intellectuals, since they dependent on observation and experiments in limited measures, were not able to get into different ways of searching. Because, according to assumption that crystallized in Al-Gazalis famous fire-cotton example, it not possible to think that we could not get the same results at all times, at every place, in everywhere, and in every condition by looking at the observation and experiment of fire burning cotton. This would be attributing absolute independency to the nature and natural beings. But, created things are never ever independent from the Creator; both in the way they exist and the relationship among them have been pre-ordered by the Creator Himself; thus Devine intervention may manifest itself in different ways than the generalisations made by looking at

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observation and experiment. If experiment and observation are going to be done, they can only be done to determine the purposeful existence links among the created things. The third one of the traditional knowledge acquiring method is emerged out of the great respect paid to the Holy Koran among the Muslims and especially among the Ottomans. Holy Koran has not seen only as a divine source that organizes mundane and exotic life. The Holy Koran is a true source of knowledge; that never fails nor deludes. If it is read and scrutinized with common sense, man can find all the answers to the questions that emerge out of his brain concerning himself and universe. Therefore, whether the knowledge, in the scientific works done in the Ottoman lands, is attained through the first method or the second method, all the knowledge should to be in contradiction with the knowledge attained through the Holy Koran, which, thus, gained certainty. If any contradiction or such an image happens to come out, then an epistemological crisis will be inescapable and a way out will be searched in a flurry. This case is accepted to be the most important quandary of the scientific history of Ottoman Empire. Because there emerged cases in which such contradictions were overcome; that is, an agreement was brought about, but there were cases in which no agreement were not able to be brought about. In the cases where the agreement was not able to be brought about, position is taken in favour of the Holy Koran. Muslim scientists were not able to voice the knowledge they attained by employing other resources until the second half the 19th century when, though partly, the state passed the level of laicism. They many times preferred to keep silent. Perhaps, one of the main reasons of pledging allegiance to the philosophy of Aristotle, astronomy of Ptolemaios, and the medicine of Calinus, even after they have learned about the positivist sciences that developed in the west, as if they were fulfilling a necessity, should be this traditional understanding. During the ages, somehow, an agreement between the aforementioned sciences and the Holy Koran has been brought about, in other words, the Holy Koran recognized these sciences. At this point, it is understood that it is matter of courage to replace Aristotle, Ptolemaios, and Calinus with Descartes, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and Harvey.

II. 2. Political Revolution and the Ottomans: Turkish social life has been shaped in the system of pyramids. There stands the sultan on the top. His sovereignty is unquestionable. Since he is the head of religion at the same time, any sort of disrespectfulness to his sovereignty is seen among the big sins. Any disrespectfulness to him and his sovereignty will harm the state and in the end to the interests of the subjects (ztuna 1977: 139). Because he is the representative of God in the earth and his duty is to keep order of the world and society. Here stands the most distinctive feature of Ottoman regime that differs it from western tradition. The relations between the state and society are totally different than that of the west. According to this, the Ottoman State had not seen herself bound to society and did not lean her system on the advantages of any class or classes. Political sovereignty did not get its power from the society but divine source, and it had developed and expanded through the conquests (Berkes 1978: 30). Ottoman sultans came into prominence as the most centralised and absolute monarchs even in the Islam history. As a reflection this absoluteness in the administrative fields, not only did they content themselves to give the states authority to her subjects and to establish the sovereignty of state over the land, but they also formed military and civil bureaucracy by organizing and employing intellectuals who in return helped them in administration. And by taking all sorts of foundations under the control of the state, they had strengthened their authority that has not seen in any of the Islamic states up until then. He established a balance by combining two important titles in his own blessed personality: a caliph on one hand that made him the head of religious affairs and supreme commander on the other hand that made him the head of army, which represent divine and material powers respectively. Although the limits of soldiers and intellectuals were drown and separated cleverly in the hierarchic order, having this balance in the service of the state in harmony which is extremely difficult to preserve, is seen one of the secrets of the Ottoman State. There were four main social classes in the social structure of the Ottoman State; state officers, people of the cities and towns (bourgeoisie), villagers, and slaves. The one who get salary from the state or the one who got the right to control lands instead of salary, either a soldier or a civil officer, is included in the military class. They do not pay tax. Bourgeoisie consists of merchants and artisans. They 95

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and villagers are called reaya. These classes pay taxes according to their incomes and production. There is no serfdom that existed in Europe and America until the end of 19th century. However, there are slaves owned by the rich in the cities. They are the people who were brought from outside the empire and who were sold as slaves. A Citizen of the states becoming a slave is out of question. Unlike the European tradition again, it is possible and easy to move among these classes. Since there is no nobility, there is no barrage. There are grand viziers and bride-grooms to the sultans that coming from villagers and slaves. The only privileged family by birth is Ottomans. Being born as an Ottoman on fathers side enables that person privilege. Besides this, a poor villager can hope and rise to all posts of the state as much as a grand viziers son (ztuna Ibid: 139-141). According to Max Weber, Ottoman Empire forms the typical example of sovereignty that descends from father to son. However, Ottoman Empire differs here too from other European societies in state-society relations for her self authenticity. In Western Europe political system, the social structure that derived from reciprocal relationships gradually turned the individual into an effective power. Yet, in the Ottoman Empire, until the 19th century, there is no observation in which there is stress upon the individual and individuality. It is clear that, in the Ottoman Empire in which the politic unity depends not on the state but on the religious classification, the centralized authority that reign all fields of life, made the formation of a civil society quite difficult. It is understood from person or persons getting their social statues and identities only from the congregations they belong to where citizenship does not include individuality.

II. 3. Cultural revolution and Ottoman Religion, especially Christian criticism had been one of the dominant determining themes of Enlightenment idea. In French Enlightenment, snapping from Middle Ages tradition is emphasized strongly, the Official religion(Roman Catholic Church and its religion understanding) shown as the biggest obstacle for science, progress, equality, individual and social freedom. French Enlightenment that is the pioneer and the preparer of French Revolution showed the most stricter oppose against religion and at the end with deism, Voltaires idea that God created the world at the beginning and then left the world and nature alone with its own laws, a soft pass had done (idem 1997: 49-50). The Ottoman State, that was an emperorship before modernity, had its legitimacy from transandantal. Sultan, in the capacity of khalifa is the agent of God in the face of the earth. But Sultan in the Ottoman State, as the leader of Islam religion, never had an authority like Pope, and did not have a right of interpretation the religion as Pope. Khalifa symbolized the union more. Padisah is the owner of pure power in management and application, obligated to protect and apply eriat at the same time. Absolute power of Padisah stops at the borders of eriat. Furthermore, after Yavuz Sultan Selims reign and especially during the collapse term, traditional sovereignty area of Padiah has restricted and narrowed, performing activities of the government controlled by eriat. In the 17th and 18th century fetva(religious permission) was asked for all important state works. Moreover some Padisahs dethroned from the sovereigntiy because of Eyhlislams fetvas claiming that Padisah was against religion Forexample, in Ataullah Efendis fetva for executing III. Selim, it is claimed that the Padisah lost his future in Saltanats throne and worked with foreigners and moved against Muslims so is not capable for Hilafet ( Cevdet Paa, Tarih, C: VIII, p. 446-449). This case is a result of the idea that means the basic is religion and state exists for religion. In line with this thinking eyhlislams had an authority over Grand Vezirs (Uzunarl 1988: 178). After all these samples is Ottoman state is a state of law? According to nalck it is possible to answer this question with both of yes and no answers. Yes it is a state of law. Because; Euroasian khans, formed with a rule or law. Ottoman Padisahs continued this tradition. Fatih published two Kanunname(law). The first one is Devlet Kanunnamesi (law of State) that puts organizations and the hierarchy in order. The second one is Reaya Kanunname (law of folk) that arranges punishment and status of folk. Every problem had been solved by the government according eriat and kanun. So hundreds of laws made the Ottoman state a state of law which were out of eriat,

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No, it is not a state of law. Because everyone were dependent to laws except Padisah and he was above all laws. His will was restricted with only slams eriat. Because the law maker was Padisahs will and he cant limit himself with the law that he made. A legal changing, realizing the limitation of Padisahs will was done in 1876 with Kanun-i Esasi but Abdlhamit II cancelled this law and turned back to the old tradition ( nalck 2005: 183). Ottoman State, in spite of not being a eriat state, the reason of widespread understanding through this is the laws and regulations were done via caring about eriat. National and religious law harmonized with small adjusts. Laws that were prepared by Ebussud Efendi with the request of Kanuni Sultan Sleyman are very successful samples of harmony. Another indicator which proves the Ottoman regimes unreligious character is it consists and accepts other religions. As Berkes mentioned, in a real theocratic regime there is no religions except the states formal religion. There are some exceptions but in the Christian States none of the religions like Islam and Jew were allowed even more other sects of Christianity were prohibited. Most popular sample of this situation is 17th Centurys France. Islamic law, Islamic sects, Religion of Moses, Religion of Orthodox in the Ottoman political regime gave a theocratic appearance to the Ottoman state. But this situation is a legal appearance moreover then a theocratic view (Berkes 1978: 28-29).

II. 4. Industrial Revolution and the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire completed its development according to the production, transportation and interaction technology conditions before the industrial revolution. The Empire had a limited central army and a land system that was integrated with the military system. Within that system reaya is bound to the land. The ownership system determines the sultans, tmar owners and reayas responsibilities in the system. Nation system of the Empire enabled different groups of different religions to live together without any conflict, in peace. It is seen as a self-sufficient World Empire during XV-XVII centuries. It was at such a position that The Empire was able to afford the highest life standards and the highest level of defense without importing any raw material or any kind of material. In fact, there was import as well as export but these were not at a considerable amount. The public had enough savings to live at least an average life and the Treasure was full enough to make the system move. It did not need to borrow any money from any government. Moreover, it was lending money to other countries and helping them in other respects. Towards the end of the 18th century, the life standards and national income of the Turkish public were at a high degree when compared with other nations of that time (ztuna Ibid.: 27). But neither the government nor the public life was as it used to be. Firstly, the conquests (expansion) had stopped long time ago. The army could not conquer new places and that stopped the advancement in a country where development and growth were dependent on conquests. European Nations that realized revolutions one after another in science, education, technology, thinking and that discovered new trade routes over took the superiority of the Ottoman Empire in technology, law and civilization. The Empires income was decreasing slowly and the sole remedy of this condition trade was not developed among Ottoman citizens especially among the Muslims. Muslims hesitated to accept the new conditions and they hesitated to find new trade routes by traveling to the other countries. In fact the land system affected this up to a point. The urban traders were moving on the habitual and traditional local trade. But that local attitude was not suitable for the economy of that time and introvert attitude did not bring anything but the end to the Ottoman trader. While the Ottoman trader was facing that condition, European trader was buying raw material from the Empire for a low price and selling these back to the Ottoman Empire after producing materials ready for consumption. Naturally, hand- made Ottoman products could not challenge with industrial mass production of the European products. French, English, Dutch, Venice traders started to trade in Anatolian cities such as Izmir, Ankara, Kayseri, Bursa Balkesir, Aydn, Manisa, Ktahya and Konya. Rumanians and Armenians were the mediators of trade between foreign traders and Muslims because they knew languages of the both side very well. They took advantage of this opportunity and moved to higher positions. In short, in the 18th century Ottoman Empires trade system started to break down and European trade started to shine (zkaya 1985: 10-13).

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III. The Stages of Modernity Process in Ottoman Empire It was impossible for the modernity project; first to transform Ottoman Empire which is qualified at science, politics, culture and economy then to give an end to an Empire by dividing it into nation- states in a short time. It can not have been expected that a complex and solid based system like Ottoman Empire can dissolve without resisting against an external effect. In fact, the perception and adoption of the modernity by Ottoman governors was unplanned and a total result of independent small steps. While looking for a solution, whenever a problem occurred they chose the easiest solution. The choices made at the times of crisis led to the inevitable end. If we over look the period between when The Empire faced the results of modernity in Europe and The Empire turned out to be a nation-state, the summary made above is justified by the facts. According to the general model, the transformation from a pre-industrial Empire to a nation-state was realized at 4 stages (Tekeli 2002: 19-42). At the first stage, the solutions of the problems were looked for within the social and political system. It was recognized that something was unusual but the reasons were not diagnosed properly. So the improper diagnosis prevented solution. At the end, as every problem was thought to be stemming from the existing system and every thing was fine in the past, they tried to solve them by strengthening the old system. That stage corresponds to the Ahmed IIIs and his Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pashas period, when they started following the West by realizing military and systematical deficits. At the second stage, components of modernity started to take part in society with some reforms. The relation with European Countries got closer as the foundations that helped them to over take were copied one by one. The aim was very practical: To find easy solutions for the internal problems. But nothing went on as it had been thought. These borrowings of the system affected the society and caused a political transformation in the state. That stage corresponds to Selim IIIs and Mahmud IIs periods. At the third stage, parallel to the stated change and transformation, some groups and individuals had courage to imply their political thoughts and demands. Undoubtedly, it is hard for political thoughts or movements to demand power in a society in which the source of power is divine. Thus, the first political thoughts criticized the mistakes of government in stead of criticizing the legitimacy of the existing power, The Sultan. The demands were always limited in that way. Third stage corresponds to the Abdlmecids, Abdlazizs and Abdlhamid IIs periods. At the fourth stage, the Empire was disunited and nation-states started to exist in place of the Empire. From then, the source of power was public and democratic elections determined the legitimacy. At that stage, with the change of power, modernization project got rid of its timid profile. Nationalization came into being within the radicalized modernity understanding. At the second and the third stage, modernity project was expected to avoid the breaking of the Empire into pieces but at the fourth stage modernization was a vehicle for economic development of the nation-state. The fourth stage of modernity corresponds to II Merutiyet and Republic periods (Tekeli Ibid: 27).

IV. Literature in the modernization process Two different comments have been made for the Tulip Age. The first and long lasting of these is a negative perspective within entertainment and extravagance frame. According to the second and newer perspective Tulip Age is a Renaissance in Turkish Art. Both comments are exaggerating the Tulip Age but it is obvious that Tulip Age is a reflection of a new life style. Tulip was the symbol of a different thinking that was in peace with life and nature; that was taking pleasure of beauty and beauties; that was in hesitant to express these pleasures. But as Enver Ziya Karal emphasizes, everything was not perceived for pleasure, happiness or a happy life stuck in an Epicurian frame. Because while all fine arts especially literature was given great importance, thinking was also accepted holly and given importance. Through the new channels, new science and technology found way into the Empire but that was not a complete movement. According to the lines of the document informing 28 Mehmed elebi about his duty when appointed to Paris by Damat brahim Pasha , he was responsible for observing and studying deeply the cultural and educational aspects of France ... and preparing a report about the aspects that can be applied in the Empire. Those lines are the proof of the importance given to the modernization. 28 Mehmed elebi prepared Sefaretname and returned to Istanbul. That report was the first gate to Europe. His son Sait Mehmed Efendi 98

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went to Paris with him and when he returned, he accomplished to build up the first technology borrowed from The West. It was the first publishing office in Istanbul and inspiration of Paris had a great role in it (Karal 1988: 55-58). Ahmed III, Grand vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha and people around them were ready and enthusiastic for any change in social and cultural life. After the return of 28 Mehmed elebi Efendi; the French Architecture affect, the emergence of baroque and rococo style are seen in the buildings that were built according to the plans he brought from abroad. European affect was not limited in architecture; it spread to the other areas of life. New palaces and mansions were built along the Bosphorus and The Golden Horn. In spring and summer great parties were given in which men and women of every class (Dohsson 118-119) participated freely.

IV.1. Society and Literature Literature is a social structure which uses the language, symbols, traditions, understandings and conceptions created by the society for itself. All norms and components that are materials of literature can only exist in a society. Moreover, literature symbolizes life and life is a social reality at the highest degree. Poets and writers are special members of the society who have importance and status within the society. They are praised and accepted by the society or the people surrounding them. They write for a mass of readers whether it exists or not. In that frame, while the men of literature are expressing and manifesting the society, they both influence the society and are influenced by the society. Since, art not only recreates life but also shapes it. A work of literature as a social document, may give clues about the main structure of the society its born. History, a rich source for sociological researches is not as useful as literature in that respect. History looks at nations or societies only as political communities and studies them in the international affairs dimension. Historical documents such as treaties, laws, decrees, minutes of meetings ...etc. mean something only when they are examined by the historians. However, literature can revive human beings with their virtuous, vices, hopes, passions, loves, anxiety, grief, excitement. Literature can reflect the colors and sounds of all the classes of the society without any need for a historian (even a historian of literature) to mediate. We can find our ancestors alive with their clothes, posture, thinking, traditions when we open old pages of a poetry book (Levend 1988: 53). Naturally the opposite of this (vice versa) is also a matter of fact. In other words, the social conditions that work of literature came into being help us to analyze the poets or writers understanding of art and style. In Agah Srr Levends words: Every work of literature; is a thinking, dreaming, understanding world of its own age. It caries all properties, leisure, art styles, gossips, beliefs, real and unreal informations about that period. No matter, how for the Classical Literature is to real life, it followed the tendencies in social life and caries reflections of them. (Levend 1980: 7). In fact, the Classical School of Literature or The Classical Turkish Literature (Akn 1994: 389-390) is not at a great distance from life. Otherwise, it was impossible for it to grow, expand, and live for nearly 600 years. Maybe the important topics related to the large scale of the society were expressed in an elevated language and with an artistic approach that most people could not understand. The existence of all kinds of relations between Classical Literature culture and society is a more probable possibility. It is not logical to suppose that there was not any relation between Classical literature and the culture (Andrews 2000: 32). The main reason for accepting Classical Literature belonging to the high society is the idea that it came into existence in the Ottoman Palaces and mansions (Tanpnar 1976: 10). It takes its name from the Great Council named Divan. From the very beginning, the Ottoman Palace had been the most charming and prosperous place of shelter for the poets. Poetry in the Ottoman Empire got richer day by day and became an outstanding example for the whole world with the attendance and shelter of other cultural circles. In time, it reached roots of a long history and deepness that can not be seen in Western civilizations (Akn, Ibid.: 389-394)

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IV. 2. Tulips and Poets During the tulip age with the protection and care of art lover Sultans (kings) and Grand Vezirs (each of them were poets), Palace ( ottoman palace) was a welcoming place for the poets. The changes that the Palace was experiencing affected the poets of the period (esp. Nedim). In other words, the works of the poets were affected by the compliments of the Palace. Undoubtedly, the emergence of European impact in daily life had a great role in the poets attitude. Moreover, the change in the poets attitude was a breaking point in literature and it must be a right perspective to approach this breaking point as a first degree result of changes in the social life. Classical School of Poetry has got rules that requires strict obedience and protected these rules for centuries with some exceptions. Palaces and inhabitants of the palaces changed a lot but Classical poets had never been in a need for a change. They always used the same arts and forms. In that case, it is not a mistake to relate the obvious change in topics and perspectives of tradition of literature in 18th century to the westernization process. It is a widely held opinion about the weakest point of Classical Literature that: it is lacking variety for expressing humanistic feelings and insufficient for analyzing and expressing hopeful, gloomy, happy or painful atmosphere of the human soul. (Levend Ibid: 640) On the other hand, Nedim had been the journal of changing lifestyle in Istanbul by his songs and lyrics as a concrete personality in his poems who reflects pain, hope, pleasure etc. (Akn Ibid: 410). Seyyid Vehbi told the entertainment life of that age in detail in his Surname and Osmanzade Taib made realistic and striking social comments. Architecture was developing in Baroque style and Ottoman painters were embroidering these buildings with the pictures of flowers and fruits. Pictures of scenery were painted on the room walls, windows, wardrobes; not only in the Palace but also in the houses of public. It is stated that during the first half of the 18th century, there were 40 painters in the garden of Bayezid Mosque who were painting on towels and handkerchiefs. Embroidery developed with the painting. The masters pieces of Ottoman embroider were in mosques or palaces. In that century, Classical Turkish Music reached the highest point and raised great composers, virtuosos and singers (Uzunarl, Osmanl Tarihi, C:IV (II), p. 553-568). The Palace had been more welcoming and more protecting than ever for the poets during the Tulip Age. That age had been short but dense period of renovation in daily life, fine arts, science and technology (Gibb 1999: 275). A ring of artists gathered around Ahmet III and Ibrahim pasha and in time that esthetic concern expanded. But The Palace centered expansion of art was more concerned with the public where it should be related to the Palace. In that age , when compared with the previous centuries, it is obvious that most of the pieces of Classical Literature contain public life and that is at the highest point (Pala 2003: 84-85). That is not a strange situation that should be perceived neither a contradiction nor a betrayal of artists. Maybe the distinctive property of that age underlies here. The attitude of artists is very normal. The wind of the change blew from The Palace and affected both the public and the daily life. In other words, the first change started within the Palace. So the artists didnt change the tradition and produced their art according to the factors that surround them. While doing these, they were able to stand close to the public. In that age, The Palace opened the doors with its life style, entertainments and festivals. In other words, The Palace was popularized. While The Palace and the public were getting closer mutually, a closer relation occurred between the classical poet and the public. That relationship came into being not only with the simple expression of traditions, entertainment (amusement), local characteristics and places in poetry; but also by the expanding popularity of poetry among all social classes and daily life. Hedonism, a life philosophy that emphasizes leisures of the world and entertainment, became the shallow source of poetry as a result of Istanbuls and Palaces addiction to leisure and entertainment. Moreover, there had been a change not only in theme and topic but also in the language of the poetry. Nedim was the most successful and outstanding representative of this trend. Nabi was the realistic and social, Sabit was the satiric and humorous facet of the Turkish Poetry while Taib was observing the ordinary daily life and struggling for the public. With Nedim, Turkish Poetry opened to new horizons, tasted freedom, became peculiar and modern but soon after the Rebel of Patrona and the death of Nedim, this wind of new trend lost its power and declined to the point it had started. 100

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The death of Nedim gave an end to an age. The wind ceased blowing after the tulips all over the city were reaped by blunt knives and all the beautiful palaces were ruined by aggressive crowds in Istanbul. It never had the opportunity to blow again in the new age that started under the shadow of sharpened swords and dark walls. Tulip Age was not any longer than a Tulips lifespan and that age was a temporary enlightenment period in a great history. Hasan Ali Ycel names that period as The Liar Dawn (Ycel 1938: 220-226). According to Tanpnar, Nedim is a sudden perfect and kind sound in the orchestra of 18th century Turkish Poetry. He could have changed a whole literature but was he only a season or a spring? (Tanpnar 1977:172-173). In reality, the governments situation; public lifes color, air and flow got darker and darker gradually due to new Padiah, new Vezirs and new conditions. In fact everything didnt turn into the worst with Mahmud I period. Moreover, it is stated that Mahmuds period was the last good days of the Empire from a political view (ztuna 1976: 157-160). But that period was full of hard wars and struggles. Osman III had no significant service except appointing Grand Ragp Pasha to the Grand Viziers post. Following Osman III, Mustafa III period was full of unlucky events and external factors. 10 years of peace was given an end in 1767 by the breaking out of Russian War (1768-1774) and Mustafa IIIs military, monetary and social reform struggles were not accomplished. The Emperor was gradually going down while England, Russia and Prussia were rising. Abdlhamid I Age started after a defeat against Russians and Kk Kaynarca was signed which was a treaty containing hard conditions for Ottoman Emperor. The economical crisis was at the highest degree when the resources and opportunities were at the bottom. The government was exhausted by both against the rebels of the states and in the wars against Russia and Austria. These internal and external problems shaped at he poetry the same way it did to the government and the society. While the government was suffering, the poetry was alone waiting for its fate. The parallelism between the governments destiny and the poetry is not a coincidence. In addition to the ceaseless wars The Palace was buried under the internal and external affairs which killed even imagining the poetry (Bilgegil 1975 VI-VII). In fact, while the Tulip Age was passing away, the new poetry lines of Nedim, Nabi, Sabit were kept alive by strong poets. But it had never been possible to get together and make up a strong style of poetry for these poets due to various reasons. Parallel to the historical process, the fall in the poetry became more apparent at the second half of the 18th century. This decline weakened poetic feeling and esthetic expression (ex. Nedims expressions) while strengthening Nabis style of hikemi which was based on observation, experience and decision making. Seyyid Vehbi, Edirneli Kami, Historian Rashid, Great Ragp Pasha followed mostly Nabis footsteps but sometimes Nedims style. Seyh Galib turned over the last pages of this long century in which The Ottoman Emperor realized that there is a world beyond their borders and started to think about it. First tulips, then rebels and endless wars became the characteristic of this century. eyh Galip shone like a sun from behind the clouds but this enlightenment disappeared with him. Galibs peculiarity and his attempts for modernizing the Classical forms of poetry were not perceived or understood by the other following poets. As a result, poetry got lost in a nebula again. Then, conscious attempts started in social life for westernization. New organizations and official foundations started to take part in daily life, a desire for a change spread from the top to the public. During the 19th century, the pioneer and the defender of modernization bureaucracy class became more active. Theological Scholars had been losing power for a long time and they lost their whole power by European style reforms, abolishment of Yeni eri Oca, and Tazminat Ferman containing secular components. Before Mahmud II established Asakiri Mansurei Muhammediye, (Karal 1999: 28) an army which is similar to the western armies, he established a more important foundation which helped bureaucrats to be the sole masters of modernization attempts. This unit was Translation Room. When sending students systematically to Europe started, there was a unit in the Emperor that was regulating the communication with Europe. Translation Room prepared the public and the government to meet with Europe starting from 1820s, in the 101

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process of reshaping the government and change. That room gave an end to the monopoly of Fener Rum in translation. Translation Room became a real school in time and gained importance after it became a unit in Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Starting from Abdul-Azizs period, it was a circle in which a new world perspective developed and a new politic idea was shaped. That circle had a great effect on uniting westernization idea and political struggle idea while causing new to cover the whole thinking and artistic life. Simple language and novel rules were introduced by this circle. Two important names of Tanzimat Age, Ali and Fuat Pashas were members of this Translation Room. Mnif Pasha , Ahmet Vefik Pasha, Ethem Pertev Pasha, Saffet Pasha, inasi, Agah Efendi, Namk Kemal, Sadullah Pasha , Kani Paazade Rifat, Macit Pasha, the owner of Mirat news, Refik are some of the names who found identity in Translation Room (zon 1941: 8) and they directed the ideological life of the period. Said Bey called this group as opposition party of Babali. Translation Room was the first place to meet French literature thinking as it was the gate for the shift from Classical Literature to Tanzimat Literature. We should consider Translation Room, New army in European Style, Medical School for army, and Military School for officers as a whole step for modernization (Tacan1999: 129-130). After Mahmud II developed engineering schools he completed the modernization efforts ring by introducing journalism to the Turkish society. He needed to inform the public about the reforms. Newspapers played an important role in modernity project for ottoman Emperors shift to a nation-state. They over-took such a mission at the beginning and nearly all of the journalists were officers of the state. Journals and the journalists shaped the culture, literature and politic life of that period. Most of the journalists such as Mnif Pasha, inasi, Namk Kemal, Ziya Pasha, and Ali Suavi were also men of culture and literature. Tanzimat age literature started with the reflections of social movements and arose upon modern foundations and on an expanding social base (Kaplan 1971: 1). The change and renovation expanded rapidly in every aspect of daily life. As a result a new literature became a must. While novels, theatres, dramas and poems were introducing European life style to the Turkish people, it was bringing up an intellectual generation which has new politic, economic, cultural and social views. Literature was strictly loyal to the elements of Tanzimat. Mens of Literature sole target was modernity. From that perspective we can conclude that Tanzimat literature has got a complete social character (Akyz 1979: 12-14). During the Serveti Fnun Age, the literature became personal because of the hard political conditions. Men of Serveti Fnun literature had been educated in western style and had known west very well. So they didnt have any difficulty in remembering the social function of the literature after Merutiyet II. Fikret created utopias that will rescue not only the nation but also the whole humanity. Finally, Turkish Republic was about to get its shape over the base prepared by National Literature Movement.

CONCLUSION After we have summarized the developments in literature parallel to the metamorphoses experienced started in the first years of 18th century there appears a question like this: Why the literature of Administrative reforms of 1839 (Tanzimat) that was build on the institutional reforms of Mahmud II, that is seen as the second enlightenment age ( nalck 2005: 190) had ushered a new era while the effect of literature that had become clear in Nedims personality did not get deep in the Tulip Age, which is seen as an awakening era that is said to be the first enlightenment age in Ottoman history? Many things can be said about this topic; both literatures and periods can be compared at length. But what must be mentioned presumably will be the difference between the social conditions of the two periods. The Tulip Age truly has the signs of awakening. It is doubtless that the senior management of the period is sincere and sentient about the goings-on in the west. However, movement had been a limited activity that was partaken only by senior management a minor group of the senior management. Adopted modernity facts were not able to be empowered by institutional structures, more importantly, they were not able expand to substructure. Apart from the provinces, even the dwellers Istanbul have also seen themselves outside the circle when the support they gave to the rebellion considered. In this condition, the hedonist literature that came out in the palace, when the conditions that helped it emerge, pined away rapidly, diminished for a long time and dimmed. It must be admitted that the transformation to a modern perception, first of all, is a problem of 102

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shift of mentality and education. Even though a felicitous choice was made, to be on the road is not enough alone, adoption and expansion of understanding, and preparation of an appropriate ground are needed. Even so, 19th century is the age when the Ottoman Empire accepted the superiority of the West in all the fields. Now then they got into a period which can be accepted in the shape of submission ( hsanolu 1992: 392). Although the Ottomans accepted to obtain only the technical facts voluntarily and consciously up until that time, in this century they started to excerpt laws and even customs. State was tried to be Europeanized with all her institutions, almost all of her mechanism had been re-established. Palace was decorated according to European palaces, new posts such as marshalship (mirlik) chamberlains (mabeyin), marshalship (mirlik) clerkships were established. Pens of the Sublime Porte had been ameliorated, and they were turned to a sort of schools. All these gradually changed the structure and life style of the society. Western life style that was felt as a waft in the upper class, now went down to the lower class and reverberated itself in the way people dress themselves too. It can be said that from the Administrative reforms of 1839 until the 1860s, Turkish society opened widely its doors without any control mechanism. Here it is this new life that produced the new literature.

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