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WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

SCE 3106
Compiled by Azman Bin Omar IPG Kampus Sultan Mizan

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

TOPIC 1

Primary Science Teaching

SYNOPSIS This topic discusses about the teaching of science in primary schools. It explains the aims of science teaching and emphasizes the components in primary science curriculum. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic teachers will able to : 1. Explain the aims of teaching science in primary schools. 2. List down the components that are emphasized in the teaching of science curriculum in primary schools.

TOPICS FRAMEWORK

PRIMARY SCIENCE TEACHING

AIMS OF SCIENCE TEACHING

EMPHASIS IN PRIMARY SCIENCE

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY

PROFESIO NALS IN SCIENCE

SCIENCE CONCEPTS

SCIENTIFIC AND THINKING SKILLS

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES AND NOBLES VALUES

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY CONTENTS 1.0 WHY SHOULD WE TEACH SCIENCE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS? The two main general goals of science education in primary schools are: i. To inculcate scientific literacy so that people can make sensible decisions about science related issues that affect their lives. ii. To produce competent professionals in the various scientific disciplines.

Scientific literacy is the capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify questions and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and helps to make decisions about natural world and the changes made to it through human activities. Scientific literacy will help the population to: i. ii. iii. iv. develop effective solutions to problems foster intelligent respect for nature avoid being prey to dogmatists assess use of new technologies.

Embodied in Vision 2020 is the challenge to establish a scientific and progressive society, a society that is innovative and forward-looking. The challenge is also to establish a society that is not only acts as consumer of technology but also as a contributor to the scientific and technological civilization of the future as well. Our primary science curriculum is developed in line with this vision.

Malaysian primary science curriculum aims to develop pupils interest and creativity through everyday experiences and investigations that promote the acquisition of scientific and thinking skills as well as the inculcation of scientific attitudes and 3

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY noble values. The Primary Science curriculum is designed to stimulate pupils curiosity and develop their interest as well as enable pupils to learn more about themselves and the world around them through pupil-centered activities. This will provide the pupils with experiences to build their interest in science and opportunities to acquire scientific and thinking skills.

The emphasis of the Malaysian primary science curriculum are learning through experience relevant to pupils daily lives, developing scientific and thinking skills, applying scientific principles and inculating scientific attitudes and noble values. (Yeoh P.C. & Gan C.M. 2003 p22)

Science exploration for children is science inquiry exploring materials/events, asking questions, investigating, recording/representing their work, reflecting on what they have done and what it means allowing them to create new theories or ideas about how the world works. These skills, attitudes, and ways of thinking are important to many areas of learning throughout life. In primary schools, pupils are learning scientific skills because:

o They are the methods used by scientists in investigating and constructing answers to questions about the natural world. Through using the process skills pupils learn science in a manner similar to the way scientists conduct their investigations. o Meaningful learning takes place when pupils are using process skills to explore the environment and to acquire and interpret information, leading to the construction of their own knowledge. o They are not only useful in science learning but are also applicable across disciplines and experiences and thus,

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY useful in making personal decisions and in solving problems. o Scientific theories and principles may be modified or replaced when found to be inconsistent with new evidence. Unlike scientific knowledge, process skills do not become obsolete. (Wan Yoke Kum et. al, 2003 p 33) Teaching scientific skills should be integrated into the science content. The science process skills need to be taught explicitly at the initial stage and reinforced through further practice. The skills should be introduced in progression to match the stages of cognitive development in pupils. At level one, pupils are expected to learn basic process skills. Whereas for level two pupils, the basic process skills will continue to be reinforced and developed further while integrated process skills are introduced.

Give the benefits of scientific literacy to the world population

Tutorial 1 By referring to the article Higher Order Thinking discuss how we implement HOTS in Primary Science teaching. Tutorial 2 Discuss how Ten Myths of Science opens up your minds about the misconceptions that you might have. Give an example of a misconception that portrays each myth.

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Find the 5-E instructional Model and prepare a ppt. presentation.

Skamp, K. (Ed.), (2004) Teaching primary science constructively (2nd ed.).Melbourne, Australia: Thomson Learning.

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Tutorial 1

Higher order thinking Russell Tytler, March 28, 2004 There is a lot of focus currently on the notion of higher order thinking, particularly in relation to the Middle Years concerns, focusing on engaging students in meaningful learning. Terms such as the Thinking Curriculum are used to describe a school focus on deeper level ideas. Higher order thinking is used as a term to describe a number of related ideas, all essentially held to be in contrast to rote learning, learning of facts, superficial thinking etc. Schemes such Blooms taxonomy have been used to order knowledge forms in a hierarchy, with information at the bottom (Bloom called it knowledge but the term tends to have a wider meaning these days), then comprehension, then higher levels such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The three tiered intellect uses similar terms, with higher order thinking being associated with words such as interprets, analyses, reflects, evaluates. Also associated with higher level thinking are dimensions of creativity, or divergent thinking. Emphasising, in science tasks, such things as creativity, imagination, flexibility all aim at developing in students a capacity to think through ideas and apply them to a range of contexts, to think outside the square and to think critically. Higher level thinking is also associated with investigative practices in science, and with problem solving. Such behaviours and knowledge as asking investigable questions, designing investigations or measurement procedures, critically evaluating evidence, thinking of ways to test ideas etc. are all part of what we would hope an engaged and resourceful student to be doing. The first two SIS Components of effective teaching and learning are closely related to higher level thinking. These are given below, with links to the science education literature.

1. Encouraging students to actively engage with ideas and evidence Component 1 is a key characteristic of effective teaching and learning. It is linked with a number of important ideas that appear in the science education research literature, and in curriculum and innovation change projects. The key idea embodied in this Component is that real learning is an active process that involves students being challenged, and 7

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY challenging each other, rather than accepting received wisdom and practicing its application. A predominant image projected by this Component is thus one of the active, searching mind. The underlying logic of this Component is consistent with constructivist insights into learning. This does not in any way diminish, however, the role of the teacher. If anything it makes teachers roles more complex and difficult, in asking them to encourage students to express their ideas, but to maintain a high standard of challenge and attention to evidence based on scientific traditions. The Component combines two ideas that learning involves activity and engagement, and that scientific processes fundamentally involve argument from evidence. It is hard, in a practising science classroom situation, to separate these notions. Related ideas in the science education literature: Sharing intellectual control, or student centredness The idea that students ideas be treated with respect is well established in research on students conceptions and research on learning in science. The Monash University Extended PD materials, now embedded within the SISPD program, emphasised this control aspect. One cannot expect students to be engaged with a pre-packaged program entirely dictated by teachers understandings, and this Component asks that teachers take some risks in acknowledging that students, if they are to learn, must be given a measure of control over the ideas that are discussed. Inquiry based learning This is a term much in vogue in the U.S., implying that science teaching and learning must be based on students actively exploring and investigating and questioning. This is different to discovery learning which, in its pure form, implied somehow that students could learn science simply by undertaking appropriate practical investigations, and under-represented the critical role of the teacher in structuring and responding to student experiences. A related phrase often used in primary science education is hands-on, minds-on science. It is the minds-on part that is referred to by this Component. Student autonomy, and responsibility for learning These ideas emphasise both the active and intentional nature of learning and the purpose of schooling in promoting autonomous adults. Engagement is a prior condition for both. The Middle Years concern with student engagement with ideas and with schooling is also linked to this Component. The Component should not be thought about, however, simply in terms of motivation or a willingness to join in. It focuses clearly on ideas. Maximising student-student interaction A video study of mathematics and science teachers (Clark, 2001) found that the key determinant of a rich learning environment was the amount of high

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY quality student student dialogue. This could be taken as one of the critical features of engagement with ideas. Community of learners This idea of a class or group as a community dedicated to particular forms of learning sits comfortably with Component 1, since engagement with ideas and evidence can be interpreted as a communal enterprise. Social constructivism, or socio cultural theory, is also linked with this idea. Argumentation there is growing interest in idea that the ability to frame and respond to argument is an important focus for science education. Science as it is practised in the community is characterized by argument based on evidence. Science processes and concepts of evidence The teaching of science processes has a long history in science education. These are sometimes called skills, but in fact there is a good deal of knowledge associated with things like experimental design, measurement principles, or analysis. Evidence is handled in science in particular ways (eg. principles of sampling, or variable control, or measurement procedures) and learning how this occurs in a more formal way is a part of this first Component. The teaching and learning focus associated with this would include being taught how to do things like sample biological data, control variables, set up tables, deal with measurement error etc. These may be taught explicitly, but teaching for an understanding of the way evidence is used would imply that students need to learn to make decisions about design, measurement and analysis. Open ended investigations form an important end of the practical work spectrum. 2. Challenging students to develop meaningful understandings Component 2 raises the questions what does it mean to understand something in science, and what is meaningful? Neither are straightforward questions. The teachers who were originally interviewed to develop the Components talked of deeper level understandings, or understandings that would be revisited in different situations to enrich and challenge. Related ideas in the science education literature: Student conceptions The research into student conceptions shows clearly that students come to any science topic with prior ideas that will often contradict the science version of understanding, that can interfere with learning. Learning, and gaining understanding should be viewed often as a shift in perspective rather than something implanted over nothing. The conceptual change literature, which emphasises probes of understanding, and challenge activities, is thus relevant to this Component. Lesson and topic structure becomes important for the development of understanding. 9

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Metacognition The work of the PEEL project has important links to this Component, focusing on student learning strategies, and control over learning. If students are to establish deeper level understandings they need to be helped to develop good learning habits, and to monitor the adequacy of their own understandings. These ideas underlie the thinking curriculum focus of some of the Middle Years projects. Higher order thinking Many writers have made the distinction between shallow and deep, or low and higher order thinking. Blooms taxonomy identified higher order thinking as associated with the application and evaluation of ideas. Ideas such as the three story intellect attempt a similar hierarchy. Deeper or wider? A commitment to looking below the surface is one way of describing this Component. Another aspect of meaningful understandings is the insight that ideas are tools to be applied rather than concepts to be arrived at. The ability to use an idea in interpreting the world is a critical part of understanding. Divergent thinking Part of what a meaningful understanding should be involves the ability to use it to solve unexpected problems, or to generate a variety of related ideas. The ability to think divergently or laterally is part of what a meaningful understanding is. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) In order to support students in developing understandings, it is essential for teachers to be knowledgeable themselves (content knowledge), not so they can tell, but so they can listen and challenge. The other form of knowledge needed is that of how students learn particular concepts the difficulties they experience and the different ways they may interpret the science idea. We call this PCK. Improving Middle Years Mathematics and Science: Components relevant to Higher Order thinking Recently (in early 2004) we have been engaged in developing a set of Components of effective teaching and learning in mathematics and science, and examples to support two components dealing with higher order thinking are given below.

3. Students are challenged to extend their understandings Students engage with conceptually challenging content such that they develop higher order understandings of key ideas and processes.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 3.1 Subject matter is conceptually complex and intriguing, but accessible 3.2 Tasks challenge students to explore, question and reflect on key ideas 3.3 The teacher clearly signals high expectations for each student This Component is demonstrated when: Students are challenged to reflect on their response to tasks Open questions are asked that call for interpretive responses The teacher poses questions and hypothetical situations to move students beyond superficial approaches Students are asked to represent their understandings in a variety of ways Including frequent open ended problems and explorations The teacher provides experiences and poses questions that challenge students understandings, and encourages them to apply ideas to unfamiliar situations Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students ideas and encourage discussion and ongoing exploration Historical case studies are used to explore how major science ideas developed Higher order tasks involving the generation, application, analysis and synthesis of ideas, are well represented, for example, by the teacher using Blooms taxonomy in planning. Students are provided with questions or challenges as the impetus for learning and encouraging and supporting students to construct their own responses to such questions Open-ended problems or tasks are set that require divergent responses and provide the opportunity for solutions of differing kinds to be developed. Students are encouraged to examine critically and even challenge information provided by the teacher, a textbook, a newspaper, etc. The teacher sets learning challenges that require students to analyse, evaluate and create 11

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

The teacher uses higher order thinking tools when planning activities to allow for multiple entry points and to develop higher order thinking skills such as synthesis, evaluation etc. The Component is NOT demonstrated when: Investigations or projects run without significant class discussion of the underlying science. Class activities which are fun, with surprising outcomes, but without follow up of ideas in subsequent lessons, or framing of the ideas behind the activities. Science concepts are treated as things to be learnt, emphasising formal definitions. There is a presumption that it is the teachers role to control what is to be learnt, and how it is to be learnt. Classroom work is constrained or recipe like, without room for discussion or debate of purpose or methods Lesson plans contain too much material to allow sustained discussions in response to student questions Activities focus on having fun without a real focus on conceptual understandings 5. Students are encouraged to mathematical and scientific thinkers see themselves as

5.1 Students are explicitly supported to engage with the processes of open-ended investigation and problem solving This Component is demonstrated when: The teacher plans to strategically build opportunities for students to develop hypotheses in practical work, and to extend and question interpretations The teacher encourages students to raise questions in class, arising out of observations, or experience. Students are encouraged to make decisions in practical investigations concerning hypotheses to be explored, experimental design, measurement and recording techniques, analysis and interpretation. This component is NOT demonstrated when: 12

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Students are given a choice of investigations to carry out, but without training in appropriate experimental techniques and with no group commitment to the ideas being tested. A class experiment focuses on control of variables (fair testing) without a clear conceptual proposition. For instance, the permeability of sand, loam and clay soil is tested, with attention paid to controlling for water, amount of soil, technique, but without discussing the purpose or the reasons why they might differ. Practical work is recipe-like, without room for discussion and debate of purpose, methods, analysis. 5.2 Students engage in mathematical/scientific reasoning and argumentation This sub-component is demonstrated when: Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students ideas and encouraging discussion, speculation, and ongoing exploration Time is allowed for discussions to arise naturally and be followed in class, and encouraging investigations to resolve questions The teacher shares intellectual control with students The learning program includes frequent open ended investigations or short-term open explorations The teacher encourages discussion of evidence, including disconfirming evidence such as anomalies in experimental work, in text book explanations, in observations, or in public reports of science The teacher provides students with questions or challenges as the impetus for learning and encourages and supports students to construct their own responses to such questions Students are encouraged to challenge or support or amplify others contributions. The sub-component is NOT demonstrated when: There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as distinct from understanding

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY Lesson plans are strictly followed, with too much material to be covered to allow divergent discussions in response to student questions or comments. Students work mainly individually, with not much whole-class or small- group discussion. Class discussion is dominated by the teachers voice. Teacher questions are mainly closed, with a particular response in mind. There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as distinct from understanding. Intellectual control is firmly maintained by the teacher. Examples to illustrate the Component: The history of science ideas is strongly represented. Eg. A science topic on disease focuses on the history of our understanding of the bacterial nature of infection, to emphasise the power of science insights, and the way evidence is used to test and verify theories in science. Attention is paid to the processes of hypothesis generation and experimental design Eg. Yvonne ran an animal behaviour unit for her Year 1 class. They discussed, using observations of a classroom pet rat, the difference between observation and inference. They learnt the technique of time sampling of animal position and behaviour using birds in a cage, and one, then two rats in an enclosure. Following discussions about the survival implications of behaviour, they then examined crickets and came up with a class list of questions about cricket behaviour, or structure and function. Pairs of students designed, carried out and reported on a chosen question, using a template that required presentation of data in two formats, and an evaluation of the generality of the findings. The focus in the discussion continually referred back to the adaptive purpose of particular behaviours. Eg. Year 10 students studying genetics investigate recent claims there has been cross-breeding of genetically modified soy into local crops. They look at the suggested mechanism for cross-pollination, and study genetic techniques, to come up with suggestions about what controls should be in place. Planning is flexible enough so that student ideas and questions can be genuinely followed up, perhaps by further investigation. Eg. Julies Year 4 class raised the question about how long a ballpoint pen would last. They discussed how you 14

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY would find out, then arranged a comparative investigation with different brands, measuring the length of line with appropriate controls. Eg. During a genetics unit, the question of genetically modified food captures student interest and leads to a debate informed by independent research using the web. Anomalous results from experiments are discussed openly in the class. Eg. Craigs Year 8 class found an experiment culturing bacteria gave anomalous results. Before handing the cultures back to groups he displayed them, then led a discussion in which they discussed the surprise results to come up with some possible reasons and an evaluation of the adequacy of the controls they had put in place. Eg. A class uses de Bonos thinking hats technique to fully explore the greenhouse effect. Eg. A unit is planned using the interactive approach, whereby students questions are discussed and refined to form the basis of investigations forming the core of the unit. Current issues are discussed in class, which encourage students to raise questions about evidence, or the ideas underlying such issues. Eg. Methods of responding to a contemporary outbreak of foot and mouth are discussed and debated, using newspaper analyses. Eg. The nutritional value of childrens lunches is discussed, using evidence from a resource book on dietary principles. Eg. In a unit on road safety, evidence related to the wearing of seat belts, or of bicycle helmets, is debated in the context of public policy. Open-ended tasks are set that encourage divergent, creative thinking Eg. Students are asked to use their science understandings to design a system, or technological device, such as an automated plant nursery, or method of analysing the movement of a netball player. Eg. Students are challenged using what would happen if.. questions (If gravity on earth was stronger, if we could clone dinosaurs), or take place in hypotheticals.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Tutorial 2 TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW... W. McComas 1996 This article addresses and attempts to refute several of the most widespread and enduring misconceptions held by students regarding the enterprise of science. The ten myths discussed include the common notions that theories become laws, that hypotheses are best characterized as educated guesses, and that there is a commonlyapplied scientific method. In addition, the article includes discussion of other incorrect ideas such as the view that evidence leads to sure knowledge, that science and its methods provide absolute proof, and that science is not a creative endeavor. Finally, the myths that scientists are objective, that experiments are the sole route to scientific knowledge and that scientific conclusions are continually reviewed conclude this presentation. The paper ends with a plea that instruction in and opportunities to experience the nature of science are vital in preservice and inservice teacher education programs to help unseat the myths of science. Myths are typically defined as traditional views, fables, legends or stories. As such, myths can be entertaining and even educational since they help people make sense of the world. In fact, the explanatory role of myths most likely accounts for their development, spread and persistence. However, when fact and fiction blur, myths lose their entertainment value and serve only to block full understanding. Such is the case with the myths of science. Scholar Joseph Campbell (1968) has proposed that the similarity among many folk myths worldwide is due to a subconscious link between all peoples, but no such link can explain the myths of science. Misconceptions about science are most likely due to the lack of philosophy of science content in teacher education programs, the failure of such programs to provide and require authentic science experiences for preservice teachers and the generally shallow treatment of the nature of science in the precollege textbooks to which teachers might turn for guidance. As Steven Jay Gould points out in The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone (1988), science textbook writers are among the most egregious purveyors of myth and inaccuracy. The fox terrier mentioned in the title refers to the classic comparison used to express the size of the dawn horse, the tiny precursor to the modem horse. This comparison is unfortunate for two reasons. Not only was this horse ancestor much bigger than a fox terrier, but the fox terrier breed of dog is virtually unknown to American students. The major criticism leveled by Gould is that once this comparison took hold, no one bothered to check its validity or utility. Through time, one author after another simply repeated the inept comparison and continued a tradition that has made many science texts virtual clones of each other on this and countless other points. 16

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY In an attempt to provide a more realistic view of science and point out issues on which science teachers should focus, this article presents and discusses 10 widely-held, yet incorrect ideas about the nature of science. There is no implication that all students, or most teachers for that matter, hold all of these views to be true, nor is the list meant to be the definitive catolog. Cole (1986) and Rothman (1992) have suggested additional misconceptions worthy of consideration. However, years of science teaching and the review of countless texts has substantiated the validity of the inventory presented here. Myth 1: Hypotheses become theories which become laws This myth deals with the general belief that with increased evidence there is a developmental sequence through which scientific ideas pass on their way to final acceptance. Many believe that scientific ideas pass through the hypothesis and theory stages and finally mature as laws. A former U.S. president showed his misunderstanding of science by saying that he was not troubled by the idea of evolution because it was "just a theory." The president's misstatement is the essence of this myth; that an idea is not worthy of consideration until "lawness" has been bestowed upon it. The problem created by the false hierarchical nature inherent in this myth is that theories and laws are very different kinds of knowledge. Of course there is a relationship between laws and theories, but one simply does not become the other-no matter how much empirical evidence is amassed. Laws are generalizations, principles or patterns in nature and theories are the explanations of those generalizations (Rhodes & Schaible, 1989; Homer & Rubba, 1979; Campbell, 1953). For instance, Newton described the relationship of mass and distance to gravitational attraction between objects with such precision that we can use the law of gravity to plan spaceflights. During the Apollo 8 mission, astronaut Bill Anders responded to the question of who was flying the spacecraft by saying, "I think that Issac Newton is doing most of the driving fight now." (Chaikin, 1994, p. 127). His response was understood by all to mean that the capsule was simply following the basic laws of physics described by Isaac Newton years centuries earlier. The more thorny, and many would say more interesting, issue with respect to gravity is the explanation for why the law operates as it does. At this point, there is no well. accepted theory of gravity. Some physicists suggest that gravity waves are the correct explanation for the law of gravity, but with clear confirmation and consensus lacking, most feel that the theory of gravity still eludes science. Interestingly, Newton addressed the distinction between law and theory with respect to gravity. Although he had discovered the law of gravity, he refrained from speculating publically about its cause. In Principial, Newton states" . . . I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypothesis . . ." " . . . it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained . . ." (Newton, 1720/1946, p. 547). 17

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Myth 2: A hypothesis is an educated guess The definition of the term hypothesis has taken on an almost mantralike life of its own in science classes. If a hypothesis is always an educated guess as students typically assert, the question remains, "an educated guess about what?" The best answer for this question must be, that without a clear view of the context in which the term is used, it is impossible to tell. The term hypothesis has at least three definitions, and for that reason, should be abandoned, or at least used with caution. For instance, when Newton said that he framed no hypothesis as to the cause of gravity he was saying that he had no speculation about an explanation of why the law of gravity operates as it does. In this case, Newton used the term hypothesis to represent an immature theory. As a solution to the hypothesis problem, Sonleitner (1989) suggested that tentative or trial laws be called generalizing hypotheses with provisional theories referred to as explanatory hypotheses. Another approach would be to abandon the word hypothesis altogether in favor of terms such as speculative law or speculative theory. With evidence, generalizing hypotheses may become laws and speculative theories become theories, but under no circumstances do theories become laws. Finally, when students are asked to propose a hypothesis during a laboratory experience, the term now means a prediction. As for those hypotheses that are really forecasts, perhaps they should simply be called what they are, predictions. Myth 3: A general and universal scientific method exists The notion that a common series of steps is followed by all research scientists must be among the most pervasive myths of science given the appearance of such a list in the introductory chapters of many precollege science texts. This myth has been part of the folklore of school science ever since its proposal by statistician Karl Pearson (1937). The steps listed for the scientific method vary from text to text but usually include, a) define the problem, b) gather background information, c) form a hypothesis, d) make observations, e) test the hypothesis, and f) draw conclusions. Some texts conclude their list of the steps of the scientific method by listing communication of results as the final ingredient. One of the reasons for the widespread belief in a general scientific method may be the way in which results are presented for publication in research journals. The standardized style makes it appear that scientists follow a standard research plan. Medawar (1990) reacted to the common style exhibited by research papers by calling the scientific paper a fraud since the final journal report rarely outlines the actual way in which the problem was investigated. Philosophers of science who have studied scientists at work have shown that no research method is applied universally (Carey, 1994; Gibbs & Lawson, 1992; Chalmers, 1990; Gjertsen, 1989). The notion of a single scientific method is so pervasive it seems certain that many students must be disappointed when they discover that scientists do not have a framed 18

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY copy of the steps of the scientific method posted high above each laboratory workbench. Close inspection will reveal that scientists approach and solve problems with imagination, creativity, prior knowledge and perseverance. These, of course, are the same methods used by all problem-solvers. The lesson to be learned is that science is no different from other human endeavors when puzzles are investigated. Fortunately, this is one myth that may eventually be displaced since many newer texts are abandoning or augmenting the list in favor of discussions of methods of science.

Myth 4: Evidence accumulated carefully will result in sure knowledge All investigators, including scientists, collect and interpret empirical evidence through the process called induction. This is a technique by which individual pieces of evidence are collected and examined until a law is discovered or a theory is invented. Useful as this technique is, even a preponderance of evidence does not guarantee the production of valid knowledge because of what is called the problem of induction. Induction was first formalized by Frances Bacon in the 17th century. In his book, Novum Organum (1620/ 1952), Bacon advised that facts be assimilated without bias to reach a conclusion. The method of induction he suggested is the principal way in which humans traditionally have produced generalizations that permit predictions. What then is the problem with induction? It is both impossible to make all observations pertaining to a given situation and illogical to secure all relevant facts for all time, past, present and future. However, only by making all relevant observations throughout all time, could one say that a final valid conclusion had been made. This is the problem of induction. On a personal level, this problem is of little consequence, but in science the problem is significant. Scientists formulate laws and theories that are supposed to hold true in all places and for all time but the problem of induction makes such a guarantee impossible. The proposal of a new law begins through induction as facts are heaped upon other relevant facts. Deduction is useful in checking the validity of a law. For example, if we postulate that all swans are white, we can evaluate the law by predicting that the next swan found will also be white. If it is, the law is supported, but not proved as will be seen in the discussion of another science myth. Locating even a single black swan will cause the law to be called into question. The nature of induction itself is another interesting aspect associated with this myth. If we set aside the problem of induction momentarily, there is still the issue of how scientists make the final leap from the mass of evidence to the conclusion. In an idealized view of induction, the accumulated evidence will simply result in the production of a new law or theory in a procedural or mechanical fashion. In reality, there is no such method. The issue is far more complex and interesting --than that. The final creative leap from 19

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY evidence to scientific knowledge is the focus of another myth of science. Myth 5: Science and its methods provide absolute proof The general success of the scientific endeavor suggests that its products must be valid. However, a hallmark of scientific knowledge is that it is subject to revision when new information is presented. Tentativeness is one of the points that differentiates science from other forms of knowledge. Accumulated evidence can provide support, validation and substantiation for a law or theory, but will never prove those laws and theories to be true. This idea has been addressed by Homer and Rubba (1978) and Lopnshinsky (1993). The problem of induction argues against proof in science, but there is another element of this myth worth exploring. In actuality, the only truly conclusive knowledge produced by science results when a notion is falsified. What this means is that no matter what scientific idea is considered, once evidence begins to accumulate, at least we know that the notion is untrue. Consider the example of the white swans discussed earlier. One could search the world and see only white swans, and arrive at the generalization that "all swans are white. " However, the discovery of one black swan has the potential to overturn, or at least result in modifications of, this proposed law of nature. However, whether scientists routinely try to falsify their notions and how much contrary evidence it takes for a scientist's mind to change are issues worth exploring. Myth 6: Science is procedural more than creative We accept that no single guaranteed method of science can account for the success of science, but realize that induction, the collection and interpretation of individual facts providing the raw materials for laws and theories, is at the foundation of most scientific endeavors. This awareness brings with it a paradox. If induction itself is not a guaranteed method for arriving at conclusions, how do scientists develop useful laws and theories? Induction makes use of individual facts that are collected, analyzed and examined. Some observers may perceive a pattern in these data and propose a law in response, but there is no logical or procedural method by which the pattern is suggested. With a theory, the issue is much the same. Only the creativity of the individual scientist permits the discovery of laws and the invention of theories. If there truly was a single scientific method, two individuals with the same expertise could review the same facts and reach identical conclusions. There is no guarantee of this because the range and nature of creativity is a personal attribute. Unfortunately, many common science teaching orientations and methods serve to work against the creative element in science. The majority of laboratory exercises, for instance, are verification activities. The teacher discusses what will happen in the laboratory, the manual provides step-bystep directions, and the student is expected to arrive at a particular answer. Not only is this approach the antithesis of the way in which science actually operates, but such a portrayal must seem dry, 20

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY clinical and uninteresting to many students. In her book, They're Not Dumb, They're Different (1990) Shiela Tobias argues that many capable and clever students reject science as a career because they are not given an opportunity to see it as an exciting and creative pursuit. The moral in Tobias' thesis is that science itself may be impoverished when students who feel a need for a creative outlet eliminate it as a potential career because of the way it is taught. Myth 7: Science and its methods can answer all questions. Philosophers of science have found it useful to refer to the work of Karl Popper (1968) and his principle of falsifiability to provide an operational definition of science. Popper believed that only those ideas that are potentially falsifiable are scientific ideas. For instance, the law of gravity states that more massive objects exert a stronger gravitational attraction than do objects with less mass when distance is held constant. This is a scientific law because it could be falsified if newlydiscovered objects operate differently with respect to gravitational attraction. In contrast, the core idea among creationists is that species were place on earth fully-formed by some supernatural entity. Obviously, there is no scientific method by which such a belief could be shown to be false. Since this special creation view is impossible to falsify, it is not science at all and the term creation science is an oxymoron. Creation science is a religious belief and as such, does not require that it be falsifiable. Hundreds of years ago thoughtful theologians and scientists carved out their spheres of influence and have since coexisted with little acrimony. Today, only those who fail to understand the distinction between science and religion confuse the rules, roles, and limitations of these two important world views. It should now be clear that some questions simply must not be asked of scientists. During a recent creation science trial for instance, Nobel laureates were asked to sign a statement about the nature of science to provide some guidance to the court. These famous scientists responded resoundingly to support such a statement; after all they were experts in the realm of science (Klayman, Slocombe, Lehman, & Kaufman, 1986). Later, those interested in citing expert opinion in the abortion debate asked scientists to issue a statement regarding their feelings on this issue. Wisely, few participated. Science cannot answer the moral and ethical questions engendered by the matter of abortion. Of course, scientists as individuals have personal opinions about many issues, but as a group, they must remain silent if those issues are outside the realm of scientific inquiry. Science simply cannot address moral, ethical, aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions.

Myth 8. Scientists are particularly objective Scientists are no different in their level of objectivity than are other professionals. They are careful in the analysis of evidence and in the procedures applied to arrive at conclusions. With this admission, it may seem that this myth is valid, but contributions from both the philosophy 21

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY of science and psychology reveal that there are at least three major reasons that make complete objectivity impossible. Many philosophers of science support Popper's (1963) view that science can advance only through a string of what he called conjectures and refutations. In other words, scientists should propose laws and theories as conjectures and then actively work to disprove or refute those ideas. Popper suggests that the absence of contrary evidence, demonstrated through an active program of refutation, will provide the best support available. It may seem like a strange way of thinking about verification, but the absence of disproof is considered support. There is one major problem with the idea of conjecture and refutation. Popper seems to have proposed it as a recommendation for scientists, not as a description of what scientists do. From a philosophical perspective the idea is sound, but there are no indications that scientists actively practice programs to search for disconfirming evidence. Another aspect of the inability of scientists to be objective is found in theory-laden observation, a psychological notion (Hodson, 1986). Scientists, like all observers, hold a myriad of preconceptions and biases about the way the world operates. These notions, held in the subconscious, affect everyone's ability to make observations. It is impossible to collect and interpret facts without any bias. There have been countless cases in the history of science in which scientists have failed to include particular observations in their final analyses of phenomena. This occurs, not because of fraud or deceit, but because of the prior knowledge possessed by the individual. Certain facts either were not seen at all or were deemed unimportant based on the scientists's prior knowledge. In earlier discussions of induction, we postulated that two individuals reviewing the same data would not be expected to reach the same conclusions. Not only does individual creativity play a role, but the issue of personal theory-laden observation further complicates the situation. This lesson has clear implications for science teaching. Teachers typically provide learning experiences for students without considering their prior knowledge. In the laboratory, for instance, students are asked to perform activities, make observations and then form conclusions. There is an expectation that the conclusions formed will be both self-evident and uniform. In other words, teachers anticipate that the data will lead all pupils to the same conclusion. This could only happen if each student had the same exact prior conceptions and made and evaluate observations using identical schemes. This does not happen in science nor does it occur in the science classroom. Related to the issue of theory-based observations is the allegiance to the paradigm. Thomas Kuhn (1970), in his groundbreaking analysis of the history of science, shows that scientists work within a research tradition called a paradigm. This research tradition, shared by those working in a given discipline, provides clues to the questions worth investigating, dictates what evidence is admissible and prescribes the tests and techniques that are reasonable. Although the paradigm

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY provides direction to the research it may also stifle or limit investigation. Anything that confines the research endeavor necessarily limits objectivity. While there is no conscious desire on the part of scientists to limit discussion, it is likely that some new ideas in science are rejected because of the paradigm issue. When research reports are submitted for publication they are reviewed by other members of the discipline. Ideas from outside the paradigm are liable to be eliminated from consideration as crackpot or poor science and thus do not appear in print. Examples of scientific ideas that were originally rejected because they fell outside the accepted paradigm include the suncentered solar system, warm-bloodedness in dinosaurs, the germtheory of disease, and continental drift. When first proposed early in this century by Alfred Wegener, the idea of moving continents, for example, was vigorously rejected. Scientists were not ready to embrace a notion so contrary to the traditional teachings of their discipline. Continental drift was finally accepted in the 1960s with the proposal of a mechanism or theory to explain how continental plates move (Hallam, 1975 and Menard, 1986). This fundamental change in the earth sciences, called a revolution by Kuhn, might have occurred decades earlier had it not been for the strength of the paradigm. It would be unwise to conclude a discussion of scientific paradigms on a negative note. Although the examples provided do show the contrary aspects associated with paradigm-fixity, Kuhn would argue that the blinders created by allegiance to the paradigm help keep scientists on track. His review of the history of science demonstrates that paradigms are responsible for far more successes in science than delays.

Myth 9: Experiments are the principle route to scientific knowledge Throughout their school science careers, students are encouraged to associate science with experimentation. Virtually all hands-on experiences that students have in science class is called experiments even if it would be more accurate to refer to these exercises as technical procedures, explorations or activities. True experiments involve carefully orchestrated procedures along with control and test groups usually with the goal of establishing a cause and effect relationship. Of course, true experimentation is a useful tool in science, but is not the sole route to knowledge. Many note-worthy scientists have used non-experimental techniques to advance knowledge. In fact, in a number of science disciplines, true experimentation is not possible because of the inability to control variables. Many fundamental discoveries in astronomy are based on extensive observations rather than experiments. Copernicus and Kepler changed our view of the solar system using observational evidence derived from lengthy and detailed observations frequently contributed by other scientists, but neither performed experiments. Charles Darwin punctuated his career with an investigatory regime more similar to qualitative techniques used in the social sciences than the experimental techniques 23

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY commonly associated with the natural sciences. For his most revolutionary discoveries, Darwin recorded his extensive observations in notebooks annotated by speculations and thoughts about those observations. Although Darwin supported the inductive method proposed by Bacon, he was aware that observation without speculation or prior understanding was both ineffective and impossible. The techniques advanced by Darwin have been widely used by scientists Goodall and Nossey in their primate studies. Scientific knowledge is gained in a variety of ways including observation, analysis, speculation, library investigation and experimentation. Myth 10: All work in science is reviewed to keep the process honest. Frequently, the final step in the traditional scientific method is that researchers communicate their results so that others may learn from and evaluate their research. When completing laboratory reports, students are frequently told to present their methods section so clearly that others could repeat the activity. The conclusion that students will likely draw from this request is that professional scientists are also constantly reviewing each other's experiments to check up on each other. Unfortunately, while such a check and balance system would be useful, the number of findings from one scientist checked by others is vanishingly small. In reality, most scientists are simply too busy and research funds too limited for this type of review. The result of the lack of oversight has recently put science itself under suspicion. With the pressures of academic tenure, personal competition and funding, it is not surprising that instances of outright scientific fraud do occur. However, even without fraud, the enormous amount of original scientific research published, and the pressure to produce new information rather than reproduce others' work dramatically increases the chance that errors will go unnoticed. An interesting corollary to this myth is that scientists rarely report valid, but negative results. While this is understandable given the space limitations in scientific journals, the failure to report what did not work is a problem. Only when those working in a particular scientific discipline have access to all of the information regarding a phenomenon -- both positive and negative can the discipline progress. Conclusions If, in fact, students and many of their teachers hold these myths to be true, we have strong support for a renewed focus on science itself rather than just its facts and principles in science teaching and science teacher education. This is one of the central messages in both of the new science education projects. Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993) and the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1994) project both strongly suggest that school science must give students an opportunity to experience science authentically, free of the legends, misconceptions and idealizations inherent in the myths about the nature of the scientific enterprise. There must be increased opportunity for both preservice and inservice 24

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY teachers to learn about and apply the real rules of the game of science accompanied by careful review of textbooks to remove the "creeping fox terriers" that have helped provide an inaccurate view of the nature of science. Only by clearing away the mist of half-truths and revealing science in its full light, with knowledge of both its strengths and limitations, will learners become enamored of the true pageant of science and be able fairly to judge its processes and products. Note: William McComas' address is School of EducationWPH 1001E, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

TOPIC 2 ACQUIRING MANIPULATIVE SKILLS


SYNOPSIS

This topic enables teachers to acquire manipulative skills in scientific investigations. There are psychomotor skills that enable students to master :

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Types and units of measurements Use and handle science apparatus Draw diagrams and apparatus accurately Handling specimens correctly and carefully Clean science apparatus correctly Store science apparatus and laboratory substances correctly and safely.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic teachers will able to :

1. Explain manipulative skills as psychomotor processes which are developed through scientific investigation

2. Explain manipulative skills in scientific investigations that include: a. Types and units of measurements b. Using and handling science apparatus c. Drawing diagrams and apparatus accurately d. Handling specimens correctly and carefully e. Cleaning science apparatus correctly f. Storing science apparatus and laboratory substances correctly and safely.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY TOPICS FRAMEWORK

MANIPULATIVE SKILLS

Types and units of measurements

Use and handle science apparatus

Draw diagrams and apparatus accurately

Handling specimens correctly and carefully

Clean science apparatus correctly

Store science apparatus and laboratory substances

Figure 2 :Content Overview

CONTENTS

2.0

MANIPULATIVE SKILLS

Science emphasises inquiry and problem solving. In inquiry and problem solving processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilised. Scientific skills are important in any scientific investigation such as

conducting experiments and carrying out projects. Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY What are Manipulative skills? Manipulate means to control or use something in a skilful way. So manipulative skills are psychomotor skills that enable us to carry out the practical works. They involve the development of hand-eye coordination and an ability to handle objects with skill and dexterity. Example: A student uses a pair of tweezers and a hand magnifier to examine the inside of a flowering plant.

Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that enable students to: a. Types and units of measurements b. Using and handling science apparatus c. Drawing diagrams and apparatus accurately d. Handling specimens correctly and carefully e. Cleaning science apparatus correctly f. Storing science apparatus and laboratory substances correctly and safely. By mastering the manipulative skills, scientist can get reliable result. Its also can avoid accidents and wastages.

1. Draw and name the apparatus that are usually used for primary science teaching 2. Find out how to use the apparatus above correctly

When using manipulative skills, pupils need to take care of their safety as well as that of their friends. Steps that need to be taken include care when using breakable apparatus, not pointing hot and boiling

substances towards others, avoid by specimens which are sharp, not be bitten by small animals, and accidentally eat substances which are poisonous. Practicing responsibility towards the safety of self and others as a good and noble attitude.

Using a suitable graphic organizer, make a concept map of the importance of mastering the manipulative skills for our pupils. 28

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 2.1 TYPE AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

2.1.1 MEASURING LENGTH To measure lengths, we can use ruler or measuring tapes. The smallest division on a meter rule is 0.1 cm. A meter rule can therefore measure length accurately up to 0.1 cm only.

1. Describe the correct way how to read the scale on a ruler to avoid parallax error. 2. Describe how the diameter of a ping-pong ball can be measured using the meter rule and a pair set squires. A vernier caliper micrometer screw gauge and are common tools used in laboratories and industries to accurately determine the fraction part of the least count division. The vernier is convenient when measuring the length of an object, the outer diameter (OD) of a round or cylindrical object, the inner diameter (ID) of a pipe, and the depth of a hole.

Collect information from several sources about Vernier Caliper and Micrometer Screw Gauge.

2.1.2 MEASURING TIME Time can be measure using apparatus like watch, hourglass, or any device which exhibits periodic motion.

Analogue stopwatch

Digital stopwatch

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY STOPWATCH

Stopwatches are used to measure short intervals of time. There are two types of stopwatches; The digital stopwatch and analogue stopwatch. The digital stopwatch is more accurate than the analogue as it can measure time in intervals of 0.01 seconds while the latter can only measure time in intervals of 0.1 seconds. As the stopwatch is a sensitive instrument, two or three reading may need to be taken and the average time computed. This is due to the fact that the reaction time in starting and stopping the stopwatch varies from person to person.

The typical reaction time of an individual is around 0.2 to 0.3 second. Think of an experiment to estimate the reaction time of an individual.

2.1.3 MEASURING VOLUME

Volume, the amount of space occupied, is usually measured with beaker, conical flask, volumetric flask, graduated cylinder, syringe, burette and pipette. Chemist use the units litres and millilitres, abbreviated l and ml. The graduations on a beaker and a conical flask are only approximate, and are not used for accurate measurement. Pipette, burette and volumetric flask are used for accurate

measurement.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Describe how to use pipette in an acid-base titration correctly. Is it acid or base we put in the pipette in this titration? Why?

2.1.4 MEASURING TEMPERATURE

THERMOMETER

The mercury thermometer is a thermometer commonly used in the science laboratory. The mercury in the bulb is expands when heated. The expansion of the mercury pushes the thread of mercury up the capillary tube. The bulb is made of thin glass so that heat can be conducted quickly to the mercury. The round glass stem acts as a magnifying glass enabling the temperature to be read easily.

1. Discuss the correct way how to use a mercury thermometer. 2. What are the similarities and differences between a mercury thermometer and a clinical thermometer?

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 2.1.5 MEASURING MASS

Mass is the amount of matter an object has. We often use a triplebalance beam to measure mass. A triple-beam balance gets its name because it has three beams that allow you to move known masses along the beam.

Here is a picture of a triple beam balance. You probably have used one in school. There are also many other types of balances. Scientists need balances that can measure very small amounts of mass.

A triple beam balance compares a known mass to an unknown mass it is unaffected by gravity. Unlike a spring scale which really measures weight, the The first beam reads the mass from zero to 10 grams. The middle beam reads in 100 gram increments and the far beam reads in 10 gram increments. By using all three of the beams, you can find the mass of your object.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 2.1.6 MEASURING ELECTRIC CURRENT/VOLTAGE

AMMETER

To measure the size of an electric current, an ammeter can be used. The ammeter must be connected in series to the circuit. The maximum reading of a scale is called full-scale deflection.

Most of ammeters are twin-scale ammeter. Ammeters are sensitive instruments. To avoid damaging the ammeter, the following

precautions need to be observed; 1. Ammeters must have a range that is suitable for the current to be measured. 2. If the current to be measured is larger than the full-scale deflection of the meter selected, excessive current will flow through the meter and damage 3. it

It is therefore important to always start with the highest range when you use an ammeter. If the meter has several ranges, use the range that will show reading around the middle of the scale.

4.

It is important to connect meters the correct way round to prevent them from being damaged when the pointer tries to move in the wrong direction. The positive ammeters terminal should be connected to the nearest positive terminal on the battery or power supply. The negative ammeters terminal

should be connected to the nearest negative terminal on the battery or power supply. 33

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 5. Before using an ammeter, ensure that the pointer is at zero position. The pointer can be easily moved to zero position by adjusting the zero adjustment screw below the pointer.

VOLTMETER

The potential difference across two point in a circuit can be measured by a voltmeter. The volt meter must be connected in parallel to the component across which the potential difference is being measured. The current must flow into the positive terminal and flow out of the negative terminal. Same precautions for ammeter apply to voltmeter. A multimeter is a multi-functional electrical meter.

Discuss what it can measure and how to use it.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 2.2 USE AND HANDLE SCIENCE APPARATUS

2.2.1 Microscopes

Light Microscope - the models found in most schools, use compound lenses and light to magnify objects. The lenses bend or refract the light, which makes the object beneath them appear closer. Stereoscope - this microscope allows for binocular (two eyes) viewing of larger specimens.

Discuss general procedures how to use and handle microscope.

2.2.2 USING AND HANDLING CHEMICALS Never heat flammable solvents with open flame. Unwanted solvents must be returned to solvent store or properly disposed-of without delay. Avoid spillages and wash hands immediately with soap and water if contact occurs. Add chemicals to water, never the reverse. Use different spatulas for different chemicals Limit the amount of each chemical used in the laboratory.

2.2.3 USING

AND

HANDLING

OF

ELECTRICAL

APPATARUS/EQUIPMENT Make sure that all electrical cords are in good condition. Make sure the circuits are not overloaded. Connections should be made correctly. Electrical apparatus connected to the mains should not be touched by wet hands. Do not use metal articles or wear metal jewellery when working with electrical equipment. 35

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY Take precautions to prevent spills on electrical equipment or electrical outlets.

2.3

DRAW DIAGRAMS AND APPARATUS ACCURATELY

Here are some tips how to draw a specimen. 1. Use unlined paper and plenty of space 2. Use a sharp pencil. 3. Draw only what you see 4. Sketch a large & simple diagram 5. Draw using correct scales 6. Do not shade or colour the drawing. Use stippling to indicate a darker area 7. Use ruler to draw lines. Do not cross label lines 8. Labels to identify parts of object 9. Give your drawing a title

Draw and name the apparatus that are usually used for primary science teaching.

Access the internet to gather information on the Virtual lab. How is it different from the normal science room?

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 2.4 HANDLING SPECIMENS CORRECTLY AND CAREFULLY

Living thing brought to the classroom must be kept for short period or permenant lodging. So they need specialised housing and regular care. If possible build up an outdoor study area. You need to take safety precaution while handling the specimen.

Hygiene and safety when handling living specimens must be given extra attention. Make sure students wash their hand thoroughly with soap and water after handling living specimens. Extra care must be given when living specimens come with characteristics that may be harmful to children (e.g. cactus with sharp thorns, insects that may bite or sting, plant parts that may cause irritation). Remind students never to taste or put anything in their mouth.

Activity 1:

Green Bean Seeds

1. Prepare three spreads of cotton wool layer on separate tiles. 2. Place five green bean seeds on each cotton wool spread. 3. Leave the first cotton wool spread dry. Wet the second cotton wool spread with five spoonful of water and the third with 20 spoonful or water 4. Water the second and third cotton wool spread with the same amount of water for five days. 5. Observe the seedlings plant growing and record the height and number of leaves everyday.

Activity 2:

Fish and Lizard

1. Prepare an aquarium with fish and a lizard in a tank. 2. Observe these animals. 3. Identify and compare the features of these two animals. a) What are the common features of these animals? b) What characteristics are different?

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY HANDLING OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS All hand to mouth operations should be avoided. Insects and small animals should be placed in a safe cage or aquarium. Injury by studied animals should be treated with antiseptic and further treatment should be taken. Wounds must be completely covered before work. Consider using films, video, and computer simulations in place of dissection activities. Glassware and microscope slides can be sterilized and reused. Any spillage or accidents must be recorded although there is no injury. Plant Do the observation in the field Return the specimens to the field Dont throw the specimens into the dustbin Do not handle poisonous plants

Animal Observe life insect in closed petri dishes Release the insect in nature after the activity

To ensure safety Before starting work, cover all wounds Hands must be thoroughly washed with soap at least If bitten treat the wound with antiseptic

2.5

CLEAN SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS CORRECTLY Clean glassware using cleansing detergent, rinse with water and then dry them up. For drying, let the glassware stand or hang on drying boards or racks. After using any instruments make sure clean them before storing.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 2.6 STORE SCIENCE APPARATUS AND LABORATORY

SUBSTANCES CORRECTLY AND SAFELY Large equipment and larger chemical containers should be stored on lower shelves only, Substances should be stored at the correct temperature, Do not place hazardous materials in unstable containers or in an apparatus that is not properly secured, Poisons should be kept locked in cabinet, Store all active chemicals in dark container, Acids and corrosives should be stored in a non-metal and vented cabinet Write short notes on the handling, cleaning and storing of science apparatus.

www.biologycorner.com www.ehow.com www.wikihow.com www.sciencekit.com

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

TOPIC 3
SYNOPSIS

BASIC SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

In this topic you will be introduced to seven basic science process skills. You also will be provided with activities that you can try with your pupils to develop all these skills. Exercises and tutorial questions given here will help you to evaluate how good are you in these basic science process skills and can enhance your understanding as well. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic teachers will able to : 1. Develop a critical appreciation of the basic science process skills and its practice in the teaching of science in primary schools. 2. Demonstrate competence in designing approaches that support children in developing their science procedural skills and

understandings

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY TOPICS FRAMEWORK

Basic Process Skills

Observing

Classifying

Communicating

Predicting

Measuring and Using Numbers

Using space-time relationships

Inferring

Figure 3 : Content Overview CONTENTS 3.1 OBSERVING

What is observing? Do you really know what observing is? Most of us understand that observing involves our eyes to see and understand things around us. But actually it is more than that. Observing is the fundamental science process skill that need all our five senses to characterize the object, identify changes, similarities and differences in order to understand world around us. On the other hand we can say that observing involves collecting information about objects or phenomenon by using the five 41

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Observation in science, expects the students to pay attention to details. The distinction between seeing, looking and observation should be made very clear. At one end of the spectrum, seeing is presented as a passive approach whereas at the other end of the spectrum, observing is an active approach.

When we want to know about a fruit, you will use your eyes to see the shape and the colour of the fruit. You also will touch and smell the fruits to determine whether the fruit ripe or not. Then you will test whether the fruit sweet or not by tasting it using your tongue. Some time we also shake and listen the sound produced to test how good is the texture. Here we use all our senses to learn about the fruit. This type of observation is called qualitative observation. If we go more detail by telling the mass and the length of the fruit for example 200 g and 30 cm, the observation is called quantitative observation because it involves a number or the quantity.

Quantitative observations give more precise information than our senses alone. Not surprisingly, students, especially younger children, need help in order to make good observations. If a student is describing what he or she can see, they might describe the color of an object but not its size or shape. Good productive observations are detailed and accurate written or drawn descriptions, and students need to be prompted to produce these elaborate descriptions. The reason that observations must be so full of detail is that only then students can increase their understanding of the concepts being studied. How can we guide our students to make a better more detailed description?

Ask the students to focus on the objects or phenomena to be studied and identify the characteristics.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY Let them give initial qualitative observation. Then prompting them to elaborate by questioning them or giving them the tools that can be used to aid them making some more qualitative and quantitative observation. If something is changing, students should include, before, during, and after appearances in their observations. If possible, students should be encouraged to name what is being observed. Try to use so-called referents, references to items that all persons are already familiar with to describe the observation clearer. For example, we often describe colors using referents. We might say blue as sky, green as grass, or yellow as lemon to describe particular shades of blue, green, or yellow. When we measure some property, we compare the property to a defined referent called a unit. A measurement statement contains two parts, a number to tell us how much or how many, and a name for the unit to tell us how much of what. The use of the number makes a measurement a quantitative observation. For example, the leaves are clustered in groups of five or mass of one leaf is five grams.

As a conclusion we can say that observation is made when; Using all the senses to get the information Using tools or instruments to make precise observation Identify the similarities and differences to make comparison Identify the special attributes of the objects and its environment Realizing changes in environment Identify the arrangement about object or phenomena The ability to make good observations is also essential to the development of the other science process skills: communicating, classifying, measuring, inferring, and predicting

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Try these activities to develop your observing skills Activity 1 Material: 1. Peanut Procedures: 1. Make the observation on a peanut. 2. Write your observation in the table below. Result Observations Using sight senses Using taste senses Using smell senses Using touch senses Using hearing senses

Which of your observations are quantitative observation? rethink and try to make some.

If none,

________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

Activity 2: Materials 1. Cream crackers biscuit 2. Distll water Procedures: 1. Observe a piece of cream crackers biscuit. 2. Immerse the biscuit into distill water.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY 3. Write your observation in the table below.

Result Observations Using sight senses Before immerse in water During immerse in water After immerse in water Using taste senses Using smell senses Using touch senses Using hearing senses

Which of your observations are quantitative observation? If none, rethink and try to make some. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

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1. Why do we need to observe? 2. What is the importance of observation? 3. Plan three activies of Science Process Skill, observing based on Primary Science Specification.

Tutorial 1 1. In groups, carry out the Candle Activity. Discuss and present your answers Tutorial 2 2. Read the article Elephant Observations and answer the questions.

Read the article on Working Scientifically and prepare a concept map.

Congratulation!

You have done your work diligently. Have a short rest and then continue to the another basic science process skil.

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Tutorial 1

CANDLE ACTIVITY Materials: Candle Lighter

Make qualitative and quantitative measurements of a small candle both before and after it has burned for two minutes. Anchor the candle in a ball of modeling clay.

Qualitative Observations Before burning ____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ During burning ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ After burning _____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

Quantitative Observations Observations Before Burning After Burning

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How does the two types of observations differ from one another? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

Which one is more appropriate for use with scientific observations? Why? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

Tutorial 2 ELEPHANT OBSERVATIONS Long time ago in a distant land, six blind men lived together. All of them had heard of elephants, but they had never seen one. When they heard that an elephant and his trainer would be visiting their village, they all wanted an encounter with this beast. They made their way to the site where the elephant was being kept. Each blind man touched the elephant and made his observations. The observations are listed below.

One man touched the elephants side and said. An elephant is like a wall. Another man touched the trunk and said, An elephant is like a snake. Another man touched a tusk and said, An elephant is like a spear. Another man touched a leg and said, An elephant is like a fan. 48

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The last man touched the tail and said, An elephant is like a rope. Did the blind men make appropriate inferences? Explain.

_______________________________________________________

How might the blind men improve their inferences?

________________________________________________________

One of the characteristics of science is that scientists communicate their ideas, observation, results, and inferences with each other. Why is this a good idea?

________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

In the space below, write a sentence or two explaining what you have learned.

Qualitative Observations ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ Quantitative Observations ________________________________________________________

Did the activities above help you to make better observations? Explain. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 49

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How does telling stories can make teaching more fun to primary students? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

Working scientifically
Introduction
Working scientifically involves the processes of science, including understanding the sorts of questions that are the province of science; the design of experiments; reasoning and arguing with scientific evidence; and analysing and interpreting data. Detailed discussion of working scientifically in primary schools can be found in Keith Skamps Teaching primary science constructively (Thomson Learning 2004). An example of the forms of knowledge associated with working scientifically can be found in the Victorian Curriculum and Standards Framework (CSF) for science, which can be found on the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website <http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/index.html>.

Key concepts of working scientifically


The activities in this topic are designed to explore the following key concepts: Working scientifically involves particular forms of reasoning with evidence that is different in detail from reasoning in other areas. There is no one scientific method, but many ways in which scientists plan to establish ideas and generate evidence to explore and support these ideas. An oft-cited example of scientific method is the controlled experiment, where the relationship between an effect and a variable is explored, with other potentially confounding variables controlled (i.e. kept the same). An example would be the exploration of the 51

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY effect of the length of a pendulum on its period of swing, keeping the weight and swing size the same but varying the length and timing of the swing. However, for many branches of science, this type of control is not possible. For instance, in studying ecological systems, in many cases theories must be established by looking at existing ecosystems with many variables. In geology and astronomy the idea of controlling and repeating observations is very different. What is common to all these areas, however, is the collection of evidence to support or argue against claims, and reasoning with evidence that attempts to isolate clear causes for phenomena. Working scientifically involves a number of concepts of evidence, including the purpose and techniques of focused observation, the recognition of a scientific question that can be investigated, the need for repeat measurements and skills in devising measurement processes, ways of recording data (these can vary considerably) and representing data for analysis, different experimental designs and associated principles (e.g. understanding sample size in making observations in the field), and reporting.

Students alternative conceptions of working scientifically


Research into students ideas about this topic has identified the following non-scientific conceptions: Students will not immediately see the task of an investigation as exploring ideas or looking for patterns, but will treat an investigation simply as establishing what is without thought for considering alternative interpretations. 52

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY Students have problems recognising what is an investigable question and will propose questions such as What is electricity? as the basis for investigation. Their questions need to be worked with and clarified to become amenable to scientific investigation. Students will not understand many of the concepts relating to measurementfor instance, the reading of a scale, the recording of comparison measurements using consistent processes, the calibration of instruments, the need for repeat measurements and the concept of uncertainty in measurement. They need to be supported in making defensible measurements. Students can understand the need to control variables in simple situations (to make the test fair), such as the need to use the same amount of each type of sugar when comparing the solubility of sugars. However, they have difficulty in cases of interacting variables (e.g. finding out the separate effects of weight and length on a pendulum swing, or the separate effect of light and moisture in determining where slaters prefer to live). Students will not understand the power of laying out data in tables and graphs, and the use of a table as a design organiser to help plan a series of measurements. Depending on their knowledge and experience, students may have trouble arguing clearly from evidence.

It has been amply demonstrated that, with appropriate support, even very young children are capable of distinguishing between observations and inferences, of asking investigable questions, planning experiments and arguing from evidence.

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Consumer science
Consumer science refers to activities in the classroom whereby students use scientific processes to make judgments about consumer products. Although consumer science does not fall easily into any major curriculum topic categories, it is an important and fun vehicle for teaching students about some of the science processes such as fair testing, measuring and recording. It provides a vehicle for learning about the nature of scientific investigation. It should be noted, however, that these investigations, because they mostly involve comparisons on the basis of criteria, do not illustrate the more difficult nature of working scientifically that deals with the exploration of conceptual ideas.

Skills and understandings of consumer science


The activities in this topic are designed to develop the following skills and understandings of this topic: how to formulate useful, investigable questions the importance of measuring accurately why it is necessary to ensure that all tests are fair and repeatable the purpose of planning and designing investigations how to design valid experiments with appropriate variable control how to design measurement procedures how to represent data for analysis and reporting.

Things to consider when completing activities


The activities in this topic give examples of some 54

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY types of products suitable for early and middle years consumer science testing. In judging different products, the things that need to be considered (summarising the discussion above) are: what criteria are relevant for the evaluation what weighting should be given to the various criteria whether the test is fair whether the results are reproducible whether the method of comparison (scale, addition of scores, etc.) is appropriate.

Development of students testing capabilities


The following descriptions of students capabilities at different year levels, and the type of activity appropriate for each, are based on reports of Deakin University students teaching consumer science activities to groups of students in schools. Prep/Year 1 It is most appropriate to structure tests and scaffold childrens experimenting. Criteria and procedures need to be decided by the teacher, using simple tests and comparisons, rather than measurements. Ensure there is a low demand for manipulation skills. Examples of appropriate tests include comparing the sweetness of cereals, the amount of salt or oil in chips or the amount of bubble in detergents. Year 2 Students can define criteria, but have little understanding of a fair test, e.g. so they may cheat to make sure their chosen sample wins.

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY Year 3 Students are beginning to appreciate the notion of a fair test. They can define criteria and conduct given tests with fairness and appreciate how differences in results can arise. Year 4 Depending on the content area, students should now be able to design experiments and plan measurements with minimal input from the teacher. Years 5 and above The comparison of products by discussion of weighting of criteria is increasingly possible. Students are able to set out tables and deal with different orders on different criteria. They can hold a reasoned discussion on the factors affecting the performance of different products, and ways of exploring these further.

Activities
Exploring consumer science
Key ideas: Articulating and refining questions. Designing experiments and controlling variables. Developing measurement procedures. Constructing and interpreting data representations.
A C T I V I T Y: P O TAT O C H I P S

Teaching note: This activity can be used for all levels but will need to be adapted accordingly. Have the students work in groups. Each group should have a scoresheet and a recorder, a reporter, a timekeeper and someone to hand out each item. Make sure all the students take it in turns to taste the items. You might want to collect the information and collate it on the board. Some discussion of the problems with testing, especially the problems associated in keeping things fair, should be encouraged.
You will need: a variety of brands of potato chips brown paper squares brown paper bags rolling pins breadboards jars of water.

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a) Test for salt content Taste directlyhave ONE student taste each brand of chip to determine and give
their opinion of which is the saltiest. It might be a good idea to blindfold the student so they do not see the brand they are tasting and select their favourite (or

least favourite, accordingly)

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Dissolve in water and taste (what will you control?)crush a chip of each brand
(making sure you keep the samples the same size) and put the crumbs of each chip

into separate containers with about 40 mL of water. Add a pinch of salt to another
40 mL of water. Have a clean glass of water on hand. Alternatively taste the salted water and each chip water, taking a sip of fresh water in between tastes. Which is

saltier?
b) Test for oil content by rubbing between sheets of brown paper Place a chip between two sheets of brown paper on the breadboard, and then

crush it by rolling over it with the rolling pin. How much oil appears on the brown
paper? Measure the spot using a ruler. Alternatively, place a chip on top of a pile of brown paper pieces. Roll over it using the rolling pin. How many thicknesses of paper did the oil penetrate? Hold the oil patch over some print or up to the light. How translucent is the patch? Repeat the experiment for the other brands of chips. c) Taste test Place a sample of each brand of chip into a paper bag. Have one student act as the taste-tester (only one student at a time should test the chips!). Get the student to taste each brand of chip from the unmarked bags. It might be a good idea to get them to have a sip of clean water between each taste. What could they test for

(e.g. crunch, flavour, texture)? d) Testing the packaging


Examine the packaging that the chips come in. How is the manufacturer trying to sell the chips? What colours are used in the packaging? What is the salt or fat content according to the nutrition label? Is there a trinket included in the pack? Is this important to the group? How easy are the bags to open? Rate what the students think of each and keep score. Which brand of chips is considered to be

best according to its packaging? Why?

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Rank the criteria in order of importance. Which chips would you recommend
A C T I V I T Y: CEREAL

Teaching note: This activity is similar to the chip experiment above and so the same guidance should be offered. The experiments outlined above for potato chips can be carried out for cereals, although you should test for sugar content instead of salt!
You will need:
a variety of cereal packages.

Look at the packet nutrition guide. Compare cereals for sugar, fat, carbohydrate

content.
A C T I V I T Y:

TESTING

BALLS

Teaching note: This activity is suitable for all levels depending on the comparisons made.
You will need: a range of types of balls, e.g. tennis, squash, ping-pong, golf, rubber,
plastic

a range of different surfaces, e.g. carpet, concrete, grass a metre rule.

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3.2

CLASSIFYING

What is classifying? Whether we realise or not, we always classify things in our daily life. We classify books in the library according to the subject and keep the science apparatus in the store room according to the type of the apparatus. Your employer classifies you according the work you do and the government classifies you by sex, age, income and so on. Classifying can be defined as a process of grouping objects according to certain characteristics for a purpose. We need to identify similarities and differences while identifying characteristics. So we also can say that classifying is a process of grouping objects or events according to similarities or differences. This is an important step towards a better understanding of the different objects and events in the world.

When do we need to classify?

We classify when there are many items or

information which are not organized. To classify these items we can follow the following steps: 1. Identify the general characteristics of the items. 2. Sort out items of the same characteristic into their respective groups. 3. Identify other characteristics. 4. Repeat steps 1-3 until there is only one item in each group.

Beside that, Indicators For Classifying constructed by Malaysia Curriculum Development Centre (PPK, 1994) can be used as a guideline to classify items or information correctly. The indicators are: Identify similarities and differences Group objects based on common characteristics Explain methods of classification in simple terms Other criteria may be used to group objects Objects may be grouped in various ways 60

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There are 3 types of classification Series system: This is the simplest method of classification. Objects are placed into rank order based on some property. For example, students can be serial ordered according to height, or different breakfast cereals can be serial ordered according to number of calories per serving. Example:

Binary system: In this system, a set of objects is simply divided into two subsets. This is usually done on the basis of whether each object has or does not have a particular property. For example, animals can be classified into two groups: those with backbones and those without backbones. A binary classification can also be carried out using more than one property at once. Objects in one group must have all of the required properties; otherwise they will belong to the other group. Example: HUMAN MAN OR HUMAN MALAY CHINESE INDIAN EUROPEAN

WOMAN

Multilevel system:

A multi-stage classification is constructed by

performing consecutive binary classifications on a set of objects and then 61

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on each of the ensuing subsets. The result is a classification system consisting of layers or stages. A multi-stage classification is complete when each of the objects in the original set has been separated into a category by itself. The familiar classifications of the animal and plant kingdoms are examples of multi-stage classifications. A useful activity for younger children could be to create a multi-stage classification of some local animals using physical and/or behavioral similarities and differences. Example: HUMAN SHAPE MAN 2 DIMENSIONAL

3 DIMENSIONAL WOMAN

CIRCLE

TRIANGLE

RECTANGLE

CUBOID

CUBE

CONE

SPHERE

CYLINDER

You can add some more shapes according to their characteristics and you can extent this classification as well to become more layers if possible.

Try these activities to develop your classifying skills Activity 1. Materials: 1. A bag of coins with different value Procedures 1. Observe the coins and characterised them. 2. Classify the coins by using serial system, binary system and multilevel system.

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Result

1. Serial system

2. Binary system

3. Multilevel system

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Activity 2 Materials: 1. A set of assorted nuts with different colour, different number size and different shapes Procedures 1. Observe the nuts and characterised them. 2. Classify the nuts by using serial system, binary system and multilevel system. Answer 1. Serial system

2. Binary system

3. Multilevel system

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1 What is the importance of classifying? 2. Plan three classifying activies based on Primary Science Specification.

Carry out the Classifying Button Activity. From your experience, discuss what other things in our lives that need classification?

Congratulation! You have done your work.

Tutorial CLASSIFYING BUTTONS Materials: 8 different types of buttons

Methods: 1. Place the eight buttons in the box at the top of the chart on the next page. 2. Trace around the buttons and color them. 3. Divide the buttons into two groups in the boxes below the large box at the top. 4. Trace around the buttons and color them. In the boxes, write the property you used to sort the buttons. 5. Group the buttons from each box into the two boxes below each box.

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6. Trace around the buttons and color them. Write the property you used to sort the buttons. 7. Place one button in each of the boxes at the attachment sheet. 8. Trace around each button and color it. In the boxes, write the properties of each button.

Answer the following questions: By going through the primary science curriculum specifications, list the topics that you think are important to do classification?

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What are the ways in which things can be classified?

________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

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3.3

COMMUNICATING

Communicating is the skill to pass on information or ideas to other people orally or in writing. Students have to communicate in order to share their observations with someone else. The communication must be clear and effective if the other person to understand the information. Effective communication is clear, precise and unambiguous and uses skills that need to developed and practiced.

What is communicating? Communicating is a process of receiving, spreading and sharing of information and ideas. You are communicating

when you are: 1. Speaking, listening or writing to express ideas or meanings. 2. Recording information from investigations. 3. Drawing and making notes. 4. Using and explaining the meaning of symbols. 5. Using charts, graphs and tables to present information. 6. Posting questions clearly. 7. Using references. 8. Writing experiment report to enable others to repeat the experiment. The idea to communicate using descriptive word for which both people share a common understanding.There is three steps that shows you are communicating when: 1. Record information obtained from various resources. 2. Translate the information into other forms such as charts, graphs and tables. 3. Spread the information through various means and ways. We can communicate effectively if we: 1. Describe only what we observe (see, smell, hear and taste) rather than what you infer about the object or events. 2. Make your description brief by using precise language.

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3. Communicate information accurately using many qualitive observations as the situation may call for. 4. Consider the point of view and past experience of the person with whom you are communicating. 5. Provide a means for getting feedback from the person with you are communicating in order to determine the effectiveness of your communication. 6. Construct an alternative description if necessary. Talking while doing science activities, making entries in journals,recording and organizing data, comparing results and sharing findings are all activities that help children develop effective ways to communicate. Learning to use communication tools helps children to be able to make good decisions about how to communicate observations and ideas.

COMMUNICATION TOOLS

SYMBOLS GRAPHS MODELS CHARTS CONCEPT MAPS

BODY LANGUAGE

ORAL DESCRIPTIONS DRAWINGS

COMMUNICATING

NUMBERS MUSIC

TABLES

WRITTEN LANGUAGE

MAPS

Science educators are agree

that learning science process skills means

learning how to learn. Children learn through critical thinking and by using information creatively. So why do we need to communicate? skill will help us: 1. To spread ideas or information. 68 Communicating

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2. To share ideas or information.

When science process skills was introduced primary science, Curriculum Development Centre give guidelines for teachers to detect whether their pupils has mastered ther skills.They give the indicators for every skills. Indicators for Communicating skill are : 1. Speak, listen or write to explain ideas or meaning to friends. 2. Record information from studies. 3. Draw and make notes. 4. Use symbols and explain what they mean 5. State questions clearly 6. Use reference material 7. Write reports of experiments so that others can repeat the experiments (CDC, 1994) ACTIVITY 1

Year five students from SK Sri Rusa are doing an investigation on the content of potassium in different types of drinking water. Below is their findings:

Brand X has 25 mmol , Brand W has 23 mmol, Brand K has 46 mmol, Brand T has 53 mmol, brand Y has 15 mmol and Brand G has 20mmol

Help

these

students

to

present

their

findings.

Choose

any

suitable

communication tools.

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ACTIVITY 2 Raudhah is investigating different size of ice and time taken to melt. She put her observation in the table below: Ice mass( gram) Melting time (min) 45 2 57 3 63 5 77 8 85 10

Draw a graph based on the data from the table above.

Answer the question below. Discuss the answer with your lecturer during face-to face interaction.

1. Siti used a concept map as a tool to present her understanding about working scientifically. Which of the following science process skills is used by her ? (A) Observing (B) Predicting (C) Classifying (D) Communicating

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2. Syamil wanted to find out if the colour of food would affect whether a primary school student would select it for breakfast. He put food colouring into four identical bowls of mashed potatoes. The colours were red, green, blue, and yellow. Each child chose a scoop of potatoes of the colour of their choice. Syamil did this experiment on 50 primary school student. (a) Give one suitable problem statement (research question) for this experiment.

(b)

State the variables involved in this experiment.

(i) (ii) (iii)

Constant variable. Manipulated variable. Responding variable.

(c)

Suggest one hypotesis which can be tested in this experiment.

(d)

Suggest one way to display the experimental results quantitatively.

(e)

State one way to improve this experiment.

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Tutorial 1 Select one Communication tool and demonstrate it to your peers. Tutorial 2 1. Select a topic from this course and prepare a concept map 2. Discuss how your concept map can facilitate / simplify learning. 3. Present your concept map to your peers

Gather information to compare how people communicate at present and in the past according to chronological order.

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3.4

PREDICTING

An important skill in science is predicting. Predicting is the process using past observations or data along with other kinds of scientific knowledge to forecast event or relationships. It is forming an idea of an expected result on what will occur based upon present knowledge and understanding, observations and inferences. A statement not based on observation is not a prediction. It is simply a guess. It can be classified into: a) Interpolation - is predicting new data based on and within a trend or pattern of previously observed data and b) Extrapolation - is predicting new data outside or beyond the range of previously observed data.

A prediction is an educated guess as to what will happen. It should be followed by a written or oral explanation to clarify ideas and reveal any misconceptions or missing information. You can help by asking, Whats going to happen?, Why do you think that happened?, Is there a way you could find that out?. Predicting is closely related to observing, inferring, and classifying. Prediction is based on careful observation and inferences made about relationships between observed events. Remember that inferences are explanations or interpretations of observations and that inferences are supported by observations.

Classification is employed when we identified similarities or differences to impart order to objects and events. Order in our environment permits us to recognize patterns and to predict the patterns what future observations will be.

We make sense of the world around us by observing things happen and then interpreting and explaining them. We often detect patterns in what we observe. When we think we can explain why things work the way they do. Often we use these to predict occurrences that might happen in the future. Here are some examples of predictions: I see it is raining and the sun is coming out. There could be a rainbow. If I release both balls at the same time, they will hit the ground at the same time. 73

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Notice that each of the sample predictions is written in future tense. Each prediction statement is based on observations and patterns that have developed from past observations. How we explain and how we interpret what we observe affect how we predict. Testing our predictions leads to making more observations that either support or do not support original predictions. When new observations are consistent with our predicted pattern of observations, we have even greater confidence in our prediction. However, when new observations do not support our original prediction, we may reject it and re- examine our observations. New observations lead to new inferences and new predictions. Therefore, our map of the process skill of predicting looks more like this:

PREDICTING

OBSERVING

INFERRING

As new data (observations) are collected, theories (inferences) are proposed to explain what has been observed and to predict what has not yet been observed. In fact, for a theory to be accepted in science, it must meet a threefold test: can explain what has already been observed can predict what has not yet been observed can be tested by further observation and modified as required by new data

You are predicting when you are. 1. 2. 3. Using previous or present evidence to state incoming events. Able to differentiate between prediction and guessing. Able to determine the outcomes from an action. 74

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4. 5. 6.

Using pattern of data explicitly to make projections. Confident with the accuracy of the prediction. Able to verify a statement of related to future events based on evidence or past experiences.

7.

Being cautious in making assumption about a certain pattern of data beyond the evidence at hand.

8.

Extrapolating and inserting data as a tool to predict. (CDC, 1994)

Activity 1 Learn Predicting Drops of Water

Material Coins 5 sen, 10 sen, 50 sen, and RM 1 Dropper Beaker of water

Method: 1. Use the dropper to drip drops of water on a 20 sen coin. Do this carefully until water starts to flow off the surface of the coin. Counts the number of drops. A 20 sen coin can hold *drops of water.

Record the number of drops in the space marked * in the table below. 2. Compare the 20 sen coin with the other coins in terms of size and shape. Predict the number of drops the other coins will probably hold.

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Coin
Number of drops

5 sen

10 sen

20 sen

50 sen

RM 1

Prediction Actual *

3. What factors did you consider when making the predictions? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

4. Test your predictions by dropping water on each coin. 5. If the number of drops of water you predicted differ from the actual number, what do you think caused the difference?

_____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

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Activity 2 Practice Predicting The Shortest Day

Material Data sheet (below) concerning time of sunrise and sunset Graph paper

Method 1. The following data sheet shows the time the sun rises and sets every sixth day in a region in the northern hemisphere (30(N).

Date Month-Day 11-13 11-19 11-25 12-01 12-07 12-13 12-19 12-25 12-31 1-06 1-12 1-18

Sunrise a.m. 6:23 6:28 6:33 6:38 6:42 6:47 6:51 6:54 6:56 6:57 6:57 6:56

Sunset p.m. 5:05 5:02 5:00 5:00 5:00 5:01 5:03 5:06 5:10 5:15 5:20 5:25

Daylight
necessary

*Only a few calculations are

(hour, minute)

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2. Draw and label a graph for each time of sunrise and time of sunset. From the graphs, obtain the dates when the sun sets the earliest and when it rises the latest, respectively.

_____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

3. From the two graphs, predict the date of the shortest day. Remember, you can put one of these graphs over the other. Explain how you make your prediction.

_____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

4. Calculate the lengths of the shortest day by taking into account the length of the day several days before and several days after the date of the shortest day, and record your findings in the column marked * in the table given.

_____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

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Get a textbook. Try and practice all the suggestions that was discussed above. Do you think it has help you to remember better?

1) Which of these statements is an observation, an inference or a prediction?

a) I can feel the earth rumbling. The rumbling is caused by the volcano. Its going to erupt!

b) The two girls are wearing robes and mortarboard. They have just attended their graduation day. They are going to get job with good pay.

c) The left-hand end of the seesaw is lower than the right-hand end. If the person on the left-hand end gets off, the right-hand end will fall. One person is heavier than the other.

2) Harith has dropped a ball from two different heights, and measured how high it bounced each time. He recorded his results in a column graph.
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Bounce Height (cm)

50 100 Drop height (cm)

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a) Predict how high the ball will bounce if he drops it from 75 cm onto the same surface? b) Predict the bounce height for a drop height of 200 cm

Access the internet to gather information about the differences between inference and prediction. List down the differences.

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3.5

MEASURING AND USING NUMBERS

Measuring and using numbers are processes of observing quantitatively using standard or standardized measuring tools as the reference units. Standard tools established tools such as rulers, measuring tapes, measuring cylinders (Tools which are used established or accepted universally) STANDARDISED TOOLS tools which can be used for measuring an object quantitatively using unit which is not established / accepted universally such as cup, spoon...etc. Measuring involves making quantitative observations by comparing against certain standard units like centimeter , inches, gram , liter etc.

Students make quantitative observations by comparing standard or non-standard units. They will be able to describe relationships between objects by using graphs, charts, diagrams and tables. Apparatus such as thermometers ,clocks, rulers etc. are used to make the measuring. We need to measure and use

numbers to obtain more accurate measurements such as our body mass index.

How do we measure and use numbers? 1. Identify the measurement required, for example the diameter of a test tube. 2. Specify the instrument to be used. Which is more accurate? A meter ruler, a vernier caliper or a micrometer screw gauge? 3. Compare the readings from each tool. 4. Which tool do you think gives the most accurate reading?

You are measuring and using numbers when you are.

1. Able to count and compare quantity of items in different groups.

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2. Able to count and compare quantity of items in the same groups.

3. Able to recognise the pattern from a table of numbers.

4. Use numbers to record a phenomenon.

5. Use numbers to record a measurement.

6. Use scales and explain ratios.

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7. Compare objects using numbers.

8. Use tools correctly.

9. Record units correctly.

..

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10. Convert and use standard units.

1. 1.0 mm = __ m 2. .01 s = __ ms 3. 1.0 m2 = __ cm2 4. 1.0 m3 = __ cm3 (cubic meters to cubic centimeters)

Visit the Bureau at www.bipm.fr or the National Institute of Standards at www.NIST.gov

11. Compare time, distance, area and volume with relevant units.

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ACTIVITY 1

Study the following picture and list the physical quantities that can be measured. The list of physical quantities : 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. .

ACTIVITY 2 1. Estimate the length of each parts of your body by putting them in order from shortest to longest. Body Part Estimated order 1=shortest 10= longest Thumb Hand Measurement Actual order 1=shortest 10= longest

2. Use the metric tape measure to measure your body parts and write the actual measurement in centimeters. 85

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3. Use the actual measurements to order your body parts from shortest to longest, using 1 for the shortest and 10 for the longest. 4. Compare your estimates with your measurements.

How close was the estimated order to the actual order?

___________________________________________________________

5. What surprised you?

1. Which of the following activities can help to enhance the skill of measuring and using numbers?

I. II. III.

Design a model of a science lab using recycle materials. Construct a plan of a classroom representing the actual distance. Select an appropriate measuring tool to measure the area of a soccer field. Conduct the correct technique when measuring liquid using a graduated cylinder. I, II and III only. I, II and IV only. II, III and IV only. I, II, III and IV only.

IV.

(A) (B) (C) (D)

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2. Khadijah is investigating the effect of water on the growth of tomato seeds. She used tomato seeds, wet cotton and a beaker. The results of her investigation are recorded in Table 3 below.

Time (day) Length (cm)

1 0

2 1

3 2

4 3

5 4

6 4

Table 3

(a) List four basic science process skills involved in the investigation.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

(b)

What is the appropriate tool to measure the length of the seeds ?

__________________________________________________________

(c)

Name the unit used for the measurement in (b).

___________________________________________________________

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(d)

If Khadijah does not want to present the data using a table, how could she does it in order to get the same results?

TUTORIAL 1

List down the types of measurement and the units used for each type. Compare imperial units to the metric system.

TUTORIAL 2

Carry out the Mixing Water activity. Discuss how understanding of measurements enables you to make better and more informed decisions in your daily life.

Read the article Did You Know (Facts on Numbers). Discuss and identify how numbers affect your life.

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Did you know, that ...

a very thirsty camel can drink 35 gallons (135 liter)water in 6 minutes one record holding camel drank over 50 gallons (200 liter) in one day that sound travels five times faster underwater than it does through the air? the chinese wall is 3969 miles (6350 Km) long. the can opener was invented 48 years after the can. that the undersea mountain Mauna Kea, Hawaii measured from the ocean floor (10205 meter, 33480 feet) is taller than the worlds highest mountain Mt. Everest, Nepal (8848 meter, 29028 feet).

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. a kangaroo can jump up to 29 feet (9 meter) far and up to 10 feet (3 meter) high. it is impossible to lick your own elbow. a cockroach can survive 9 days without head winds in a tornado can reach speeds of 200 mph (320 km/h) light travels through space at 186000 miles per second(300000 km per second) so at the average distance from earth to the sun of 93,026,724 miles it takes the light about 500 seconds (or 8 minutes and 20 seconds) to get here 211 g sugar or 36 g salt can be dissolved in 100 g water (at 77 degree F or 25 degree C) ants do not sleep that a hippopotamus weights 3000 to 4500 kg (6600 to 9900 lbs) , watch your feet over 70% of people who read this try to lick their elbow

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3.5

USING SPACE AND TIME RELATIONSHIPS

Space and time are two very basic concepts in physical science. Using space and time relationships involves the ability to discern and describe directions, spatial arrangements, motion and speed, symmetry and rate of change. This skill can describe the changes in parameter with time. It involves identify shape and movement according to time. Other parameters are location, direction, size, volume, weight and mass. This skill can be developed by paying attention to the sequence and position in which the events takes place. For example, looking at the phases of the moon, observing the physical changes of ice cubes etc.

Why do we need to master this skill? It makes us realise that changes occur in relation to time. It helps us arrange events in its chronological sequence.

You have mastered this skill when you are able to: Describe location with reference to time Describe change of direction with reference to time Describe change in shape with reference to time Describe change in size with reference to time Arrange events chronologically Ascertain change by referring to rate of change Ascertain position of an object and describe its position in space Describe the change of an object seen from a different position Describe the relationship between distance of a moving object and time (CDC, 1994)

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Activity 1

Roll a ball across the floor to a wall. How fast can you roll it? How slow can you roll it?

Activity 2

How long does it take you to count from 1 to 25, counting as fast as you can?

1. Highest daily temperature recorded each day for a week is shown on the data table.

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

8C

7C

0C

15C

23C

21C

19C

Which of the following statements is correct? A. Monday showed the lowest temperature. B. It snowed all day on Friday. C. The highest temperature was recorded on Thursday. D. The temperature was higher on Wednesday than on Saturday.

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2. Anas carried out an investigation using a pendulum P. He recorded the time required for the pendulum to make 20 oscillations with different lengths of strings.

string P

Below are the times taken. 10 cm = 18 seconds, 30 cm = 55 seconds, 20 cm = 36 seconds, 40 cm = 73 seconds

a) Suggest a suitable device to measure the time required for 20 oscillations.

b) Name the science process skill involved when Anas recorded the time taken during the investigation.

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1. List down topics from the curriculum specification that represents spacetime relationship 2. Plan a suitable activity from the list. 3. Carry out the planned activity.

Plan and do The Sun Clock Activity

MAKING A SUN CLOCK

Before there were clocks, people used shadow to tell time Materials:

Chalk A4 paper Plasticine

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Method: 1. Place your chalk stand up in the middle of the paper using plasticine. 2. Mark the shadow of the pencil every hour until you get at least 8 readings. 3. From your results, construct a graph that represents the time versus the length of the shadow. From the graph, answer the following: 1. What time did the shadow disappear? 2. When was the shadow became longer than the pencil?

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3.7

INFERRING

We appreciate our environment better when we are able to interpret and explain things happening around us. We learn to recognize patterns and expect these patterns to reoccur under same conditions. Much of our behaviour is based on the inferences we make about events. Scientists formulate hypotheses based on the inferences they make regarding investigations. As teachers we often make inferences about why our students behave as they do. Learning itself is an inference made from observed changes in learned behaviour.

Courtesy of Learning and Assessing Science Process Skills, 1995, p 69.

While an observation is an experience perceived through one or more of the senses, an inference is an explanation or interpretation of the observation. This process is often conditioned by our past experiences. New experiences only make sense to us when we are able to link them to understandings we already have. To infer means to construct a link between what is observed directly and what is already known from past experience.

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INFERRING

What is already known by past experiences?

What is directly observed through the senses?

For example, it is raining and you see a bright light flash outside the window. Almost immediately after the flash, you hear a loud crashing noise. You then say that lighting has struck something not very far away. This is your inference to the observations of the flash of light and the loud noise. It is based on past experience with lighting and thunder and includes the knowledge that time interval between the flash and the sound is a measure of how far away the lightning struck.

An inference is NOT a guess since a guess is an opinion formed from little or no evidence. When inferring, it is helpful to follow these steps: Make as many observations about the object or event as possible. Recall from your experiences as much relevant information about the object or event as you can and integrate that information with what you observed. State each inference in such a way that clearly distinguishes it from other kinds of statements. From what I observed I infer that The evidence suggests that . may have happened A possible explanation for what I see is that From what I observed I conclude that

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Often, after having drawn inferences from a set of observations, new information becomes available that may cause you to rethink your original inferences. They may sometimes reinforce your inferences. At other times, however, additional information may cause you to modify or even reject inferences that you once thought to be useful. New observations lead to adjusting patterns of experience to accommodate the new information.

The following are some observations and inferences statements that someone else made about the coin (Table 1). Observations This coin is the colour of copper Inferences I infer it is made of copper

This coin has the date 1994 marked on The coin probably was made in 1994 it

This coin has raised letters on it and I infer the coin was made by machine they are clear and uniform in size

When I drop the coin on the table it I infer the coin is solid rather than makes a clinking sound hollow

The coin has a green substance on Perhaps the coin sat in water and one side become corroded

The coin has one long deep scratch on Maybe someone deliberately gouged one side the coin with a sharp instrument Courtesy of Learning and Assessing Science Process Skills, 1995, p 73. Table 1: Observations and Inferences Statements About A Coin 99

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You can also make inferences about events. Every inference must be based on an observation, so you will first be making careful observations and then interpreting or explaining those observations. These interpretations of

observations are inferences. You are making inferences when you are .. 1. Using information from observations to make reasonable early conclusions. 2. Making various possible interpretations from single observation. 3. Able to identify the limitations of inferences. 4. Testing the accuracy of inferences through additional observations. 5. Using inferences as a tool to determine the appropriate additional observations. (CDC, 1994)

Activity 1 Practice Making Inference - Footprints The diagram below shows three strips of footprints one after another, i.e. strip 1 followed by strip 2 and then strip 3. The series of footprints is seen on a beach. The dots around the prints in strip 2 shows that the shoes have left deep prints.

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1.

2.

3.

Based on the diagram, write your observations on each strip of prints and record your inferences. You can make more than one inference in each case.

OBSERVATION Strip 1

INFERENCE

Strip 2

Strip 3

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Compare your list of inferences with those of your friends. Do you feel your inferences are better? Why? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

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Activitiy 2 Observe the diagrams below. For each line draw the shape that follows in the box on the right. (i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Questions 1. How do you arrive at the answer for the shape that follows? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 2. Does your experience help you to make the decision?

___________________________________________________________

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Get a textbook. Try and practice all the suggestions that was discussed above. Do you think it has help you to remember better?

1) Below are some examples of observation statements and inferences statements. Underline inference statements with a red pen. a) The brass knob on that door is not bright and shiny. b) I infer that the office is not used often c) Someone may have spilled a toxic substance there d) There is a spot in my front yard where grass does not grow. e) I see that iodine turns purple when I put it on a potato chip. f) It can be inferred that the chip has starch in it. g) Maybe either the book is old or that the paper was dyed yellow to give it an old appearance. h) The pages in this book are yellow i) Through the window I see the flag waving j) It must be windy out k) The fish are floating on top of the tank. l) Perhaps no one fed the fish m) Maybe it has become contaminated n) My drinking water smells like rotten eggs. o) The cabbages that were growing in my garden are gone and there are droppings on the ground. p) That is evidence that rabbits have been there. 2) Observe these tracks in the snow in Figure 3.7. Based on the observations you have made, write down your inferences. (To help you think more logically about the picture, it has been divided into three frames.)

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Courtesy of INVESTIGATING THE EARTH, Fourth Edition by American Geological Institute. Copyright 1984 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Figure 3.7: Tracks in The Snow

Carry out the Inferring Exercises and discuss the answers in class

Present a situation to your peers and let them make their inferences. Comment on their answers.

TUTORIAL Further reading on INFERRING EXERCISESways of making inferences and prepare a summary 105

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INFERRING EXERCISES Read the following observations. Then make inferences that explain each observation. Remember, there may be more than one logical explanation. Observation 1: You observe that the sky at noon is darkening. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Observation 2: You principal interrupts class and call a student from the room. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 3: All middle school students are bringing lunch from home. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 4: A former rock-and-roll band member has poor hearing. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 5: You leave a movie theater and see that the street is wet. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 6: During a handshake, you feel that the palm of the individuals hand is rough and hard. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

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Observation 7: The classroom lights are off. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 8: A siren is heard going past the school. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

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TOPIC 4

INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

SYNOPSIS Now that you have mastered the basic science process skills, you are now ready to learn the skills that lead to experimenting or conducting investigations. identifying interpreting and data, The integrated science process defining testing skills include

controlling

variables, and

operationally, and

formulating

hypothesis

experimenting. Learning these skills empowers you to answer many questions as you already have the tools to interpret what you observe and are able to design investigations to test your own ideas.

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic teachers will able to : 1. Identify the variables of an investigation 2. Classify variables as manipulated or responding 3. State how variables are operationally defined in an investigation when given a description of the investigation 4. Construct operational definition for variables 5. Organise data that have been collected to simplify interpretation 6. Draw conclusions from the the data 7. Identify hypotheses from a given lists of statements 8. Explain why variables are important in the process of hypothesizing 9. Write a hypothesis using two variables 10. Define (or select a definition for) a hypothesis 11. Compare and contrast a hypothesis with a research question 12. Define a scientific investigation as either a survey or an experiment 13. Write an experiment report

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TOPICS FRAMEWORK

INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILL

IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

DEFINING OPERATIONALLY

FORMULATING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS

INTEPRETING DATA

EXPERIMENT

Figure 4 : Content Overview

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CONTENTS

4.1

IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

By studying simple actions and reactions, such as how raisins act in a baking soda solution, you have learned that observing and inferring are the basis of science. But actions and reactions in the natural world are often complex. Sometimes they are so large (like the explosion of a volcano), or so small (like the movement of a Euglena), or so distant (like the birth of a star), or so spread over time (like the movement of a glacier) that it is impossible for the human mind to understand them in their entirety.

The scientific approach to understanding such events is a process that breaks complex events into parts can be studied and understood. These parts of an event or system are called variables. Variables are factors, conditions, and / or relationships that can change or be changed in an event or system. In order to learn about scientific investigation, you first need to learn the skill associated with identifying and manipulating variables. A variable is something that can vary or change. What are the variables in the following statements?

Statement 1: The time an athlete takes to run a kilometer depends on the number of training a person gets. Variables: Time to run a kilometre Number of training

Statement 2: The higher the temperature of water, the faster an egg will cook. Variables: Temperature of water Time needed for an egg to cook

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Controlling variable is identifying all variables i.e. aspects that can influence results of an experiments, and conduct the experiment by manipulating only one variable while keeping the other variables constant. The investigation is to find the effect of one variable on another. There are 3 types of variables.

1. Manipulated Variable (MV): Factor or condition that is manipulated or changed to test its effect on the experiment. In the above statements: Time to run a kilometer Temperature of water

This is also known as independent.

2. Responding Variables (RV): The experiment result that responds or reacts to a factor or condition changed. In the above statements: Amount of exercise Time to cook the egg

This is also known as dependent variable.

3. Constant Variable (CV): Variables that are controlled or kept constant. Examples: Type of exercise Size of the egg

Independent variable is another name for manipulated variable. It is independently selected by the experimenter to be manipulated. Dependent variable is watched by the experimenter and will respond to the manipulated or independent variable if there is a relationship. When we plot information on a graph the manipulated variable always is plotted on the X - axis and the responding variable is always plotted on the Y - axis. 111

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ACTIVITY 1 The number of nails picked up by an electromagnet will be increased if more batteries are put in the circuit. Suppose an investigation was carried out on the problem above. What would the variables be?

ACTIVITY 2 A student wants to test how the mass of a paper aeroplane affects the distance it will fly. Paper clips are added before the test flight. As each paper clips are added, the plane is thrown to determine how far it will fly. Design a simple experiment for this activity. What would the variables be?

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1. For each of the following statements or descriptions identify the manipulated variable (MV) and responding variable (RV). (a) Students in a science class carried out an investigation in which a flashlight was pointed at a screen. They wished to find out if the distance from the light to the screen had any effect on the size of the illuminated area. (b) The Forestry Department has been counting the number of foxes in Pahang state. Will the number of foxes has any effect on the rabbit population? (c) The score on the final test depends on the number of subordinate skills attained. (d) More bushels of potatoes will be produced if more fertilizer is used on the soil .

2.

You are given a constantan wire, a switch, an ammeter (0 -1 A), a voltmeter

(0 5 V), a rheostat, 3 batteries, a cell holder, and connecting wires. Conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of length on the resistance of a conductor. State three variables in the investigation.

1.

Do the Identifying and Controlling Variable Activity. Discuss your

experimental results in class.

2.

Carry out Helicopter Happening experiment and compare your results

with your peers.

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Examine the textbooks for year 1 - 6 and list down alternative terms for variables that are currently used.

TUTORIAL 1 IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

Materials: (for each group of four) 4 sugar cubes Coarse sugar 4 beakers paper towels or sponges 2 spoons of different sizes, Stopwatches

Methods: 1. Each should be given 4 sugar cubes, 4 beakers, and 2 spoons. 2. Pour 100 ml of tap water into each beaker simultaneously. 3. Dissolve each cube of sugar in the beakers. In one beaker there will be a cube and water, one will have a cube, spoon (for stirring), and water, another will have coarse sugar and water, and the last will have coarse sugar, spoon (for stirring), and water. 4. Students predict which container will have the fastest rate of dissolving by using stop watch. 5. Talk about predictions (it's okay to have wrong predictions--happens all the time), graph the results of the experiments.

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Are there different results? Were all the methods of experimentation the same? Explain. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Brainstorm a number of manipulated/independent variables that could have had an effect upon the results of your experiment (the rate of dissolution). Put suggestions on a chart.

Independent Variable Prediction spoon size amount of water placement of spoon old vs. new cubes different solvents . . . . .

Exp. Notes . . . . .

Observation . . . . .

You may find some discrepancies in the above experiment. How would you suggest to make the experiment a better one? Discuss. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

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TUTORIAL 2 Helicopter Happening Materials: Scissors Ruler Worksheet Helicopter pattern on next page

Method: 1. Carefully cut out the pattern for the rotating object and follow the assembly directions. 2. Test the device to find how it works. Record your observations and inferences ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

What are some possible variables that could affect how it flies? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

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Rotating Object for Helicopter Happening

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4.2

DEFINING OPERATIONALLY

The method or procedure used to measure a variable is called an operational definition. Thus an operational definition tells what operation is performed and observed and how it is measured. If you can measure a variable directly using standard systems of measurement, you do not need to define it operationally. Eg: depth-ruler, temperature-thermometer, time-stopwatch.

Defining operationally involves finding equivalent ways of measuring something indirectly that cannot be conveniently measured directly. Eg. pendulum activitymeasure period in terms of number of swings per 15 seconds because time of one swing could not be measured conveniently.

Different investigators may use different operationally definition for the same variable. Example: investigation to test the effects of vitamin E on the endurance of a person.

The variable endurance of a person could be defined operationally many different ways; The number of hours a person could stay awake. The distance a person could run without stopping. The number of jumping jacks a person could do before tiring. Operational definition should be explicit enough that another investigator could carry out the measurement without any further information from the investigator.

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ACTIVITY 1:

A study was done to determine if safety advertising had any effect on automobile accidents. Different numbers of billboards were put up in Bukit Mertajam over a period of four months to see if the number of people hospitalized because of auto accidents was affected. In January, five billboards carried safety messages; in February there were ten, in March there fifteen; and in April there were twenty. During each of these four months, a record of the number of people hospitalized because of accidents was measured. Identify the MV and RV

Manipulated Variable: Safety advertising Responding Variable: Automobile Accidents

How was each variable operationally defined?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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ACTIVITY 2:

A study was done to determine the effect that exercise has on pulse rate. Teacher trainee rode bikes for different numbers of kilometers and then their pulse rate was measured. One group rode 10 km, a second group rode 20 km, a third group rode 30 km and a fourth group rode 40 km. Following the exercise the pulse rate was immediately measured by counting the pulse for one minute.

Identify the MV and RV.

Manipulated Variable: Amount of exercise Responding Variable: Pulse rate

How was each variable operationally defined?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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1.

A study was conducted to see the amount of erosion was affected by the slope of the land. The end of the stream table was raised to four different heights (a stream table is a plastic box containing sand). At each height, a litre of water was poured in at one end of the stream table. After the water had run over the soil, the depth of the ditch cut by the water was measured.

What is the operational definition of the slope of the land? (A) mass of the eroded soil (B) depth of the ditch cut by the water (C) mass of water used in the stream table (D) height to which the end of the stream table was raised

2. An investigation is carried out to see how the initial temperature of a liquid affects the amount of water evaporated. Describe at least 3 ways where the amount of evaporation could be operationally defined.

Tutorial 1 Exercises on operational definitions. Tutorial 2 Discuss on operational definition exercises.

Examine the textbooks for year 1 - 6 and list down some examples of operational definitions.

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TUTORIAL 1 DEFINING VARIABLES OPERATIONALLY

1. A teacher is interested in investigating the effect of homework on test results. What are the two operational definitions for the variable homework? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 2. A shopkeeper wants to find out if window posters affect sales. Give two operational definitions of the variable window posters. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3. A student wants to measure which pizza toppings her friends prefer. What is an operational definition of the variable pizza topping preference?

___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

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What is an Operational Definition? One of the most important operational decisions a scientist must make is to determine how measurement of the variable will be made. The method used to measure a variable is called an operational definition. An operational definition indicates the way a measurement will be performed. Once a scientist has

decided on a method, that method must be reported to other scientists, so they can also test the investigation results. Any scientist can read an operational definition and easily understand or perform the same measurement. examples below shoe operational definitions of variables. The

Examples One A student wants to test the effects of vitamin C on the health of students in her class. The variables health of students could be defined in the following ways. The number of colds experienced during a month The number of days absent due to sickness in a month The number of people with coughs in a month

Example Two A student wants to test the effect of dont Litter posters on the trash problem at his school. The variable trash problem could be defined in the following ways. The number of candy wrappers on the playground The number of bags of trash collected The number of aluminium cans in the courtyard

Your task is to think of operational definitions that might be used to measure variables in several situations. Before you begin, lets look at an example.

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A student wants to measure the absorbency of paper towels, so absorbency is the variable. The student must create an operational definition for measuring the absorbency of paper towels. He develops three possible operational definitions.

The Dunk: Measure the amount of water that remains after a crumpled paper towel has been placed in 25 ml of water for five minutes. The Pour: Measure the amount of water that collects after 25 ml of water has been poured through a crumpled paper towel. The Lift: Measure the height that water reaches after the end of a folded towel has been inserted in water for 15 minutes.

Think of operational definitions that might be used to measure variables in the following situations.

1. A student is interested in magnets. He wants to measure the strength of his favourite magnet. Operational Definition of the variable magnet strength ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

2. A student is interested in investigating the germination (sprouting) of seeds. Operational Definition of the variable germination ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

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3. A student wants to measure which soft drink her classmates prefer. Operational definition of the variable soft drink preference ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

4. A student wants to find out how interested her classmates are in reading books about science. Operational definition of the variable interesting reading books about science ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

5. A student wants to find out if study affects science grades. Operational definition of the variable study ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Operational definition of the variable science grade ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

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4.3

FORMULATING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. A hypotheses should not be confused with a theory. Theories are general explanations based on a large amount of data. For example, the theory of evolution applies to all living things and is based on wide range of observations. However, there are many things about evolution that are not fully understood such as gaps in the fossil record. Many hypotheses have been proposed and tested.

Hypotheses are predictions about the relationship between variables Indicators for Making Hypotheses (CDC, 1994)

Suggest an explanation that is in line with proof Suggest an explanation that is in line with science principles or concepts Use previous knowledge to come up with an explanation Be aware that there is more than one way to explain a happening or event Be aware that the explanation is only a suggestion

When Are Hypotheses Used? The key word is testable. That is, you will perform a test of how two variables might be related. This is when you are doing a real experiment. You are testing variables. Usually, a hypothesis is based on some previous observation such as noticing that in November many trees undergo color changes in their leaves and the average daily temperatures are dropping. Are these two events connected? How? Any laboratory procedure you follow without a hypothesis is really not an experiment. It is just an exercise or demonstration of what is already known. When do you construct hypothesis? Before any investigation or experiment is conducted The hypothesis provides guidance to an investigation about what data to collect 126

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Formulating Hypotheses? - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes for experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable. How Are Hypotheses Written? 1. Chocolate may cause pimples. 2. Salt in soil may affect plant growth. 3. Plant growth may be affected by the color of the light. 4. Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature. 5. Ultra violet light may cause skin cancer. 6. Temperature may cause leaves to change color. All of these are examples of hypothesis because they use the tentative word "may.". However, their form is not particularly useful. Using the word may does not suggest how you would go about proving it. If these statements had not been written carefully, they may not have even been hypotheses at all. For example, if we say "Trees will change color when it gets cold." we are making a prediction. Or if we write, "Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer." could be a conclusion. One way to prevent making such easy mistakes is to formalize the form of the hypothesis. Instructional Implication:

statement of relationship that might exist between two variablesIf . . . then

formal scientific experiments contain a hypothesis & control variable(s)

Problem 1: What factors determine the rate at which an object falls through air? Possible variables: a) volume of object b) surface area of object c) length of fall d) weight of object

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Construct hypothesis: a) If the volume of an object increases, then the rate at which it falls through air decreases b) If the surface area of object increases, then the rate at which it falls through air decreases c) If the longer(or farther) an object falls through air, then the faster it will fall d) If the weight an object has, then the faster it will fall through air.

Problem 2: Why is it warmer in house then another? Possible variables: a) outside temperature b) location of house c) slope of roof d) number openings to the outside

Construct hypothesis: a) The higher outside temperature, the higher the temperature inside the house b) The nearer the house is to the equator, the higher the temperature inside the house c) The steeper the roof, the higher the temperature inside the house d) The more openings to the outside, the lower the temperature inside the house

Activity 1 1. Cut one end of one of the straw to form a point and blow into this end of the straw to produce a sound. Observe the pitch of the sound produced(high or low) 2. Question: How does the length of the straw affect the pitch of the sound produced?

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Your

hypothesis(guess):

3. Trim the five remaining straws to different lengths. Then cut one end of each straw, blow into this end, and observe the pitch of the sound produced. 4. Arrange your six straws in order from the highest to the lowest pitch and tape the straws in the box below. Highest

V Lowest

5. Did your investigation prove your hypothesis?

ACTIVITY 2

For each of the following problem list three variables which could effect the responding variable. State a hypoyhesis for each variable listed.

Why doesnt an animal breathe at the same rate all the time? a) Variable 1: Hypothesis 1:.

b) Variable 2:.. Hypothesis 2:.

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c) Variable 3:.. Hypothesis 3:

Sariah wants to find the answer to the problem; What affects the rate at which a plant grows?

1. What could be her hypothesis? (A) The plant makes its own food. (B) After a few weeks the plant becomes taller. (C) The amount of water affects the growth of a plant. (D) The growth of plant can be measured by counting the number of leave

2. You are given a constantan wire, a switch, an ammeter (0 -1 A), a voltmeter (0 5 V), a rheostat, 3 batteries, a cell holder, and connecting wires. Conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of length on the resistance of a conductor.

(a)

State three variables in the investigation .. .. .

(b)

State one hypothesis that can be made for this investigation

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What is the trend of change on the length of constantan wire during the investigation? ...

Choose five experiments from the curriculum specification, construct a hypothesis for each experiment.

www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.html

Ostlund,K.L.(1992). Science Process Skills:Assessing hands-on student performance. Menlo Park, CA:Addison Wesley Publishing Company

Shepardson,D.P.,& Britisch,S.J.(2001). The role of childrens journals in elementary school science activities, Journal of Research in science Teaching,38(1),43-69.

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4.4

INTERPRETING DATA

In the investigation you may have collected some qualitative data then you have to explain the data patterns or relationships based on information gathered. The first step in interpreting data is to decide what data you want together. This comes from the hypothesis you devise. You may do the investigation mentally, visualizing what will happen and deciding what kinds of information you will need to have to tell why it happened. How will you organize your investigation so you can interpret the result?

This skill is used when:

Make a conclusion from the collected data Identify the pattern from the collected data State the relation from the collected data Make a statement from the collected data State the conclusion is supported by the data.

Why this skill is important?

To get as many as possible the information from graph, table dan figure To get the relation among the variables To make conclusion.

One of the best ways to organize data from interpretation is to put the data in visual form such as graph, chart or histogram. Sample data tables with computer -generated graphs or data and calculators are very useful aids to constructing graph.

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Activity 1

1. Look at the following table of information from Consumer Reports, September 2009.

Paper Towels Paper towel brands Price per Towels Squ roll per roll are feet per roll Waja Kelisa Viva Wira Kancil Saga Rusa 92 cent 83 cent 96 cent 77cent 74 cent 71cent 67cent 50 90 88 70 124 115 100 102 110 110 40 71 73 73 88 79 74 72 75 77 Cost per Cost per

towel(price sq.Ft(price/sq.ft.per / towels) roll)

Kembara 76cent Myvi Tiara 59 cent 76 cent

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.

Calculate the cost per towel of each of the brands Calculate the cost per square foot of each brand of paper towels. Which brand costs the least per towel?....................................... Which brand costs the most per towel?...................................... Which brand costs the least per square foot?............................... Which brand costs the most per square foot?.............................. Which brand is the best buy?...................................................... Why?............................................................................................ 133

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ACTIVITY 2

Read the table below and answer the questions about the information.

Name(Year activity) Colima(1986)

of

latest Location

Height(in meter)

Mexico Alaska Alaska Washington Aleutan Islands Alaska Aleutan Islands Mexico Aleutan Islands Alaska Aleutan Islands Aleutan Islands Aleutan Islands Alaska

4268 3108 3075 2950 2861 2507 2504 2225 2036 1832 1740 1303 1303 1054

Redoubt(1966) Iliamna(1978) Mount St Helen(1986) Shissaldin(1981) Veniaminof(1884) Pavlof(1984) El Chicon(1983) Makushin(1980) Trident(1963) Great sitkan(1974) Akutan(1980) Kiska(1969) Sequam(1977)

i.

How high is the highest active volcanoe?..............................................

ii.

How high is the lowest active volcanoe?................................................

iii.

What is the difference in height between the highest and lowest volcano?...............

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iv.

What is the most recent date of volcanic activity? ................................

v.

What is the least recent date of volcanic activity?.................................

vi.

How many years passed between the most recent activity and the least recent activity?..............................

1. The result of an experiment is shown in Table 1. Length of stick (cm) 10 20 30 40 50 Length of shadow (cm) 5 12 22 29 40

Table 1 Which of the following is correct? (A) The length is measured in meter. (B) The length of the stick decreases. (C) The length of the shadow decreases constantly. (D) The length of stick increases with the length of shadow.

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2. The table below shows time taken in days for butterfly and mosquito to develop from one stage to another. Give your interpretation from data given. Butterfly Stages Egg to larvae Larvae to pupa Pupa to adult Time taken (days) 10 21 21 Mosquito Time taken (days) 3 10 2

Tutorial 1

(1) (2)

Find some food wrappers to class Carefully, identify each food label and by using a table categorize the ingredients. Do you find any ingredients that you do not recognize? Do you think processed foods are good alternative in our lives? Explain.

Tutorial 2

1) Find any data from newspaper, magazines, internet on any topic. 2) Identify independent and dependent variables from the collected data. 3) Draw a graph to represent your data.

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Ostlund,K.L.(1992).

Science

Process

Skills:Assessing

hands-on

student

performance. Menlo Park, CA:Addison Wesley Publishing Company

Shepardson,D.P.,& Britisch,S.J.(2001). The role of childrens journals in elementary school science activities, Journal of Research in science

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4.5 EXPERIMENTING

One way how we can conduct investigation is by doing experiment. In an experiment, we ask a question on how a variable may affect another variable. Ideally an experiment is carried out to find out an answer or solution to a question or problem. A true experiment involves hypothesis testing and variable control.

Experimenting is the scientific process in which we investigate the effect of changing one variable on the change in a different variable In experimenting, we put together both the basic and integrated science process skills. An experiment may start as a question. We may consider the following steps to answer this question: Identifying variables Formulating hypothesis Identifying factors to be held constant Making operational definitions Designing investigation Conducting repeated trails Collecting data Interpreting data

Natural phenomena are complex and usually involve many factors or variables. In order to study these natural events systematically, we break down these events by different variables so that we can look at how one variable affects another variable.

Hypothesis is written to predict how one variable can affect another variable. A method of investigation in devised to test the hypothesis. Operational definitions for the variables are determined and experiment is conducted. Thoughtful 138

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observations and data are recorded. Tables and graphs can be used to communicate these results. Finally inferences, conclusions and

recommendations can be made.

ACTIVITY 1
1. Icy Finger a) Problem statement:How does cold environment affect our sense of touch? b) Identifying variables to be manipulated: Warm hand and cold hand Results to be measured: Time taken to complete the task with hand before and after being immersed in ice water c) Identifying factors to be held constant: Number of toothpicks to be inserted into a container through a small hole d) Formulating hypothesis: Time taken to insert all 15 toothpicks into a container through a small hole is longer after the hand is immersed as compared to time taken for similar activity before hand is immersed in cold water. e) Making operational definitions: To measure sense of touch, time taken to insert 15 pieces of toothpick through a small hole into a container is compared before and after our hand is dipped in ice water for 30 seconds f) Designing investigation: What do I need? 5 toothpicks, a container of ice cubes, a small plate, a plastic container with lid, 1 thumbtack, 1 stopwatch What do I do? i) Break a toothpick into three small pieces. Do this for all the 5 toothpicks ii) Use a thumbtack to make a small hole on the lid of the plastic container. The small hole must be big enough for the toothpicks to pass through.

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iii)

Start the stopwatch as you begin to pick up small toothpicks from the plate and insert into the plastic container through the small hall. How long do you take to finish inserting all the 15 broken toothpicks?

iv)

Now dip the same hand into a container of ice for 30 seconds. Dry your hand, pick up the broken toothpicks and insert them into the plastic container in the same manner. How much time do you take to finish all the toothpicks?

g) Conducting repeated trials: Carry out the experiment at least three times to find average time taken h) Collecting data

Time taken (seconds) 1st trial Hand not 2nd trial 3rd trial Average

dipped in ice water Hand dipped in ice water

i) Analyse and interpreting data: The average time taken to complete the task: before hand is dipped in ice water is _____ seconds after hand is dipped in ice water is _____ seconds When the hand is cold, there will be less blood flow to the skin. The skin becomes less sensitive, which dulls the sense of touch. That is why it is harder to pick up the toothpicks. j) Make a conclusion that answer the problem statement. Hypothesis is accepted. Time taken to insert all 15 toothpicks into a container through a small hole is longer after the hand is immersed as 140

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compared to time taken for similar activity before hand is immersed in cold water.

ACTIVITY 2

Best Facial Wipe a) Problem statement: Which brand of facial wipe is the best? b) Identifying variables to be manipulated and results to be

measured/observed c) Identifying factors to be held constant d) Formulating hypothesis: Smart guess that relates manipulated variable with responding variable. e) Making operational definitions: How do you define best facial wipe? f) Designing investigation: List down the steps to run the experiment. Figure may be included to give better illustration. g) Conducting repeated trials: Carry out the experiment at least three times to find average reading h) Collecting data: Use a table to record data i) Analyse and interpreting data: Communicate results in table/chart/figure and attempt to explain the results obtained j) Make a conclusion that answer the problem statement.

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a. List down the basic and integrated science process skills. b. Identify a problem which you would investigate. Design an experiment to find the answer to the question. Here are some examples: What affects the rate at which a person breathes? What affects how far a rubber band will fly? Can a plant get too much fertilizer? Is there a relationship between the size of seed and its germination time? How waterproof are paints?

Do The Pendulum Experiment Discussion on the Pendulum Experiment results

Read Guide to Science Experiments and plan your own investigation. Read Skamp (2004), Appendix 2.3 pg 83

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Skamp, K. (Ed.), (2004) Teaching primary science constructively (2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Thomson Learning. Bailer, J., Ramig, J.E., Ramsey J.M. (1995). Process Skills. USA: Good Apple. Fiel, R.L., Funk, H.J., Rezba, R. J., Sprague C., (1995). Learning and Assessing SCIENCE Process Skills (3rd edition). Iowa: Kendall / Hunt Publishing Company. Klindworth, A. (2004). Science Experiments you can eat. Melbourne: Deakin University. Martin, D. J. (2001). Constructing Early Childhood Science. Albany, New York: Thompson Learning Poh Swee Hiang. (2005). Pedagogy of Science. Volume 1.Kuala Lumpur: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn. Bhd. Tytler, T. (2000) The Science of Toys and Tricks. Melbourne: Deakin University. Activities Book. Teaching Science

www.longwood.edu/cleanva/images/sec6.processskills.pdf www.pdfgeni.com/book/science-skills-worksheet-experimenting-skillspdf.html www.kids-science-experiments.com/ www.surfnetkids.com/science_experiments.htm www.stevespanglerscience.com/experiments/

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TUTORIAL Pendulum Experiment

Materials:

String Ring stand Washers (or any object that can be used to vary mass) Meter stick Second hand Worksheet (on next page) Experiment report model Experiment report

A pendulum is an object connected to a fixed point by a string, wire, or rope. When set in motion, a pendulum swings back and forth. You have heard about Galileo and Foucault, whose pendulum experiments made important

contributions to science. Visualize a pendulum. What variables might affect its swing? List them below. Variable 1 _____________________________________________________ Variable 2 _____________________________________________________ Variable 3 _____________________________________________________ Design a series of experiments that will test how each of the variables listed above might affect a pendulums swing or frequency. The frequency of a

pendulum is the time it takes to make a complete cycle (from starting point back to starting point). variable. You will need at least three experiments one for each

This will require you to write a hypothesis for each experiment.

Controlling all variables not being tested is extremely important in this series of experiments.

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Your Own Investigation Here is an opportunity to apply all the science process skills you have learned. You can get the information by giving a questionnaire and conduct a survey to answer those questions.

Your task

1. Ask a question about a physical or biological event or relationship. Make sure the topic offers the potential for experimentation. Consumer testing is a good area for first-time projects. The best topics can arise from your hobbies, interests, activities, and skills.

2. Decide whether you will perform an experiment or a survey.

3. Complete the survey plan. Discuss your plan with your lecturer online and get the approval.

4. List the potential variables.

Choose a manipulated variable and a

responding variable. Operationally define the variables so they can be measured.

5. Write a specific research question.

6. Write a hypothesis that provide an exact focus for the survey.

7. Conduct a library research and write a review of the literature about your topic. A literature review summarizes information about your topic into a report.

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8. Design the survey to collect data that will answer the research question and hypotheses. Remember to control all variables except the

manipulated and responding variables.

9. Gather materials. Remember, more data is better than less data.

10. Compile the results. Quantitative data should be recorded in data tables and you may want to include graphs to help with interpretation. Dont forget to record qualitative data whenever necessary.

11. Interpret the data. Write conclusions, inferences, and discussion. Make recommendations. Dont be too general. For example, if you test only one type of radish seed, your interpretation must refer to only that variety of radish seed.

12. Prepare a final report using the survey report. held accountable for all critical information and techniques.

You will be

Common Problems in conducting survey

Low sample size Lack of control of everything but the manipulated and responding variables. Inaccurate measurement. Surveyor bias. Keep an open mind. Population selection bias.

Suggestions For Your Topic

Which pill design tablet, caplet, or capsule are preferred by most students? 146

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Which bottle designs are most childproof or tamperproof? Which heats liquids faster gas, electric, or microwave heat sources? How does colour affect the choice of drinks for students?

Experiment Plan and Approval Investigation Topic Manipulated Variable Responding Variable Research Question Hypothesis Data Collection Plan How will you control all variables except the manipulated and responding variable? What special equipment will you need? Lecturers Approval

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