Ancient literature

Ancient literature
The history of literature begins with the invention of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Writing developed out of proto-literate sign systems in the 30th century BC, although the oldest known literary texts date from the 27th or 26th century BC. Literature from the Iron Age includes the earliest texts which have been preserved in a manuscript tradition (as opposed to texts which have been recovered by archaeologists), including the Avestan Gathas (see date of Zoroaster), the Indian Vedas (see Vedic period), parts of the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament; cf. dating the Bible), and the earliest literature from Ancient Greece. Classical Antiquity is generally considered to begin with Homer in the 8th century BC, and it continues until the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. Although the earliest Classics were in Ancient Greek, from the 3rd century BC Greek literature was joined by Latin literature. As well as the Western canon, there is also a period of classical Sanskrit literature and Sangam literature in India, Chinese classics in China, and in Late Antiquity the beginning of classical Syriac and Middle Persian literature. The following is a chronological list of literary works up until the 5th century AD. Literature of the 6th to 9th centuries is covered in Early medieval literature. For a list of the earliest testimony in each language, see list of languages by first written accounts.

List of ancient texts

Bronze Age
See also: Sumerian literature, Akkadian literature, Ancient Egyptian literature, Hittite texts, Vedic Sanskrit Early Bronze Age: 3rd millennium BC (approximate dates shown) The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC (classical Sumerian).[1] The earliest literary authors known by name are Shuruppak and Urukagina, dating to ca. the 27th and 24th centuries BC, respectively. Certain literary texts are difficult to date, such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead which was recorded in the Papyrus of Ani around 1240 BC, but other versions of the book probably date from about the 18th century BC. 2600 Sumerian texts from Abu Salabikh, including the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymn 2600 Akkadian Legend of Etana [2] 2400 Egyptian Pyramid Texts, including the Cannibal Hymn 2400 Sumerian Code of Urukagina [3] 2400 Egyptian Palermo stone 2350 Egyptian The Maxims of Ptahhotep 2270 Sumerian Enheduanna's Hymns 2250-2000 Sumerian Earliest stories in theEpic of Gilgamesh [4][5] 2100 Sumerian Curse of Agade 2100 Sumerian Debate between Bird and Fish 2050 Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu 2000 Egyptian Coffin Texts 2000 Sumerian Lament for Ur 2000 Sumerian Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta

Middle Bronze Age: ca. 2000 to 1600 BC (approximate dates shown) 1950 Akkadian Laws of Eshnunna 1900 Sumerian Code of Lipit-Ishtar 1900 Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh

Ancient literature 1850 Akkadian Kultepe texts 1800 Egyptian Story of Sinuhe (in Hieratic) 1800 Sumerian Eridu Genesis 1800 Akkadian Enma Eli 1800 Akkadian Atra-Hasis epic 1780 Akkadian Code of Hammurabi stele 1780 Akkadian Mari letters, including the Epic of Zimri-Lim 1750 Hittite Anitta text 1700 Egyptian Westcar Papyrus 1650 Egyptian Ipuwer Papyrus

Late Bronze Age: ca. 1600 to 1200 BC (approximate dates shown) 1700-1100 Vedic Sanskrit: approximate date of the composition of the Rigveda. Many of these were not set to writing until later.[6] 1600 Hittite Code of the Nesilim 1500 Akkadian Poor Man of Nippur [7] 1500 Hittite military oath 1550 Egyptian Book of the Dead 1500 Akkadian Dynasty of Dunnum[8] 1440-1400 Hebrew Torah, also called the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses[9][10][11][12][13] with a final redaction between 900-450 BC.[14][15] Some give an alternate date of 1320-1280.[16] 1400 Akkadian Marriage of Nergal and Ereshkigal 1400 Akkadian Autobiography of Kurigalzu 1400 Akkadian Amarna letters 1330 Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten 1240 Egyptian Papyrus of Ani, Book of the Dead 1200-900 Akkadian version and younger stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh[17] 1200 Akkadian Tukulti-Ninurta Epic 1200 Egyptian Tale of Two Brothers [18]

Iron Age
See also Sanskrit literature, Chinese literature Iron Age texts predating Classical Antiquity: 12th to 8th centuries BC 1200-1100 BC approximate date of books RV 1 and RV 10 in the Rigveda 1200-800 BC approximate date of the Vedic Sanskrit Yajurveda, Atharvaveda 1100-800 BC date of the redaction of the extant text of the Rigveda 1050 BC Egyptian Story of Wenamun 1050 BC Akkadian Sakikk (SA.GIG) Diagnostic Omens by Esagil-kin-apli.[19] 1050 BC The Babylonian Theodicy of aggil-knam-ubbib.[19] 1000-600 BC Chinese Classic of Poetry (Shjng), Classic of Documents (Shjng) (authentic portions), Classic of Changes (I Ching) 950 BC date of the Jahwist portions of the Torah according to the documentary hypothesis 900 BC Akkadian Epic of Erra 850 BC date of the Elohist portions of the Torah according to the documentary hypothesis

Ancient literature

Classical Antiquity
See also Ancient Greek literature, Syriac literature, Latin literature, Indian literature, Hebrew literature, Avesta See also: centuries in poetry: 7th, 6th, 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd, 1st 8th century BC Greek Trojan War cycle, including the Iliad and the Odyssey 800-500 BC: Sanskrit Brahmanas 722481 BC: Chinese Spring and Autumn Annals (Chnqi) (chronicles of the state of Lu) Oldest non-Pentateuchal books of the Hebrew Bible (the Book of Nahum, Book of Hosea, Book of Amos, Book of Isaiah)

7th century BC Greek: Hesiod: The Theogony and Works and Days Archilochus Alcman Semonides of Amorgos

Solon Mimnermus Stesichorus 6th century BC Hebrew Bible: Psalms (according to late dating) Book of Ezekiel, Book of Daniel (according to conservative or early dating) Chinese: Sun Tzu: The Art of War (Snz Bngf) Sanskrit: Sutra literature some Mukhya Upanishads (Katha Upanishad, Maitrayaniya Upanishad) Greek: Sappho Ibycus Alcaeus of Mytilene Aesop's Fables

5th century BC 5th century BC to 4th century AD: Sanskrit: Epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) Avestan: Yasht Chinese: Confucius: Analects (Lny) Classic of Rites (Lj) Commentaries of Zuo (Zuzhun) Greek: Pindar: Odes Herodotus: The Histories of Herodotus Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War Aeschylus: The Suppliants, The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, Oresteia Sophocles: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, Electra and other plays

Ancient literature Euripides: Alcestis, Medea, Heracleidae, Hippolytus, Andromache, Hecuba, The Suppliants, Electra, Heracles, Trojan Women, Iphigeneia in Tauris, Ion, Helen, Phoenician Women, Orestes, Bacchae, Iphigeneia at Aulis, Cyclops, Rhesus Aristophanes: The Acharnians, The Knights, The Clouds, The Wasps, Peace, The Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae, The Frogs, Ecclesiazousae, Plutus Hebrew: date of the extant text of the Torah 4th century BC Hebrew: Book of Job, beginning of Hebrew wisdom literature Chinese: Laozi (or Lao Tzu): Tao Te Ching Zhuangzi: Zhuangzi (book) Mencius: Mencius Greek: Xenophon: Anabasis, Cyropaedia Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, Metaphysics Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Theaetetus, Parmenides, Symposium, Phaedrus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno, Menexenus, Republic, Timaeus Euclid: Elements Menander: Dyskolos Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants 3rd century BC Avestan: Avesta Etruscan: Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis (Linen Book of Zagreb) Sanskrit: Panchatantra by Vishnu Sarma Tamil:

3rd century BC to 3rd century AD: Sangam poems Tolkppiyam (grammar book) Hebrew: Ecclesiastes Latin: Lucius Livius Andronicus (c. 280/260 BC c. 200 BC), translator, founder of Roman drama Gnaeus Naevius (ca. 264 201 BC), dramatist, epic poet Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 254 184 BC), dramatist, composer of comedies: Poenulus, Miles Gloriosus, and other plays Quintus Fabius Pictor (3rd century BC), historian Lucius Cincius Alimentus (3rd century BC), military historian and antiquarian Greek: Manetho: Aegyptiaca 2nd century BC Avestan: Vendidad Chinese: Sima Qian: Records of the Grand Historian (Shj) Aramaic: Book of Daniel Hebrew: Sirach Greek Polybius: The Histories Book of Wisdom

Ancient literature Septuagint Latin: Terence (195/185 BC 159 BC), comic dramatist: The Brothers, The Girl from Andros, Eunuchus, The Self-Tormentor, Quintus Ennius (239 BC c. 169 BC), poet Marcus Pacuvius (ca. 220 BC 130 BC), tragic dramatist, poet Statius Caecilius (220 BC 168/166 BC), comic dramatist Marcius Porcius Cato (234 BC 149 BC), generalist, topical writer Gaius Acilius (2nd century BC), historian Lucius Accius (170 BC c. 86 BC), tragic dramatist, philologist Gaius Lucilius (c. 160's BC 103/2 BC), satirist Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd century BC), public officer, epigramatist Aulus Furius Antias (2nd century BC), poet Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus (130 BC 87 BC), public officer, tragic dramatist Lucius Pomponius Bononiensis (2nd century BC), comic dramatist, satirist Lucius Cassius Hemina (2nd century BC), historian Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (2nd century BC), historian Manius Manilius (2nd century BC), public officer, jurist Lucius Coelius Antipater (2nd century BC), jurist, historian Publius Sempronius Asellio (158 BC after 91 BC), military officer, historian Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (2nd century BC), jurist Lucius Afranius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), comic dramatist Titus Albucius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), orator Publius Rutilius Rufus (158 BC after 78 BC), jurist Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd & 1st centuries BC), public officer, poet Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus (154 BC 74 BC), philologist Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), historian Valerius Antias (2nd & 1st centuries BC), historian Lucius Cornelius Sisenna (121 BC 67 BC), soldier, historian Quintus Cornificius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), rhetorician

1st century BC Pali: Tipitaka Latin: Cicero: Catiline Orations, Pro Caelio, Dream of Scipio Julius Caesar: Gallic Wars Virgil: Eclogues, Georgics and Aeneid Lucretius: On the Nature of Things Livy: Ab Urbe Condita (History of Rome) See also: Pahlavi literature, centuries in poetry: 1st, 2nd and 3rd 1st century AD Chinese: Ban Gu: Book of Han (Hnsh) Greek: Plutarch: Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans Josephus: The Jewish War, Antiquities of the Jews, Against Apion The books of the New Testament Latin: see Classical Latin

Ancient literature Tacitus: Germania Ovid: Metamorphoses Pliny the Elder: Natural History Petronius: Satyricon Seneca the Younger: Phaedra, Dialogues

2nd century Sanskrit: Avaghoa: Buddhacharita (Acts of the Buddha) Pahlavi: Yadegar-e Zariran (Memorial of Zarr) Visperad Drakht-i Asurig (The Babylonian Tree) Greek: Arrian: Anabasis Alexandri Epictetus and Arrian: Enchiridion Ptolemy: Almagest Athenaeus: The Banquet of the Learned Pausanias: Description of Greece

Latin: see Classical Latin Apuleius: The Golden Ass Lucius Ampelius: Liber Memorialis Suetonius: Lives of the Twelve Caesars 3rd century Avestan: Khordeh Avesta (Zoroastrian prayer book) Pahlavi: Mani: Shabuhragan (Manichaean holy book) Chinese: Chen Shou: Records of Three Kingdoms (Sngu Zh) Greek: Plotinus: Enneads Latin: see Late Latin

Distichs of Cato Hebrew: Mishnah

Late Antiquity
See also: 4th century in poetry, 5th century in poetry 4th century Latin: see Late Latin Augustine of Hippo: Confessions, On Christian Doctrine Apicius (a.k.a. De re coquinaria, On the Subject of Cooking) Pervigilium Veneris (Vigil of Venus) Syriac: Aphrahat, Ephrem the Syrian Hebrew: Gemara 5th century Chinese: Fan Ye: Book of the Later Han (Huhnsh) Sanskrit: Klidsa (speculated): The Recognition of akuntal, The Cloud Messenger Pahlavi: Matigan-i Hazar Datistan (The Thousand Laws of the Magistan)

Ancient literature Frahang-i Oim-evak (Pahlavi-Avestan dictionary) Latin: see Late Latin Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus: De Re Militari Augustine of Hippo: The City of God Paulus Orosius: Seven Books of History Against the Pagans Jerome: Vulgate Prudentius: Psychomachia Consentius's grammar Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite: Celestial Hierarchy, Mystical Theology

6th century Latin: Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae (The Consolation of Philosophy) 524 AD, widely considered to be the last work of classical philosophy.[20][21]

References
[1] Grimbly, Shona (2000). Encyclopedia of the Ancient World (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=CRZu51yv1X4C). Taylor & Francis. p.216. ISBN978-1-57958-281-4. . "The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC, when the Sumerians started to write down their long epic poems." [2] Clay, Albert T. (2003). Atrahasis: An Ancient Hebrew Deluge Story (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=K1QhcIrHB68C). Book Tree. p.34. ISBN978-1-58509-228-4. . "This fragment of an old version of the Etana Legend was written about 2000 years earlier than the fragments found in the Library of Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC)." [3] Jones, Mark (2006). Criminals of the Bible: Twenty-Five Case Studies of Biblical Crimes and Outlaws (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=zHnH4DJ9pr0C). FaithWalk Publishing. p.6. ISBN978-1-932902-64-8. . "The Sumerian code of Urukagina was written around 2400 BC." [4] Stephanie Dalley, ed. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-953836-2. [5] Eccles, Sir John Carew (1989). Evolution of the Brain: Creation of the Self (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=rM68T7L-lY4C). Routledge. p.118. ISBN978-0-415-03224-7. . "The Epic of Gilgamesh, written in Sumer about 2200 BC." [6] Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 17001100 [7] Noonan, John T. (1987). Bribes (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=6zgp1_zeJbEC). University of California Press. p.4. ISBN978-0-520-06154-5. . "The Poor Man of Nippur dates from about 1500 BC." [8] Thorkild Jacobsen (1978). The treasures of darkness: a history of Mesopotamian religion. Yale University Press. pp.167168, 231. Perhaps it was brought east with the Amorites of the First Dynasty of Babylon. [9] according to ancient Jewish and Christian tradition, and some modern scholars; see above inline citations. [10] Talmud, Bava Bathra 146 [11] Mishnah, Pirqe Avoth 1:1 [12] Josephus, Flavius (1926). "11:8". The Life. Against Apion. (Loeb Classical Library). Loeb Classical Library. pp.448. ISBN978-0-674-99205-4. ""For we have not an innumerable multitude of books among us, disagreeing from and contradicting one another (as the Greeks have) but only 22 books, which are justly believed to be divine; and of them, five belong to Moses, which contain his laws, and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death."" [13] Stuart, Douglas K (2006). New American Commentary Vol. II: Exodus. Holman Reference. pp.826. ISBN978-0-8054-0102-8. [14] "Introduction to the Pentateuch. Introduction to Genesis." (in English). ESV Study Bible (1st ed.). Crossway. 2008. p.XLII, 29-30. ISBN978-1-4335-0241-5. [15] RA Torrey, ed. (1994). "I-XI". The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth (11th ed.). Baker Academic. p.1-144. ISBN978-0-8010-1264-8. [16] Hoffmeier, James K (1999). Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition. Oxford University Press. pp.280. ISBN978-0-19-513088-1. [17] Stephanie Dalley, ed. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-953836-2. [18] Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol.2, 1980, p.203 [19] Alan Lenzi (2008). "The Uruk List of Kings and Sages and Late Mesopotamian Scholarship". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 8 (2): 137169. [20] The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics), Introduction (2000) [21] Dante placed Boethius the last of the Romans and first of the Scholastics among the doctors in his Paradise (see The Divine Comedy).

Article Sources and Contributors

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