Stress management

Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping
mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, with stress defined as a person's
physiological response to an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-or-flight
response. Stress management is effective when a person utilizes strategies to cope with or alter
stressful situations.
Historical foundations
Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for
the study of stress. They measured the physiological responses of animals to external
pressures, such as heat and cold, prolonged restraint, and surgical procedures, and then
extrapolated from these studies to human beings.[1][2]
[1][2]

Subsequent studies of stress in humans by Richard Rahe and others established the view that
stress is caused by distinct, measureable life stressors, and further, that these life stressors can
be ranked by the median degree of stress they produce (leading to the Holmes and Rahe Stress
Scale). Thus, stress was traditionally conceptualized to be a result of external insults beyond
the control of those experiencing the stress. More recently, however, it has been argued that
external circumstances do not have any intrinsic capacity to produce stress, but instead their
effect is mediated by the individual's perceptions, capacities, and understanding.
Models of stress management
Transactional model
Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested in 1984 that stress can be thought of as
resulting from an “imbalance between demands and resources” or as occurring when
“pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope”. Stress management was developed and
premised on the idea that stress is not a direct response to a stressor but rather one's resources
and ability to cope mediate the stress response and are amenable to change, thus allowing
stress to be controllable.[3]
In order to develop an effective stress management programme it is first necessary to identify
the factors that are central to a person controlling his/her stress, and to identify the
intervention methods which effectively target these factors. Lazarus and Folkman's

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interpretation of stress focuses on the transaction between people and their external
environment (known as the Transactional Model). The model conceptualizes stress as a result
of how a stressor is appraised and how a person appraises his/her resources to cope with the
stressor. The model breaks the stressor-stress link by proposing that if stressors are perceived
as positive or challenging rather than a threat, and if the stressed person is confident that
he/she possesses adequate rather than deficient coping strategies, stress may not necessarily
follow the presence of a potential stressor. The model proposes that stress can be reduced by
helping stressed people change their perceptions of stressors, providing them with strategies
to help them cope and improving their confidence in their ability to do so.
Health realization/innate health model
The health realization/innate health model of stress is also founded on the idea that stress
does not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor. Instead of focusing on the
individual's appraisal of so-called stressors in relation to his or her own coping skills (as the
transactional model does), the health realization model focuses on the nature of thought,
stating that it is ultimately a person's thought processes that determine the response to
potentially stressful external circumstances. In this model, stress results from appraising
oneself and one's circumstances through a mental filter of insecurity and negativity, whereas a
feeling of well-being results from approaching the world with a "quiet mind," "inner wisdom,"
and "common sense".[4][5]
[4][5]

This model proposes that helping stressed individuals understand the nature of thought--
especially providing them with the ability to recognize when they are in the grip of insecure
thinking, disengage from it, and access natural positive feelings--will reduce their stress.
Techniques of stress management
There are several ways of coping with stress. Some techniques of time management may help
a person to control stress. In the face of high demands, effective stress management involves
learning to set limits and to say "No" to some demands that others make. The following
techniques have been recently dubbed “Destressitizers” by The Journal of the Canadian
Medical Association. A destressitizer is any process by which an individual can relieve stress.

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Techniques of stress management will vary according to the theoretical paradigm adhered to,
but may include some of the following[6]:
AUTOGENIC TRAINING
Autogenic training is a relaxation technique developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes
Schultz and first published in 1932. The technique involves the daily practice of sessions that
last around 15 minutes, usually in the morning, at lunch time, and in the evening. During each
session, the practitioner will repeat a set of visualizations that induce a state of relaxation. Each
session can be practiced in a position chosen amongst a set of recommended postures ( e.g.
lying down, sitting meditation, sitting like a rag doll, etc.). The technique can be used to
alleviate many stress-induced psychosomatic disorders.

Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation. It is a method for

influencing one's autonomic nervous system. Abbe Faria and Emile Coue are the forerunners of
Schultz. There are many parallels to progressive relaxation.
Example of an autogenic training session
1. Sit in the meditative posture and scan the body
2. "my left arm is heavy and warm" (repeat 3 times)
3. "my arms and legs are heavy and warm" (repeat 3 times)
4. "my heartbeat is calm and regular" (repeat 3 times)
5. "my solar plexus is warm" (repeat 3 times)
6. "my forehead is cool"
7. finish part one by cancelling
8. start part two by repeating from steps 2 to cancelling
9. part three repeat steps 2 to cancelling
Quite often, one will ease themselves into the "trance" by counting to ten, and exit by counting
backwards from ten. This is another practice taken from progressive relaxation.
Effects of autogenic training
Autogenic Training restores the balance between the activity of the sympathetic (flight or
fight) and the parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches of the autonomic nervous system.

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This has important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes digestion and
bowel movements, lowers the blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and promotes the functions
of the immune system[.
Counter-indications
Autogenic Training may be counter-indicated, or may need to be adapted, for a series of
conditions including: heart problems such as myocardial infarction, diabetes, psychotic
conditions such as schizophrenia, glaucoma, alcohol or drug abuse, epilepsy.
Clinical Evidence
Autogenic training has been subject to clinical evaluation from its early days in Germany, and
from the early 1980s worldwide. In 2002, a meta-analysis of 60 studies was published in
Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (Stetter & Kupper 2002), finding significant positive
effects of treatment when compared to normals over a number of diagnoses; finding these
effects to be similar to best recommended rival therapies; and finding positive additional
effects by patients, such as their perceived quality of life.
In Japan, four researchers from the Tokyo Psychology and Counseling Service Center have
formulated a measure for reporting clinical effectiveness of autogenic training (IMYK 2002).
References
• Bird, Jane; Christine Pinch (2002). Autogenic Therapy - Self-help for Mind and Body.
Newleaf (Gill & Macmillan). ISBN 978-0717134229.
• Luthe Dr W & Schultz Dr JH, "Autogenic Therapy", first published by Grune and
Stratton, Inc., New York, (1969). Republished in (2001) by The British Autogenic Society.
In six volumes.
Vol. 1 Autogenic Methods
Vol. 2 Medical Applications
Vol. 3 Applications in Psychotherapy
Vol. 4 Research and Theory
Vol. 5 Dynamics of Autogenic Neutralization
Vol. 6 Treatment with Autogenic Neutralization

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• Ikezuki, Miyauchi, Yamaguchi, and Koshigaya, (IMYK 2002). Development of Autogenic
Training Clinical Effectiveness Scale (ATCES). In Japanese Journal of Psychology 72(6):475-
481. PubMed index 11977841.
• Stetter & Kupper (2002). Autogenic training: a meta-analysis of clinical outcome studies. In
Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 27(1):45-98. PubMed index 12001885.

COGNITIVE THERAPY
Cognitive Therapy (CT) is a type of psychotherapy developed by American psychiatrist
Aaron T. Beck. CT is one of the therapeutic approaches within the larger group of Cognitive
Behavioral Therapies (CBT) and was first expounded by Beck in the 1960s.
Overview
Cognitive therapy seeks to help the client overcome difficulties by identifying and changing
dysfunctional thinking, behavior, and emotional responses. This involves helping clients
develop skills for modifying beliefs, identifying distorted thinking, relating to others in
different ways, and changing behaviors [1]. Treatment is based on collaboration between client
and therapist and on testing beliefs. Therapy may consist of testing the assumptions which one
makes and identifying how certain of one's usually-unquestioned thoughts are distorted,
unrealistic and unhelpful. Once those thoughts have been challenged, one's feelings about the
subject matter of those thoughts are more easily subject to change. Beck initially focused on
depression and developed a list of "errors" in thinking that he proposed could maintain
depression, including arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, over-generalization, and
magnification (of negatives) and minimization (of positives).
A simple example may illustrate the principle of how CT works: Having made a mistake at
work, a person may believe, "I'm useless and can't do anything right at work." Strongly
believing this, in turn, tends to worsen his mood. The problem may be worsened further if the
individual reacts by avoiding activities and then behaviorally confirming his negative belief to
himself. As a result, an adaptive response and further constructive consequence becomes
unlikely, which reinforces the original belief of being "useless." In therapy, the latter example
could be identified as a self-fulfilling prophecy or "problem cycle," and the efforts of the
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therapist and client would be directed at working together to change it. This is done by
addressing the way the client thinks and behaves in response to similar situations and by
developing more flexible ways to think and respond, including reducing the avoidance of
activities. If, as a result, the client escapes the negative thought patterns and dysfunctional
behaviors, the feelings of depression may, over time, be relieved. The client may then become
more active, succeed and respond more adaptively more often, and further reduce or cope
with his negative feelings.
Cognitive therapy and depression
According to Beck’s theory of the etiology of depression, depressed people acquire a negative
schema of the world in childhood and adolescence; children and adolescents who suffer from
depression acquire this negative schema earlier. Depressed people acquire such schemas
through a loss of a parent, rejection by peers, criticism from teachers or parents, the depressive
attitude of a parent and other negative events. When the person with such schemas encounters
a situation that resembles in some way, even remotely, the conditions in which the original
schema was learned, the negative schemas of the person are activated.[5]
Beck also included a negative triad in his theory. A negative triad is made up of the negative
schemas and cognitive biases of the person. A cognitive bias is a view of the world. Depressed
people, according to this theory, have views such as “I never do a good job.” A negative
schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative
schema. This is the negative triad. Also, Beck proposed that depressed people often have the
following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization,
magnification and minimization. These cognitive biases are quick to make negative,
generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema.[5]
Methods of CT
Cognitive restructuring:
• Evaluating validity of client's thoughts and beliefs
• Assessing what the client expects, predicts
• Assessing client's attributions for causes of events [6]

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References
1. ^ Judith S. Beck. "Questions and Answers about Cognitive Therapy". About Cognitive

Therapy. Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research. Retrieved on 2008-11-21.
2. ^ Goode, Erica (11 January 2000). “A Pragmatic Man and His No-Nonsense Therapy”,

The New York Times. Retrieved on 21 November 2008.

3. ^ Deffenbacher, J. L; Dahlen E. R, Lynch R. S, Morris C. D, Gowensmith W. N

(December 2000). "An Application of Becks Cognitive Therapy to General Anger

Reduction". Cognitive Therapy and Research 24 (6): 689–697.
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/cotr/2000/00000024/00000006/002271
92. Retrieved on 21 November 2008.
4. ^ Judith S. Beck. "Why Distinguish Between Cognitive Therapy and Cognitive

Behaviour Therapy". Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research. Retrieved on
21 November 2008.[ ] - The Beck Institute Newsletter, February 2001
5. ^ a b Neale, John M.; Davison, Gerald C. (2001). Abnormal psychology (8th ed.). New York:

John Wiley & Sons. pp. pp. 247–250. ISBN 0-471-31811-6.

6. ^ Think Good-Feel Good: A Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Workbook for Children and

Young People by Paul Stallard

CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict resolution is a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of
conflict. The term "conflict resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term
dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. Processes of conflict resolution generally
include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation, and
formal complaint processes such as ombudsman processes, are usually described with the
term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of
mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.

Methods
There are many tools available to persons in conflict. How and when they are used depends on
several factors (such as the specific issues at stake in the conflict and the cultural context of the
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disputants). The list of tools available to practitioners include negotiation, mediation,
community building, advocacy, diplomacy, activism, nonviolence, critical pedagogy, prayer
and counseling. In real world conflict situations, which range in scale from kindergarten
bullying to genocide, practitioners will creatively combine several of these approaches as
needed. Additionally, practitioners will often specialize in a particular scale (e.g. interpersonal,
community or international), or a particular variety of conflict (such as environmental,
religious or organizational), and repertoires of tools they find most useful.
Culture-based
Conflict resolution as both a professional practice and academic field is highly sensitive to
culture. In Western cultural contexts, such as the Canada and the United States, successful
conflict resolution usually involves fostering communication among disputants, problem
solving, and drafting agreements that meet their underlying needs. In these situations, conflict
resolvers often talk about finding the win-win solution, or mutually satisfying scenario, for
everyone involved (see Fisher and Ury (1981), Getting to Yes). In many non-Western cultural
contexts, such as Afghanistan, Vietnam and China, it is also important to find 'win-win'
'win-win'
solutions; however, getting there can be very different. In these contexts, direct communication
between disputants that explicitly addresses the issues at stake in the conflict can be perceived
as very rude, making the conflict worse and delaying resolution. Rather, it can make sense to
involve religious, tribal or community leaders, communicate difficult truths indirectly through
a third party, and make suggestions through stories (see David Augsberger (1992), Conflict
Mediation Across Cultures). Intercultural conflicts are often the most difficult to resolve because
the expectations of the disputants can be very different, and there is much occasion for
misunderstanding. A firm position in diplomacy must be maintain.
Counseling
When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency, counseling may prove to be a
helpful antidote. Although few organizations can afford the luxury of having professional
counselors on the staff, given some training, managers may be able to perform this function.
Nondirective counseling, or "listening with understanding", is little more than being a good

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listener — something every manager should be. [1] Sometimes the simple process of being able
to vent one's feelings — that is, to express them to a concerned and understanding listener, is
enough to relieve frustration and make it possible for the frustrated individual to advance to a
problem-solving frame of mind, better able to cope with a personal difficulty that is affecting
his work adversely. The nondirective approach is one effective way for managers to deal with
frustrated subordinates and co-workers. There are other more direct and more diagnostic
ways that might be used in appropriate circumstances. The great strength of the nondirective
approach (nondirective counseling is based on the client-centered therapy of Carl Rogers),
however, lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness, and the fact that it deliberately avoids the
manager-counselor's diagnosing and interpreting emotional problems, which would call for
special psychological training. No one has ever been harmed by being listened to
sympathetically and understandingly. On the contrary, this approach has helped many people
to cope with problems that were interfering with their effectiveness on the job.[2]
References
1. ^ Henry P Knowles; Börje O Saxberg (1971). Personality and leadership behavior. Reading,

Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.. Chapter 8. OCLC 118832.

2. ^ Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems, and society : an introduction. Pacific

Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co.. pp. 148–142. ISBN 0876205406 9780876205402.
OCLC 2299496.
3. ^ Wahaj, S. A., Guse, K. & Holekamp, K. E. 2001: Reconciliation in the spotted hyena

(Crocuta crocuta). Ethology 107, 1057—1074

4. ^ Weaver, A. 2003: Conflict and reconciliation in captive bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops

truncatus. Marine Mammal Science 19, 836—846.

5. ^ Schino, G. 1998: Reconciliation in domestic goats. Behaviour 135, 343—356.
6. ^ Cools, A. K. A., Van Hout, A. J.-M., Nelissen M. H. J. 2008: Canine Reconciliation and

Third-Party-Initiated Postconflict Affiliation: Do Peacemaking Social Mechanisms in

Dogs Rival Those of Higher Primates? Ethology 114, 53—63.
THE OTHER METHODS ARE:
• EXERCISE
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• GETTING A HOBBY
• MEDITATION
• DEEP BREATHING
• NOOTROPIC
Memory enhancers are often referred to as "smart
"smart drugs", "smart
"smart nutrients", "cognitive
"cognitive
enhancers", "brain
"brain enhancers" or in the scientific literature as Nootropics. They are drugs that
are purported to improve human cognitive abilities.[1][2]
[1][2]
The term covers a broad range of
substances including drugs, nutrients and herbs with purported cognitive enhancing effects.

The word nootropic was coined in 1964 by the Romanian Dr. Corneliu E. Giurgea, derived from
the Greek words noos, or "mind," and tropein meaning "to bend/turn". Typically, nootropics are
thought to work by altering the availability of the brain's supply of neurochemicals
(neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain's oxygen supply, or by
stimulating nerve growth. However the efficacy of nootropic substances in most cases has not
been conclusively determined. This is complicated by the difficulty of defining and quantifying
cognition and intelligence.

Availability

Currently there are several drugs on the market that improve memory, concentration,
planning and reduce impulsive behavior. Many more are in different stages of development.[3]
The most commonly used class of drug are the stimulants.[4]
These drugs are used primarily to treat people with cognitive difficulties: Alzheimer's disease,
Parkinson's disease, ADHD. However, more widespread use is being recommended by some
researchers.[5] These drugs have a variety of human enhancement applications as well and are
marketed heavily on the World Wide Web. Nevertheless, intense marketing may not correlate
with efficacy; while scientific studies support some of the claimed benefits, it is worth noting
that many of the claims attributed to most nootropics have not been formally tested.

Examples

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The term "drug" here is used as a legal designation, and does not indicate greater efficacy.
With nootropics, the effects, effectiveness, and potency differ from substance to substance and
from individual to individual. See the substance descriptions below for more detail.
Stimulants
Stimulants are often seen as smart drugs. Their effects are none specific with similar results
seen in children and adults with and without ADHD. One finds improved concentration and
behavior in all.[6][7]
[6][7][8]
[8][9]
[9]
Due to their non-specific activity, stimulants have been used by writers
to increase productivity,[10] as well as by the United States Air Force to improve effectiveness in
combat.[11] Some scientists recommend wide spread use (of Ritalin and Adderall) by the
general population to increase brain power.[4]

• Adrafinil (Olmifon) - Drug.

• Caffeine - Drug. Improves concentration, idea production, but hinders memory
encoding. Large amounts produce the jitters. Caffeine is the most widely used
psychoactive substance in the world, and may be susceptible to strong levels of
tolerance.
• Coffee - Bean. Contains caffeine; brewed coffee is high in antioxidants.
• Nicergoline - Drug. Nicergoline is an ergoloid mesylate derivative used to treat senile
dementia. It has also been found to increase mental agility and enhance clarity and
perception. It increases vigilance.[12] Increases arterial flow and use of oxygen and
glucose in the brain.
• Nicotine - stimulus barrier (aids in concentration). Stimulus barrier rebound effect (an
unpleasant side effect).
• Cocaine - Drug. Schedule II. Increase extracellular dopamine and serotonin levels
resulting in increased alertness and arousal.
• Methylphenidate (Ritalin) - aids in concentration, focus and stamina. Prescribed for
ADHD.
• Dextroamphetamine - (Adderall, Dexedrine) - aids in concentration, focus and stamina.
Prescribed for ADHD.
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• Modafinil - (Provigil) - Drug.
• Phenibut -
• Theophylline -
• Amphetamines - aids in concentration, focus and stamina. Prescribed for ADHD.
• Carphedon (Phenotropil) -
Dietary nootropics
Some regular food items are rich sources of substances with alleged nootropic benefits:
• Nuts, in particular walnuts, are rich sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a type of
omega-3 fatty acid. A mixture of walnuts served with dried fruit pieces is known in
some regions as student food (orig. German: Studentenfutter) and is popularly
recommended as a snack for students.
• Oily fish, such as salmon or fresh tuna (not tuna canned in oil) are also good sources of
omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, whose
lack in diet has been associated with increased risk of mental illnesses such as
depression, anxiety, aggressive behavior, schizophrenia, or hyper-activity in children
(see omega-3 fatty acids article)
• Berries containing high levels of anthocyanins have nootropic effects.[48] Blueberries,
blackberries and raspberries are among those with the highest anthocyanin content.[49]
These foods act through a combination of neuroprotective and neurogenesis effects. [50]

References

1. ^ "Dorlands Medical Dictionary".

2. ^ Lanni C, Lenzken SC, Pascale A, et al (March 2008). "Cognition enhancers between

treating and doping the mind". Pharmacol. Res. 57 (3): 196–213.

doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2008.02.004. PMID 18353672.
3. ^ Sahakian B, Morein-Zamir S (December 2007). "Professor's little helper". Nature 450

(7173): 1157–9. doi:10.1038/4501157a. PMID 18097378.

4. ^ a b ""Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy" in Nature:

International Weekly Journal of Science". Retrieved on December 2008.

5. ^ "Scientists back brain drugs for healthy people - Yahoo! News".
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6. ^ Clayton, Paula J.; Fatemi, S. Hossein (2008). The medical basis of psychiatry. Totowa, NJ:

Humana Press. ISBN 1-58829-917-1.

http://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA318&dq=stimulants+imp
rove+academic+performance&ei=H1kqSdeSJIGklQSHjq2OBA#PPA318,M1.
7. ^ "Medscape & eMedicine Log In".
8. ^ Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Weingartner H, Zahn TP, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ

(August 1980). "Dextroamphetamine. Its cognitive and behavioral effects in normal and
hyperactive boys and normal men". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 37 (8): 933–43. PMID 7406657.
9. ^ Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Zahn TP, Weingartner H, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ

(February 1978). "Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioral effects in normal

prepubertal boys". Science (journal) 199 (4328): 560–3. PMID 341313.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=341313.
10. ^ "My romance with ADHD meds. - By Joshua Foer - Slate Magazine".
• RELAXATION TECHNIQUES
Creativity is a mental and social process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or
new associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts. An alternative
conception of creativeness is that it is simply the act of making something new.
From a scientific point of view, the products of creative thought (sometimes referred to as
divergent thought) are usually considered to have both originality and appropriateness.
Although intuitively a simple phenomenon, it is in fact quite complex. It has been studied
from the perspectives of behavioral psychology, social psychology, psychometrics, cognitive
science, artificial intelligence, philosophy, history, economics, design research, business, and
management, among others. The studies have covered everyday creativity, exceptional
creativity and even artificial creativity. Unlike many phenomena in science, there is no single,
authoritative perspective or definition of creativity. And unlike many phenomena in
psychology, there is no standardized measurement technique.

Distinguishing between creativity and innovation

It is often useful to explicitly distinguish between creativity and innovation.

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Creativity is typically used to refer to the act of producing new ideas, approaches or actions,
while innovation is the process of both generating and applying such creative ideas in some
specific context.
In the context of an organization, therefore, the term innovation is often used to refer to the
entire process by which an organization generates creative new ideas and converts them into
novel, useful and viable commercial products, services, and business practices, while the term
creativity is reserved to apply specifically to the generation of novel ideas by individuals or
groups, as a necessary step within the innovation process.
For example, Amabile et al. (1996) suggest that while innovation "begins with creative ideas,"
"...creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is a
necessary but not sufficient condition for the second."[1]

Alternatively, there is no real difference between these terms, as creativity is both novel and
appropriate (which implies successful application). It seems that creativity is preferred in art
contexts whereas innovation in business ones.

References

• Albert, R.S. & Runce, M.A. (1999). "A History of Research on Creativity". in ed.
Sternberg, R.J.. Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press.
• Amabile, Teresa M; Barsade, Sigal G; Mueller, Jennifer S; Staw, Barry M., "Affect and
creativity at work," Administrative Science Quarterly, 2005, vol. 50, pp. 367-403.
• Amabile, T.M. (1998). "How to kill creativity". Harvard Business Review 76 (5).
• Amabile, T.M. (1996). Creativity in context. Westview Press.
• Anderson, J.R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implications. Worth Publishers.
• Ayan, Jordan (1997). Aha! - 10 Ways To Free Your Creative Spirit and Find Your Great Ideas .
Random House.
MEASURING STRESS
Levels of stress can be measured. One way is through the use of the Holmes and Rahe Stress
Scale to rate stressful life events. Changes in blood pressure and galvanic skin response can

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also be measured to test stress levels, and changes in stress levels. A digital thermometer can
be used to evaluate changes in skin temperature, which can indicate activation of the fight or
flight response drawing blood away from the extremities.
Stress management has physiological and immune benefit effects.[9]
Effectiveness of stress management
Positive outcomes are observed using a combination of non-drug interventions:[10]
• treatment of anger or hostility,
• autogenic training
• talking therapy (around relationship or existential issues)
• biofeedback
• cognitive therapy for anxiety or clinical depression
References
1. ^ Cannon, W. (1939). The Wisdom of the Body, 2nd ed., NY: Norton Pubs.
2. ^ Selye, H (1950). "Stress and the general adaptation syndrome". Br. Med. J. 4667: 1383–

92. PMID 15426759.

3. ^ Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York:

Springer.
4. ^ Mills, R.C. (1995). Realizing Mental Health: Toward a new Psychology of Resiliency.

Sulberger & Graham Publishing, Ltd. ISBN-10: 0945819781

5. ^ Sedgeman, J.A. (2005). Health Realization/Innate Health: Can a quiet mind and a

positive feeling state be accessible over the lifespan without stress-relief techniques?
Med. Sci. Monitor 11(12) HY47-52. [1]
6. ^ Spence, J.D., Barnett, P.A., Linden, W., Ramsden, V., Taenzer, P. (1999). Lifestyle

modifications to prevent and control hypertension. 7. Recommendations on stress

management. The following techniques have been recently dubbed “Destressitizers” by
The Journal of the Canadian Medical Association. A destressitizer is any process by
which an individual can relieve stress. 160(Suppl 9):S46-50.12365525Ṇ
9):S46-50.12365525Ṇ [[2]]
Holmes and Rahe stress scale

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The Holmes and Rahe stress scale is a list of 41 stressful life events that can contribute to
illness.
Development
In 1967, psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe examined the medical records of over
5,000 medical patients as a way to determine whether stressful events might cause illnesses.
Patients were asked to tally a list of 43 life events based on a relative score. A positive 0.1
correlation was found between their life events and their illnesses.
Their results were published as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS),[1] known more
commonly as the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale. Subsequent validation has supported the
links between stress and illness.[2]
Supporting research
Rahe carried out a study in 1970 testing the reliability of the stress scale as a predictor of
illness.[3] The scale was given to 2,500 US sailors and they were asked to rate scores of 'life
events' over the previous six months. Over the next six months, detailed records were kept of
the sailors' health. There was a +0.118 correlation between stress scale scores and illness, which
was sufficient to support the hypothesis of a link between life events and illness. In
conjunction with the Cornell medical index assessing , the stress scale correlated with visits to
medical dispensaries, and the H&R stress scale's scores also correlated independently with
individuals dropping out of stressful underwater demolitions training due to medical
problems.[4] The scale was also assessed against different populations within the United States
(with African, Hispanic and White American groups).[5] The scale was also tested cross-
culturally, comparing Japanese[6] and Malaysian[7] groups with American populations.
Adults
To measure stress according to the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale, the number of "Life Change
Units" that apply to events in the past year of an individual's life are added and the final score
will give a rough estimate of how stress affects health.
Life event Life change units
Death of a spouse 100
Divorce 73

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Marital separation 65
Imprisonment 63
Death of a close family member 63
Personal injury or illness 53
Marriage 50
Dismissal from work 47
Marital reconciliation 45
Retirement 45
Change in health of family member 44
Pregnancy 40
Sexual difficulties 39
Gain a new family member 39
Business readjustment 39
Change in financial state 38
Change in frequency of arguments 35
Major mortgage 32
Foreclosure of mortgage or loan 30
Change in responsibilities at work 29
Child leaving home 29
Trouble with in-laws 29
Outstanding personal achievement 28
Spouse starts or stops work 26
Begin or end school 26
Change in living conditions 25
Revision of personal habits 24
Trouble with boss 23
Change in working hours or
20
conditions
Change in residence 20
Change in schools 20
Change in recreation 19
Change in church activities 19
Change in social activities 18
Minor mortgage or loan 17
Change in sleeping habits 16
Change in number of family reunions 15
Change in eating habits 15
Vacation 13
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Christmas 12
Minor violation of law 11
Score of 300+: At risk of illness.
Score of 150-299+: Risk of illness is moderate (reduced by 30% from the above risk).
Score 150-: Only has a slight risk of illness.
Non-adults
A modified scale has also been developed for non-adults. Similar to the adult scale, stress
points for life events in the past year are added and compared to the rough estimate of how
stress affects health.
Life Event Life Change Units
Getting married 101
Unwed pregnancy 92
Death of parent 87
Acquiring a visible deformity 81
Divorce of parents 77
Fathering an unwed pregnancy 77
Becoming involved with drugs or alcohol 76
Jail sentence of a parent for over one year 75
Marital separation of parents 69
Death of a brother or sister 68
Change in acceptance by peers 67
Pregnancy of unwed sister 64
Discovery of being an adopted child 63
Marriage of parent to a step-parent 63
Death of a close friend 63
Having a visible congenital deformity 62
Serious illness requiring hospitalization 58
Failure of a grade in school 56
Not making an extracurricular activity 55
Hospitalization of a parent 55
Jail sentence of parent for over 30 days 53
Breaking up with boyfriend or girlfriend 53
Beginning to date 51
Suspension from school 50
Birth of a brother or sister 50
Increase in arguments between parents 47
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Loss of job by parent 46
Outstanding personal achievement 46
Change in parent's financial status 45
Accepted at college of choice 43
Being a senior in high school 42
Hospitalization of a sibling 41
Increased absence of parent from home 38
Brother or sister leaving home 37
Addition of third adult to family 34
Becoming a fully fledged member of a church 31
Decrease in arguments between parents 27
Decrease in arguments with parents 26
Mother or father beginning work 26
Score of 300+: At risk of illness.
Score of 150-299+: Risk of illness is moderate. (reduced by || 30% from the above risk)
Score 150-: Slight risk of illness.

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