1

CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

Clutches:
A Clutch is a mechanical device which is used to connect or disconnect the source of power
from the remaining parts so the power transmission system at the will of the operator. The
flow of mechanical power is controlled by the clutch.

Types of Clutches
(i) Positive Clutches (ii) Friction clutches

Positive Clutches: In this type of clutch, the engaging clutch surfaces interlock to produce
rigid joint they are suitable for situations requiring simple and rapid disconnection, although
they must be connected while shafts are stationery and unloaded, the engaging surfaces are
usually of jaw type. The jaws may be square jaw type or spiral jaw type. They are designed
empirically by considering compressive strength of the material used.
The merits of the positive clutches are
. (i) Simple (ii) No slip (iii) No heat generated compact and low cost.








Friction Clutches: Friction Clutches work on the basis of the frictional forces developed
between the two or more surfaces in contact. Friction clutches are usually over the jaw
clutches due to their better performance. There is a slip in friction clutch. The merits are
(i) They friction surfaces can slip during engagement which enables the driver to
pickup and accelerate the load with minimum shock.
(ii) They can be used at high engagement speeds since they do not have jaw or teeth
(iii) Smooth engagement due to the gradual increase in normal force.

The major types of friction clutches are
(i) Plate clutch (Single plate) (multiple plate)
(ii) Cone clutch
(iii) Centrifugal clutch
(iv) Dry
(v) Magnetic current clutches
(vi) Eddy current clutches


Square-jaw clutch
Spiral-jaw clutch
2
We will be studying about single plate multi-plate and cone clutches.
Single plate clutch:
A single plate friction clutch consisting of two flanges shown in fig 2. One flange is rigidly
keyed in to the driving shaft, while the other is free to move along the driven shaft due to
spliced connection. The actuating force is provided by a spring, which forces the driven
flange to move towards the driving flange. The face of the drive flange is linked with friction
material such as cork, leather or ferodo









Torque transmitted by plate or disc clutch









A friction disk of a single plate clutch is shown in above fig

The following notations are used in the derivation
D
o
= Outer diameter of friction disc (mm)
D
i
= Inna diameter of friction disc (mm)
P = pressure of intensity N/mm
2

F = Total operating force (N) (Axial force)
T = torque transmitted by friction (N-mm)
Consider an elemental ring of radius r and radial thickness dr
Area of elemental length = 2r. dr
Axial force length = 2r r. P


3
( or f) friction force = 2r. drp
Friction torque = 2r dr P * r
Total axial force Fa =

=
/2 D
/2 D
a
0
i
drp r 2 F ------------ (1)

Torque Transmitted by friction T =

2 /
2 / 1
2
0
2
D
D
p dr r ------------ (2)

There are two criteria to obtain the torque capacity uniform pressure and uniform wear
1. Uniform pressure Theory:
In case of new clutches, un playing assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire
surface area of the friction disc. With this assumption, P is regarded as constant.
Equation 1 becomes

=
/2 D
/2 D
a
0
i
drp r 2 F

= =
/2 D
/2 D
a
0
i
dr r 2 F p


2 /
2 /
2
0
1
2
2
D
D
r
p
(

=
2 2 2
2
F
2
1
2
0
D D
p
a

( )
2
1
2
0
4
1
F D D p
a
=

or
[ ]
2
1
2
0
F 4
D D
a
P

From Equation -2
T =

2 /
2 / 1
2
0
2
D
D
dr pr

T =

2 /
2 / 1
2
0
2
D
D
dr r p
4
T =
2 /
2 /
3
0
1
3
2
D
D
r
p
(

T =
(

2 2 3
2
3 3
Di Do
p


T = ( )
3
1
3
3
1
D Do p
Substituting the value of p from equation 3


T =
( )
12
3
1
3
D D

( )
3
1
3
4
D D
Fa
o



T =
( )
( )
2 2
0
3 3
0
Fa
3
1
i
i
D D
D D

T =
2
Fa Dm

Where Dm
D D
D D
i
i
=
(

2 2
0
3 3
0
3
2
mean diameter

Torque transmitted by n- friction surfaces
T =
2
1
FaDm n


Axial force = ( ) ( )
2 2
0
2
1
2
2
4
i
D D P R R P =



Uniform Wear Theory:
According to this theory, it is assumed that the wear is uniformly distributed over the entire
surface --- of the friction disc. This assumption is used for workout clutches. The axial wear
of the friction disc is import ional to the frictional work. The work done by the frictional force
( P) and subbing velocity (2rN) where N is speed in rpm. Assuming speed N and
coefficient of friction is constant for given configuration

Wear Pr
Pr = constant C
When clutch plate is new and rigid. The wear at the outer radius will be more, which will
release the pressure at the outer edge due to the rigid pressure plate this will change the
pressure distribution. During running condition, the pressure distribution is adjusted in such a
manner that the product pressure is constant, C.

5

From equation - (1)

Axial force Fa =

2 /
2 /
0
1
Pr 2
D
D
dr

Fa =

2 /
2 /
0
1
2
D
D
dr c

Fa = [ ]
2 /
2 /
0
1
2
D
D
r c

Fa =
(

2 2
2
1 0
D D
c

C =
2
] [ 2
1 0
D D
Fa

- (7)

From equation - (2)

T =

=
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2
0
1
0
1
2 Pr 2
D
D
D
D
dr r c dr

=
2 /
2 /
2
0
1
2
2
D
D
r
c
(

=
(

8
2 /
8
2 /
2
1 0
D D
c

T = [ ]
2
1
2
0
8
D D
c

Substitute the value of C from equation (7)

T = [ ]
[ ]
1 0
2
1
2
0
4 D D
Fa
D D

T =
[ ]
2 2
Fa
1 0
D D



T =
2
Dm Fa
- (8)

6
Where Dm =
2
1 0
D D +
- (9)

Torque transmitted by n friction plates

T =
2
1
Dm Fa n


Axial force Fa =

Average pressure occurs at mean radius ) 2 / (
m m
D r = Q

Fa =
2
) (
1 0
D D Dm b
- (10)

Maximum pressure occurs at inner radius

Fa = ) (
2
0 i
i
D D
D p

- (11)


Note: The major portion of the life of friction lining comes under the uniform wear friction
lining comes under the uniform wear criterion in design of clutches uniform wear
theory is justified.

Problems:

1. A single plate friction clutch of both sides effective has 300 mm outer diameter and
160 mm inner diameter. The coefficient of friction o.2 and it runs at 1000 rpm. Find
the power transmitted for uniform wear and uniform pressure distributions cases if
allowable maximum pressure is 0.08 Mpa.

Given:

N
1
= I = 2, D
0
= 300 mm D
1
= 160mm = 0.2

N = 1000 rpm p = 0.08 Mpa = 0.08 N /mm
2


Solution:
i. Uniform wear theory

Mean Diameter mm
D D
D
m
230
2
160 300
2
1 0
=
+
=

=


Axial Force
Fa = ) (
2
1
1 0 1
D D D b
From DDH 13.32 or Equation - (11)

7
Fa = ) 160 300 ( 160 08 . 0
2
1


= 2814.87 N

Torque transmitted

T = Dm Fa n
1
2
1


T = 230 87 . 2814 2 2 . 0
2
1


T = 129484 N mm

Power transmitted

P =
6
10 60
2

T M


P = =

6
10 60
129484 1000 2


P = 13.56 kW

ii. Uniform wear theory

Mean Diameter
|
|

\
|

=
= 2
1
2
0
3
1
3
0
3
2
D D
D D
D
m



|
|

\
|

=
= 2 2
3 3
160 300
160 300
3
2
m
D

D
m
= 237.1 mm

Axial Force Fa =
4
) (
2
1
2
0
D D p


Fa =
4
) 160 300 ( 08 . 0
2 2



Fa = 4046.4 N

Torque transmitted

T = Dm Fa n
2
1
1

8

T = 1 . 237 4 . 4046 2 . 0
2
1
2

T = 191880.3 N mm

Power transmitted

P =
6
10 60
2

T n


P = =

6
10 60
3 . 191880 1000 2


P = 20.1 kW


2. A car engine develops maximum power of 15 kW at 1000 rpm. The clutch used is
single plate clutch both side effective having external diameter 1.25 times internal
diameter = 0.3. Mean axial pressure is not to exceed 0.085 N/ mm
2
. Determine the
dimension of the friction surface and the force necessary to engage the plates. Assume
uniform pressure condition.

Given p = 15 kW, n 1000rpm, I =2 both sides are effective D
0
= 1.25 D
1
, = 0.3,
p = 0.085 N/mm
2


Torque transmitted

P =
6
10 60
2

T n


T =
n
P
2
10 60
6



T =
1000 2
10 60 15
6

mm N = 239 . 143
9
Mean Diameter D
m

|
|

\
|

= =
|
|

\
|

=
= 2 2
3 3
2 2
0
3 3
0
) 25 . 1 (
) 25 . 1 (
3
2
3
2
i i
i i
i
i
m
D D
D D
D D
D D
D

= 1.13 D
i

Axial Force Fa = ) (
4
2 2
0 i
D D p

Fa = ) 25 . 1 ( 085 . 0
4
2 2
i i
D D

Fa = 0037552
2
i
D

Torque transmitted T = Dm Fa i
2
1


143239 =
i i
D D 13 . 1 037552 . 0 3 . 0
2
1
2
2


D
i
= 224 mm

D
0
= 280 mm

D
m
= 253 mm

Fa = 1884.21 N

Thickness of disc h = 2 mm

3. Design a single plate clutch consist of two pairs of contacting surfaces for a torque
capacity of 200 N-m. Due to space limitation the outside diameter of the clutch is to
be 250mm

Given:
Single plate clutch, Torque = 2 x 10
5
N-mm, D0 = 250mm I = 2 (since two pairs of
contacting surfaces)

Solution:

Assume suitable friction material leather = 0.3 to 0.5 P = varies from 0.07 to
0.29 Mpa select = 0.4, P = 0.135 Mpa N /mm
2


1. Torque transmitted= 2 x 10
5
N-mm

2. Mean diameter

Assuming uniform wear theory
10

2
250
2
0
+
=
+
=
i i
m
D D D
D

3. Axial force :

For uniform, wear condition

Fa = = ) (
2
1
i i i
D D D p

= ) 250 ( 135 . 0
2
1
i i
D D

= 0.212 D
i
(250 D
i
)

Torque transmitted

T = i D Fa
m

2
1


i.e 2 ) 250 (
2
1
) 250 ( 212 . 0 4 . 0
2
1
10 2
5
+ = =
i i i
D D D

= 62500 D
1
- 0 132 . 4716981
3
1
= D

By trial and error method

Inner dia D
i
= 85.46 mm is 86 mm

Outer dia D
0
= 250 mm given, mean m = dia of friction surface

Dm = 168 mm

Fa = 0.212 x 86 (250 86) = 2990 N


Multiple plate clutch
Fig. shows a multiple plate clutch. The driving
discs are splined to the driving shaft so that they
are free to slip along the shaft but must rotate
with it. The driven discs drive the housing by
means of bolts along which they are free to slide.
The housing is keyed to the driven shaft by a
sunk key. In the clutch shown there are five pairs
of friction surfaces. The driving discs may be
pressed against the driven discs by a suitable
mechanism so that the torque may be transmitted
by friction between the discs.


11
Multi disc Clutch:

Equations derived for torque transmitting velocity of single plate are modified to account for
the number of pairs of contacting surfaces in the following way.

For uniform pressure T = = Dm Fa i
1
2
1

) (
4
2 2
2 i
D D p

Uniform wear T = ) (
2 2
0 i
D D

Where I = number of pairs of contacting surfaces.

For uniform pressure theory
T = Dm Fa i
1
2
1


D
m
=
) (
) (
3
2
2 2
0
3 3
0
i
i
D D
D D

Fa = ) (
4
2 2
0 i
D D p

Where I = number of friction surfaces

Uniform wear theory

T = Dm Fa i
1
2
1


D
m
=
2
) (
2 i
D D +


Fa = ) (
2
1
0 i m
D D D b

Maximum pressure occurs at inner radius

Fa = ) (
2
1
0 1 1 i
D D D p

Problem: A multi plate clutch having effective diameter 250mm and 150mm has to transmit
60 kW at 1200 rpm. The end thrust is 4.5 kN and coefficient of friction is 0.08 calculate the
number of plates easuming (i) Uniform wear and (ii) uniform pressure distribution on the
plates

Given: D
0
= 250 mm D
i
= 150mm, P = 60 kW, N = 1200 rpm, Fa = 4.5 kN = 4500N, = 0.08

12
P =
6
10 60
2

NT


Torque T = mm N
P
=

477500
1200 2
10 60
6

(i) Uniform wear theory

Mean diameter Dm = mm
D D
i
200
2
150 250
2
0
=
+
=
+


T = Dm Fa i
1
2
1


477500 = 200 4500 08 . 0
2
1
i

Number of friction plates, I = 13.26 1.4 (even numbers)

Total number of plates i + 1 = 14 + 1 = 15

Uniform pressure

D
m
=
) (
) (
3
2
2 2
0
3 3
0
i
i
D D
D D

= 204.17 mm

T = Dm Fa i
2
1


477500 = 17 . 204 08 . 0 4500
2
1
i

i = 12.99 14 (even number)

Total number of plates = 14 + 1 = 15

Problem 4:

A multi plate clutch of alternate bronze and steel plates is to transmit 6 kW power at 800 rpm.
The inner radius is 38 mm and outer radius is 70 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0.1 and
maximum allowable pressure is 350 kN /m
2
determine

(i) Axial force required
(ii) Total number of discs
(iii) Average pressure and
(iv) Actual maximum pressure

13
Given: P = 60 kW, N = 800 rpm, R
1
= 38mm, D
i
= 76 mm R
0
= 70, D
0
= 140mm, = 0.1,
P = 350 kN / m
2
= 0.35 N / mm
2

1. Axial force

Fa = ) (
2
1
1 0 1 1
D D D p - (13.32 DDH)
Fa = ) 76 140 ( 76 35 . 0
2
1

= 2674.12 N
Torque to be transmitted

P =
6
10 60
2

NT


T = mm N
N
P
=


=

71625
800 2
10 60 6
2
10 60
6 6



Assuming uniform wear theory

Mean Diameter D
m
= mm
D D
108
2
76 140
2
) (
1 2
=
+
=
+


Torque transmitted T = Dm Fa i
1
2
1


108 12 . 2674 1 . 0
2
1
71625 = n

n = 4.96 6 (even number)

Number of driving (steel) discs = 3
2
6
2
1
= = =
n
n

Number of driven (bronze) discs n
2


= n
1
+ 1 = 3 + 1 = 4

3. Average pressure occurs at mean diameter

Axial force Fa = ) (
2
1
0 1 i m
D D D p

2674.12 = ) 76 140 ( 108
2
1
1
p -

Average pressure p = 0.246 N/ mm
2


14
4. For 6 friction surface, torque transmitted

T = Dm Fa i
1
2
1


71625 = 108 1 . 0
2
1
6
1
Fa -

Fa = 2210.6 N

Maximum pressure occur at inner radius

Axial force = ) (
2
1
0 1 1 i
D D D p

2210.6 = ) 76 140 ( 76
2
1
1
p -

Actual maximum pressure P = 0.289 N/ mm
2



Problem 5:
In a maultilate clutch radial width of the friction material is to be 0.2 of maximum radius.
The coefficient of friction is 0.25. The clutch is 60KW at 3000 rpm. Its maximum diameter
is 250mm and the axial force is limited is to 600N. Determine (i) Number of driving and
driven plates (ii) mean unit pressure on each contact surface assume uniform wear

Given: Radial width = 0.2 Ro, = 0.25, P = 60KW, N = 3000rpm, D
0
= 250mm,
Ro = 125mm, Fa = 600N uniform wear condition.

Solution b = Ro- Ri
0.2 Ro =Ri
Ri= 0.8 Ro = 0.8x 125 = 100mm
Inner diameter 2x100 = 200mm

i) Number of disc
Torque transmitted T =
N
P
2
10 60
6


mm N. 191000
3000 2
10 60 60
6
=

For uniform wear condition
Mean diameter ( ) ( ) mm D D D
i o m
225 200 250
2
1
)
2
1
= + = + =
Torque Transmitted

FaDm n T
2
1
=
15
225 600 , 25 . 0
2
1
19100 = n
i.e n = 11.32

Number of active surfaces n =12 (n must be even number)

Number of disc on the driver shaft

6
2
12
2
1
= = =
n
n

Number disc on the driven shaft


7 1
2
12
1
2
1
= + = + =
n
n

Total number of plates : n1 + n2 = 617 = 13

ii) Mean unit pressure
Fa ( )
i o m
D D D p =
2
1

( ) 200 250 225
2
1
600 = p

P = 0.34 N/ mm
2


iii) for actual mean unit pressure
Actual axial force
Fa
m
D n
T

2
=
n
m
D fa T
2
1
=

/ 926 . 565
225 12 25 . 0
191000 2
N =

= \

( ) 200 250 225
2
1
926 . 565 =
m
PD
Actual mean unit pressure P =
2
/ 032 . 0 mm N

A Multiple plate clutch has steel on bronze is to transmit 8 KW at 1440 rpm. The inner
diameter of the contact is 80mm and outer diameter of contact is140 mm. The clutch operates
in oil with coefficient of friction of 0.1. The overage allowable pressure is 0.35Mpa. Assume
uniform wear theory and determine the following.

a) Number of steel and bronze plates
b) Axial force required
c) Actual maximum pressure

Given P = 8KW, N = 1440 rpm, D1 = 80mm, Do = 140mm, = 0.1, P = 0.35 N / mm
2

Uniform Wear Theory.

16
Solution:
1) Number of steel and bronze plates
For uniform wear theory
Axial force Fa = ( )
i o
D D p
2
1

( ) 80 140 80 35 . 0
2
1
=
Fa = N 9 . 2638
Mean diameter ( ) ( ) mm D D Dm
i
110 80 140
2
1
2
1
2
= + = + =
Torque transmitted T =
N
P
2
10 60
6


T = mm N =

556 . 53055
1440 2
10 60 8
6

Also T = FaDmn
2
1

n = 110 94 . 2638
2
1
556 . 53055

655 . 3 = n

No. of Active surface is 4
Number discs on the driver shaft (Bronze)
2
2
4
2
1
= = =
n
n

Number disc on the driven shaft (Steel)
3 1
2
4
1
2
2
= + = + =
n
n

Total No. of disc 5 3 2
2 1
= + = n n

b) Axial force required

62 . 2411
110 04 1 . 0
552 . 53055 2 2
=

= =
m D n
T
Fa

c) Actual maximum pressure since maximum presser occur at inner diameter

Fa = ( )
1
2
1
i o i
D D D P
( ) 80 140 80 .
2
1
62 . 2411 = P

P =
2
/ 32 . 0 mm N

17
Cone clutch
A simple form of a cone clutch is shown in fig. it
consists of ;i driver or cup and the follower or cone.
The cup is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and
has an inside conical surface or face which exactly fits
the outside conical surface of the cone. The slope of the
cone face is made small enough to give a high normal
force. The cone is fitted to the driven shaft by a feather
key. The follower may be shifted along the shaft by a
forked shifting lever in order to engage the clutch by
bringing the two conical surfaces in contact.
Advantages and disadvantages of cone clutch:
Advantages:
1. This clutch is simple in design.
2. Less axial force is required to engage the clutch.
Disadvantages :

1. There is a tendency to grab.
2. There is some reluctance in disengagement.
Strict requirements made to the co-axiality of the shafts being connected

Torque transmitted by the cone clutch:-

Let Di

= Inner diameter of cone, Ri = inner radius of cone,
Do = Outer diameter of cone, Ro = Outer radius of cone,
Rm = mean radius of cone, Dm = mean diameter of cone,
= Semi cone angle or pitch cone angle or face angle,
P = Intensity of normal pressure at contact surface,
= Coefficient of friction,
Fa = Axial force
Fn=Normal force =
sin
Fa




















18
Consider an elemental ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in the figure

The sloping length
sin
dr
=

Area of elementary ring

sin
2
dr
r =
Normal force on the ring

sin
2
dr
r P =
Axial component of the above force

Sin
Sin
dr r p

. 2


dr pr 2 =
Total axial force Fa = dr pr
Ro
Ri
2

------------ (1)

Frictional force outer ring

Sin
dr
r p 2 =

Moment of friction force about the axial

r
Sin
dr
r P =

Sin
dr
r p
2
2 =

Total torque T =

Sin
dr
Ro
Ri
2
Pr 2

---------- (2)


Uniform pressure theory: p constant

Equation (1) becomes

Fa = r d p dr pr
Ro
Ri
Ro
Ri

= 2 2

Fa = ( )
2 2
i o
R R P

p =
( )
2 2
i o
R R
Fa

---------- (3)

Equation 2 becomes

T = ( )

=
Ro
Ri
i o
Ro
Ri
dr r
Sin
P
Sin
dr
r R r p
2 2 2 2
2
2

19

T =
3
2
3 3
i a
R R
Sin
p
=

Substitutes the value of P from equation ---------- (3)


T =
( ) 3
2
3 3
2
1
2
i a
o
R R
R R
Fa
Sin
P

=




T =
( ) ( )
2 2
3 3
2
1
2
3
2
i o
i a
o
R R
R R
R R
Fa
Sin
Fa

T = Dm
Sin
Fa
D D
D D
Sin
Fa
io o
i o
.
2 3
2
2
2
2 2
3 3

=
|
|

\
|

---------- (4)

Where
|
|

\
|

=
2 2
3 3
3
2
io o
i o
D D
D D
m D

Axial force ( )
2 2
i o
D D P Fa = ---------- (5)

Uniform wear: For uniform wear condition Pr = C Constant

Equation (1) become Fa = r d P r d r P
Ro
Ri
Ro
Ri

= 2 2

Fa = ( )
i o
R R c 2 or


( )
i o
R R
Fa
C

=
2


Equation (2) become

T =

=
Ro
Ri
Ro
Ri
r d r
Sin
C
Sin
dr
r P

2
2
2


T =
( )
2
2
2 2
i a
R R
Sin
c
=

Substitute for C

T =
( )
( )
i o
i a
R R
Fa
Sin
R R

2
2
2 2


20
( )

Sin
m D D D
Sin
i o
2
Fa
.
2 2
Fa +
=

Where Dm = Mean diameter
2
i o
D D
Dm
+
=

If the clutch is engaged when one member is stationary and other rotating, then the cone faces
will tend to slide on each other in the direction of an element of the cone. This will resist the
engagement and then force

Axial load ( ) cos Fa Fa + = Sin
i


Force width
Sin
D D
b
i o
2

=

Outer diameter Sin b Dm D
o
+ =

Inner diameter Sin b Dm D
i
=

Problem:
A cone clutch is to transmit 7.5 KW at 600 rpm. The face width is 50mm, mean diameter is
300mm and the face angle 15. Assuming co efficient of friction as 0.2, determine the axial
force necessary to hold the clutch parts together and the normal pressure on the cone surface.

Given P = 7.5 KW, N = 600 rpm, b = 50mm,
Dm = 300mm, = 15 = 0.2

Solution:
mm N
N
P
=

=

= 119375
600 2
10 60 5 . 7
2
10 60
T
6 6



Torque transmitted

Sin
Dm
2
Fa
T =



15 2
300 Fa 2 . 0
119375
Sin

=

N Fa 88 . 1029 =
Also Sin Pb Dm = Fa ---------- Equation 13.37 DDH

15 50 P 300 88 . 1029 Sin =


2
/ 0844 . 0 P mm N =

21
A friction cone clutch has to transmit a torque of 200 N-m at 1440 rpm. The longer diameter
of the cone is 350mm. The cone pitch angle is 6.25the force width is 65mm. the coefficient
of friction is 0.2. Determine i) the axial force required to transmit the torque. ii) The average
normal pressure on the contact surface when maximum torque is transmitted.

Data T = 200 N-m, 2 10
5
N-mm N = 1440 rpm
Do = 350, = 6.25 b = 65mm, = 0.2



Solution
I) Axial force

Outer diameter Sin b D D
m o
+ =

25 . 6 65 350 Sin D
m
+ =

mm D
m
92 . 342 =

Torque transmitted

Sin
D
m
Fa
2
1
T =

25 . 6
Fa 2 . 0
2
1
10 2
5
Sin
D
m

=

Axial force required N 934 . 634 Fa =

ii) Average normal pressure

Sin Pb D
m
= Fa

P 25 . 6 65 92 . 342 . 934 . 634 = Sin

Average Normal pressure


2
/ 0833 . 0 P mm N =

An engine developing 30 KW at 1250 rpm is filted with a cone clutch. The cone face
angle of 12.5. The mean diameter is 400 rpm = 0.3 and the normal pressure is not to
exceed 0.08 N / mm
2
. Design the clutch

Date: P = 30KW, N = 1250 rpm, = 12.5, Dm = 400mm, = 0.3, P = 0.08 N/ mm
2


Solution

i) Torque transmitted


1250 2
10 60 30
2
10 60
T
6 6


=

=
N
p


22
mm N = 229200 T
ii) Axial force Fa


5 . 12
400 3 . 0
2
1
, 229200
2
1
T
Sin
Fa
Sin
D Fa
m

=

Fa= 826.8 N

Dimensions
Sin Pb D
m
= Fa

5 . 12 08 . 0 400 . 8 . 826 Sin b =
mm b 38 =
Inner diameter mm Sin Sin b D D
m m
392 5 . 12 38 400 = = =

Outer diameter mm Sin Sin b D D
m m
408 5 . 12 38 400 = + = + =



23
BRAKES
A brake is defined as a machine element used to control the motion by absorbing kinetic energy
of a moving body or by absorbing potential energy of the objects being lowered by hoists,
elevators, etc. The obsorbed energy appears as heat energy which should be transferred to cooling
fluid such as water or surrounding air. The difference between a clutch and a brake is that whereas
in the former both the members to be engaged are in motion, the brake connects a moving member to
a stationary member.

Block or shoe brake
A single-block brake is shown in fig. It consists of a short shoe which may be rigidly mounted
or pivoted to a lever. The block is pressed against the rotating wheel by an effort Fat one end of the
lever. The other end of the lever is pivoted on a fixed fulcrum O. The friclional force produced by
the block on the wheel will retard the rotation of the wheel. This type of brake is commonly used in
railway trains. When the brake is applied, the lever with the block can be considered as a free body
in equilibrium under the action of the following forces.

1. Applied force F at the end of the lever.
2. Normal reaction F
n
between the shoe and the wheel.
3. Frictional or tangential braking force F

between the shoe and the wheel.

4. Pin reaction.

Let F = Operating force
M
1
= Torque on the wheel
r = Radius of the wheel
2 = Angle of contact surface of the block
= Coefficient of friction
F

= Tangential braking force =

r
M
t

F
n
= Normal force =

F

a = Distance between the fulcrum pin and the center of the shoe
b = Distance between the center of the shoe to the end of lever where the
effort is applied
c = Distance between the fulcrum pin and the line of action of F
g

Consider the following three cases;


(i) Line of action of tangential force F
0
passes through fulcrum












24
Taking moments about O,

a
F
a F b a F
n

= = + ) (
(

F
F
n
Q

Actuating force
) ( b a
a F
F
+
=

In this case the actuating force is the same whether the direction of tangential force is towards or
away from the fulcrum.

(ii) Line of action of tangential force F

is in between the center of the drum and the fulcrum

(a) Direction of F

is towards the fulcurm :

Taking moments about O,
a F c F b a F
n n
= = + ) (

c F
a F
c F a F b a F
n

= = + ) (
(

F
F
n
Q

Actuating force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
) (



(b) Direction of F

is away from the fulcrum :

25
Taking moments about O,
c F a
F
c F a F b a F
n

+ = = + ) (
(

F
F
n
Q

Actuating force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
) (


(iii) Line of action of tangential force F

is above the center of the drum and the fulcrum:

(a) Direction of F

is towards the fulcrum :

Taking moments about O,
c F
a F
c F a F b a F
n

+ = = + ) (
(

F
F
n
Q

Actuating force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
) (


(b) Direction of F

is away from the fulcrum :

Taking moments about O,
a
a F
a F c F b a F

= = + + ) (
(

F
F
n
Q

c F
a F
b a F

= + ) (
Actuating force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
) (





26


Note: If the direction of F
0
is towards the fulcrum, use the clockwise rotation formula and if
the direction of F
&
is away from the fulcrum, use counter clockwise formula from the
data handbook.

When the angle of contact between the block and the wheel is less than 60, we assume that the
normal pressure is uniform between them. But when the angle of contact 2 is more than 60,
we assume that the unit pressure normal to the surface of contact is less at the ends than at the
center and the wear in the direction of applied force is uniform. In such case we employ the
equivalent coefficient of friction ', which is given by.


Equivalent coefficient of friction

2 sin 2
sin 4
1
+
=

Where = Actual coefficient of friction

= Semi block angle

For the given value of . The value of

2 sin 2
sin 4
+
can be found by using the chart given in

The brake is self -energizing when the friction force helps to apply the brake. If this effect is
great enough to apply the brake with zero external force, the brake is called self-locking i.e.,
the brake is self locking when the applied force F is zero or negative.

Normal pressure on the shoe p
sin 2 Pr wr
F
shoe of area ojected
load Normal
P
n
= =


Where w = Width of the shoe

Example: The block type hand brake shown in fig. 3.1 la has a face width of 45 mm. The friction
material permits a maximum pressure of 0.6 MPa and a coefficient of friction of 0.24. Determine;
1. Effort F, 2. Maximum torque, 3. Heat generated if the speed of the drum is 100 rpm and the
brake is applied for 5 sec. at full capacity to bring the shaft to stop.












Data: w = 45 mm, p = 0.6 MPa = 0.6 N/mm
2
, = 0.24, 2 = 90, = 45
e
, d = 300 mm,


27
r = 150 mm, n = 100 rpm

Solution:

Since 2 > 60, equivalent coefficient of friction

2 sin 2
sin 4
1
+
=

264 . 0
90 sin
180
90
45 sin 4
24 . 0 =
+

Allowable pressure
sin 2wr
F
p
n
=

i.e.,
45 sin 150 45 2
6 . 0

=
n
F

Normal force F
n
= 5727.56 N

Tangential force F

= ' F
n
= 0.264 x 5727.56 = 1512.1 N
The various forces acting on the shoe are shown in fig. 3.11b.
From the figure, a = 200 mm, b = 300 mm, c = 0
The tangential force F

, passes through the fulcurm.

Effort
) ( ' b a
a F
F
+
=

N 1 . 2291
) 300 200 ( 264 . 0
200 1 . 1512
=
+

=

Torque on the drum M
1
= F

r = 1512.1 x 150 = 226815 N-mm = 226.815 N-m

Power absorbed sec / 375 . 2 375 . 2
9550
100 815 . 226
9550
1
kJ kW
n M
N = =

= =

Heat generated during 5 sec = 5 x 2.375 = 11.875 kJ

Example:
A 400 mm radius brake drum contacts a single shoe as shown in fjg.3.12a, and sustains 200 N-m
torque at 500 rpm. For a coefficient of friction 0.25, determine:

1. Normal force on the shoe.
2. Required force F to apply the brake for clockwise rotation.
3. Required force F to apply the brake for counter clockwise rotation.
4. The dimension c required to make the brake self-locking, assuming the other dimensions
remains the same.
5. Heat generated.

28










Data; r = 400 mm, M
1
- 200 N-m = 200 x 10
3
N-mm, n = 500 rpm, =0.25,
a = 350 mm, i = 1000 mm, b = l - a = 1000 - 350 = 650 mm, c = 40 mm

Solution:

Tangential friction force N
r
M
F 500
400
10 200
3
1
=

= =

Normal force on the N
F
F 2000
25 . 0
500
= = =

From the figure, the tangential force F

lies between the fulcrum and the center of drum.. When the
force F

acts towards the fulcrum (clockwise rotation),

Actuating force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
0



N 680
350
40
25 . 0
1
650 350
350 500
=
(

=
+

=


For anticlockwise rotation of the drum, the tangential force F
s
acts away from the fulcrum as
shown in figure.

Actuating force
(

+
+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
0




N 720
350
40
25 . 0
1
650 350
350 500
=
(

+ =
+

=


When the drum rotates in clockwise direction, self locking will occur. For self locking effort
F 0.



29

0
1
., .
0

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
e i

or

a
c
a
c
,
1




mm c 1200
25 . 0
350



Heat generated v F v A p H
n c g
= =

W 98 . 1071
1000 60
500 800
2000 25 . 0 =

=



s kJ kW / 472 . 10 472 . 10 = =

Example: The layout of a brake to be rated at 250 N-m at 600 rpm is shown in figure. The drum
diameter is 200 mm and the angle of contact of each shoe is 120. The coefficient of friction may be
assumed as 0.3 Determine.

1. Spring force F required to set the brake.
2. Width of the shoe if the value of pv is 2 N-m/mm
2
-sec






















Data: M
t
= 250 N-m = 250 x 10
3
N-mm, n = 600 rpm, d = 200 mm, r = 100 mm,
2 =120, 0=60, = 0.3, pv = 2 N-m/mm
2
-sec






30
Solution:
Since 26 > 60, equivalent coefficient of friction

2 2
4
'
Sin
Sin
+
=




351 . 0
120 sin
180
120
60
3 . 0 =
+
+
=

Sin


The various forces acting on the shoes are shown in figure.

Left hand shoe:
For left hand shoe, a = 150 mm, b = 150 mm, c = mm 50
2
100
100 =

The tangential force F
1
lies above the center of the drum and fulcrum, and acting away from
the fulcrum (counter clockwise).
Spring force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
01



(

=
150
50
351 . 0
1
150 150
150
01
F
F


Tangential force F
gi
= 0.795 F

Right hand shoe:

The tangential force F
2
lies below the center of the drum and the fulcrum, and acting towards
the fulcrum (clockwise).

Spring force
(

+
=
a
c
b a
a F
F

1
02



(

=
150
50
351 . 0
1
150 150
150
02
F
F


Tangential force F
02
= 0.6285 F

Torque r F F M ) (
01 01 1
+ =

i.e., 100 ) 6285 . 0 795 . 0 ( 10 250
3
+ = F F

Spring force F = 1756.2 N

The maximum load occurs on left hand shoe.
31

Tangential force F
01
= 0.795 x 1756.2 = 1396.2 N

Normal force on left hand shoe
N
F
F 8 . 3977
351 . 0
2 . 1396
01
01
= = =

Surface velocity of drum
sec / 283 . 6
1000 60
600 200
1000 60
m
dn
v =

=



By data pv = 2 N-m/mm
2
sec

Normal pressure
2
/ 3183 . 0
283 . 6
2 2
mm N
v
p = = =


Also pressure
sin 2
1
wr
F
p
n
=


1.e.,
60 sin 100 2
8 . 3977
3183 . 0

=
wr


Width of the shoe w = 72.15mm

32
Band brakes
A band brake consists of a band, generally made of metal, and embracing a part of the
circumference of the drum. The braking action is obtained by tightenting the band. The difference in
the tensions at each end of the band determines the torque capacity.

Simple band brakes: When one end of the band is connected to the fixed fulcrum, then the band
brake is called simple band brake as shown in figure

Let T, = Tight side tension in N
T
2
= Slack side tension in N
= Angle of lap in radians
= Coefficient of friction
D = Diameter of brake drum in mm
M
1
= Torque on the drum in N-mm

Ratio of tensions

e
T
T
=
2
1


Braking force
D
M
T T F
t
2
2 1
= =

Clockwise rotation of the drum:













Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

b T a F =
2


Force at the end of lever
a
b T
F
2
=

Braking force ) 1 (
2 2 2 2 1
= = =

e T T e T T T F
(

=

e
T
T
2
1
Q

:. Slack side tension
1
2

e
F
T

33
Substitute the value of T
2
in equation (1), we get


(

=
1
1
2

e a
b T
F
Counter clockwise rotation of the drum:
For counter clockwise rotation of the drum, the tensions T
1
and T
2
will exchange their places and
for the same braking torque, a larger force F is required to operate the brake.













Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

b T a F =
1


Force at the end of lever
a
b T
F
1
=
Braking force )
1
1 (
1
1
1 2 1

e
T
e
T
T T T F = = =
(

=

e
T
T
2
1
Q

Tight side tension
1
2

e
e F
T

Substitute the value of T
1
, in equation (i), we get


(

=
1

e
e
a
b F
F


This type of brake does not have any self-energizing and self-locking properties.

Thickness of the band h = 0.005 D

Width of band
d
h
T
w

1
=

where
d
is the allowable tensile stress in the band.


34
Differential band brakes:
In differential band brake the two ends of the band are attached to pins on the lever at a distance of
b
l
and b
2
from the pivot pin as shown in figure. It is to be noted that when b
2
> b
1
, the force F must
act upwards in order to apply the brake. When b
2
< b
1
, the force F must act downwards to apply the
brake.
















Clockwise rotation of the drum:

Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

a F b T b T + =
1 2 2 1

Fa b T b e T =
1 2 2 2

) (
2 1

e T T = Q

Braking force ) 1 (
2 2 2 2 1
= =

e T T e T T T F ) (
2 1

e T T = Q

Slack side tension
1
2

e
F
T

Substitute the value of T
2
in equation (1), we get


(

=
1
1 2

e
b e b
a
F
F
For the brake to be self locking, the force F at the end of the lever must be equal to zero or
negative.
0
1
1 2

e
b e b
a
F


The condition for self-locking is
1 2
b e b

35
Counter clockwise rotation of the drum:















Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

a F b T b T + =
1 1 2 2

Fa e T b T =

2 2 2
) (
2 1

e T T = Q

Or
a
e b b T
F
) (
1 2 2

=

Braking force ) 1 (
2 2 2 2 1
= = =

e T T e T T T F ) (
2 1

e T T = Q

Slack side tension
1
2

e
F
T

Substitute the value of T
2
in equation (1), we get


(

=
1
1 2

e
e b b
a
F
F
For self-brake locking, the force F must be zero or negative.

i.e., 0
1
1 2

e
e b b
a
F


The condition for self-locking is

e b b
1 2


If b
1
= b
2
= b, the brake is called two way brake and is shown in figure. This type of brake can be
used in either direction of rotation with same effort.

Force at the end of lever
(

+
=
1
1

e
e
a
b F
F


36
Example:
A simple band brake operates on a drum 0.6 m in diameter rotating at 200 rpm. The coefficient of
friction is 0.25 and the angle of contact of the band is 270. One end of the band is fastened to a
fixed pin and the other end to 125 mm from the fixed pin. The brake arm is 750 mm long.

(i) What is the minimum pull necessary at the end of the brake arm to .stop the wheel if 35
kW is being absorbed? What is the direction of rotation for minimum pull?
(ii) Find the width of 2.4 mm thick steel band if the maximum tensile stress is not to exceed 55
N/mm
2
.
















Data: D = 0.6 m = 600 mm, n = 200 rpm, p = 0.25, 0= 270, a = 750 mm,
b = 125 mm, N = 35kW, h = 2.4 mm,
d
= 55 N/mm
2

Solution:

Frictional torque
n
N
M
9550
1
=


mm N m N = =

=
3
10 25 . 1671 25 . 1671
200
35 9550


Braking for N
D
M
R
M
F 83 . 5570
600
10 25 . 1671 2 2
3
1 1
=

= = =

Ratio of tensions 248 . 3
180 270 25 . 0
2
1
= = =

e e
T
T



Clockwise rotation:

Force
(

=
1
1

e a
b F
F

37


N 02 . 413
1 248 . 3
1
750
125 83 . 5570
=
(

=

Counter clockwise rotation:

Force
(

=
1

e
e
a
b F
F

N 5 . 1341
1 248 . 3
3248
750
125 83 . 5570
=
(

=

Therefore the minimum pull F = 413.02 N

The direction of rotation is clockwise.

Braking force )
1
1 (
1
1
1 2 1

e
T
e
T
T T T F = = =

i.e.,
(

=
248 . 3
1
1 83 . 5570
1
T

Tight side tension T
1
= 8048.96 N


Width of band
d
h
T
w

1
=

mm mm 62 98 . 60
55 4 . 2
96 . 8048
= =

=

Problem:
In a simple band brake, the length of lever is 440 mm. The tight end of the band is attached to the
fulcrum of the lever and the slack end to a pin 50 mm from the fulcrum. The diameter of the
brake drum is 1 m and the arc of contact is 300. The coefficient of friction between the band and
the drum is 0.35. The brake drum is attached to a hoisting drum of diameter 0.65 m that sustains
a load of 20 kN. Determine;
1. Force required at the end of lever to just support the load.
2. Required force when the direction of rotation is reversed.
3. Width of stee! band if the tensile stress is limited to 50 N/mnr.


38















Data: a = 440 mm, b = 50 mm, D= 1 m = 1000 mm, D
b
= 0.65 m = 650 mm,
= 300, = 0.35, W = 20kN = 20x 10
3
N,
d
= 50N/mm
2


Solution:

Torque on hoisting drum
2
1
b
b
WD
R W M = =
mm N =

=
6
3
10 5 . 6
2
650 10 20


The hoisting drum and the brake drum are mounted on same shaft.

Torque on brake drum M1 = 6.5 x 10
6
N-mm
Braking for
D
M
R
M
F
1 1
2
= =

N 13000
1000
10 5 . 6 2
6
=

=

Ratio of tensions 25 . 6
180 300 35 . 0
2
1
= = =

e e
T
T


Clockwise rotation:

Force at the end of lever
(

=
1
1

e a
b F
F


N 38 . 281
1 25 . 6
1
440
50 13000
=
(

=
Counter clockwise rotation:


39
Force
(

=
1

e
e
a
b F
F
N 66 . 1758
1 25 . 6
25 . 6
440
50 13000
=
(

=

Thickness of band h = 0.005 D

= 0.005 x 1000 = 5 mm

Braking force )
1
1 (
1
1
1 2 1

e
T
e
T
T T T F = = =

i.e.,
(

=
25 . 6
1
1 13000
1
T

Tight side tension T
1
= 15476.2 N

Width of band
d
h
T
w

1
=

mm mm 62 9 . 61
50 5
2 . 15476
= =

=



Problem:
A band brake shown in figure uses a V-belt. The pitch diameter of the V-grooved pulley is 400
mm. The groove angle is 45 and the coefficient of friction is 0.3. Determine the power rating.














Data: D - 400 mm, 2a = 45, =22.5, -0.3, F = 100N, b = 400 mm,
a = 750 mm, = 180 = rad, n = 400 rpm


40
Solution:

Ratio of tensions for V-belt,
Sin
e
T
T
/
2
1
=
738 . 11
5 . 22 / 3 . 0
= =
Sin
e



For clockwise rotation,

Force
(

=
1
1

e a
b F
F

i.e.,
(

=
1 738 . 11
1
1
750
400
100

F



Braking force F

= 2013.4 N

Torque on the drum
2
1
D F
R F M

= =
m N mm N = =

= 68 . 402 402680
2
400 4 . 2013

Power rating
9550
1
n M
N =

kW 87 . 16
9550
400 68 . 402
=

=

Problem
Figure shows a two way band brake. It is so designed that it can operate equally well in both
clockwise and counter clockwise rotation of the brake drum. The diameter of the drum is 400 mm
and the coefficient of friction between the band and the drum is 0.3. The angle of contact of band
brake is 270 and the torque absorbed in the band brake is 400 N-m. Calculate;
1. Force F required at the end of the lever.
2. Width of the band if the allowable stress in the band is 70 MPa.


41
Data: D = 400 mm, = 0.3, = 270, M
t
= 400 N-m = 400 x 10
3
N-mm,

d
= 70 MPa = 70 N/mm2, b = b
l
= b
2
= 50mm, a = 1000mm

Solution:

Braking force N
D
M
T T F
t
2000
400
10 400 2 2
3
2 1
=

= = =

Ratio of tensions 1112 . 4
180 270 3 . 0
2
1
= = =

e e
T
T


Force at the end of lever
(

+
=
1
1

e
e
a
b F
F

N 28 . 164
1 112 . 4
1 1112 . 4
1000
50 2000
=
(

+
=
Band thickness h = 0.005 D

= 0.005 x 400 = 2 mm

Braking force )
1
1 (
1 2 1

e
T T T F = =
(

=

e
T
T
1 2
Q

i.e., 2000
1112 . 4
1
1
1
=
(

T


Tight side tension T
1
= 2642.84 N

Width of band
d
h
T
w

1
=

mm mm 20 88 . 18
70 2
84 . 2642
= =

=











42
Design of Belts, Ropes and Chains -- U8

INTRODUCTION
Power is transmitted from the prime mover to a machine by means of intermediate
mechanism called drives. This intermediate mechanism known as drives may be belt or chain
or gears. Belt is used to transmit motion from one shaft to another shaft with the help of
pulleys, preferably if the centre distance is long. It is not positive drive since there is slip in
belt drive.

Three types of belt drives are commonly used. They are:
Flat belt drive
V-belt drive
Rope or circular belt drive

FLAT BELT DRIVE
When the distance between two pulleys is around 10 meters and moderate power is required
then flat belt drive is preferred. This may be arranged in two ways
Open belt drive
Cross belt drive
When the direction of rotation of both the pulleys are required in the same direction , then we
can use open belt drive; if direction of rotation of pulleys are required in opposite direction
then cross belt is used. The pulleys which drives the belt is known as driver and the pulley
which follows driver is known as driven or follower.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF FEAT BELT DRIVE
Merits:
Simplicity, low cost, smoothness of operation, ability to absorb shocks, flexibility and
efficiency at high speeds.
Protect the driven mechanism against breakage in case of sudden overloads owing to
belt slipping.
Simplicity of care, low maintenance and service.
Possibility to transmit power over a moderately long distance.

Open belt drive

















43
Cross belt drive
















Demerits:
It is not a positive drive.
Comparatively large size.
Stretching of belt calling for resewing when the centre distance is constant.
Not suitable for short centre distance.
Belt joints reduce the life of the belt.
High bearing loads and belt stresses.
Less efficiency due to slip and creep.

Creep in Belts
Consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction as shown in figure. The portion of
the belt leaving the driven and entering the driver is known as tight side and portion of belt
leaving the driver and entering the driven is known as slack side.

During rotation there is an expansion of belt on tight side and contraction of belt on the slack
side. Due to this uneven expansion and contraction of the belt over the pulleys, there will be a
relative movement of the belt over the pulleys, this phenomenon is known as creep in belts.


44
Flat belt drive system















Serpentine belt system

Flat belt drive system

















3D arrangement of belt drive

Velocity Ratio
The ratio of angular velocity of the driver pulley to the angular velocity of the driven pulley
is known as velocity ratio or speed ratio or transmission ratio.

Let d1 = Speed of driver pulley
d2 = Speed of driver pulley
n1 = Speed of driver pulley
n2 = Speed of driver pulley
Neglecting slip and thickness of belt,
Linear speed of belt on driver = Linear speed of belt on driven


45
Velocity Ratio

The ratio of angular velocity of the driver pulley to the angular velocity of the driven
pulley is known as velocity ratio or speed ratio or transmission ratio.

Let d1 = Speed of driver pulley
d2 = Speed of driver pulley
n1 = Speed of driver pulley
n2 = Speed of driver pulley
Neglecting slip and thickness of belt,
Linear speed of belt on driver = Linear speed of belt on driven

i.e., d1 n1 = d2 n2


Considering the thickness of belt



Slip in Belts
Consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction, this rotation of belt over the
pulleys is assumed to be due to firm frictional grip between the belt and pulleys.

When this frictional grip becomes in sufficient, there is a possibility of forward motion of
driver without carrying belt with it and there is also possibility of belt rotating without
carrying the driver pulley with it, this is known as slip in belt.

Therefore slip may be defined as the relative motion between the pulley and the belt in it. This
reduces velocity ratio and usually expressed as a percentage.

Effect of Slip on Velocity Ratio

Let s1 = Percentage of slip between driver pulley rim and the belt.
s2 = Percentage of slip between the belt and the driven pulley rim.
Linear speed of driver = d1 n1
46



Material Used for Belt
Belts used for power transmission must be strong, flexible, and durable and must have a
coefficient of friction. The most common belt materials are leather, fabric, rubber, balata,
Camels hair and woven cotton.

Length of Open Belt
Consider an open belt drive as shown in Figure.
Let, D = diameter of larger pulley
d = diameter of smaller pulley
C = distance between centers of pulley
L = length of belt


















47



Where L and s are in radians.
For equal diameter pulleys L = s = radians.
For unequal diameters pulleys, since slip will occur first on the smaller diameter pulley, it is
necessary to consider s while designing the belt.

Length of Cross Belt
Consider a cross-belt drive as shown in Figure
Let, D = diameter of larger pulley
d = diameter of smaller pulley
L = Length of belt




















48


Ratio of Belt Tensions
Consider a driven pulley rotating in clockwise direction as shown in Figure.
Let, T1 = Tension on tight side
T2 = Tension on slack side
= Angle of lap
RN = Normal Reaction
F = Frictional force = RN

Now consider a small elemental portion of the belt PQ subtending an angle at the centre.
The portion of the belt PQ is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces, (i)
Tension T at P (ii) Tension T + T at Q (iii) Normal reaction RN (iv) Frictional force F =
RN



















49


Centrifugal Tension

Consider a driver pulley rotating in clockwise direction, because of rotation of pulley there
will be centrifugal force which acts away from the pulley. The tensions created because of
this centrifugal force both on tight and slack side are known as centrifugal tension.
Let, m = Mass of belt per meter length
v = Velocity in m/sec
TC = Centrifugal tension in N
r = Radius of pulley
FC = Centrifugal force















Consider a small elemental portion of the belt PQ subtending an angle shown in Figure.
Now the mass of belt PQ = M = Mass per unit length x Arc length PQ = mrd

50


Effect of Centrifugal Tension on Ratio ofTensions

Ratio of belt tension considering the effect of centrifugal tension is









1
2
C
C
T T
T T

51
Initial Tension
The motion of the belt with the pulleys is assumed to be due to firm frictional grip between
the belt and pulleys surface. To increase this grip the belt is mounted on the pulleys with
some tension when the pulleys are stationary.
The tension provided in the belt while mounting on the pulley is Initial tension and is
represented by T0. Since in actual practice the belt is not perfectly elastic, C.G.Barth has
given the relation as

Design Procedure for Flat Belt Drive




















52



3. Centrifugal stress



4. Capacity

Calculate e

L
and e

s and take the smaller value as the capacity. If the coefficient of

friction is same for both pulleys then find only es since it is smaller than e

L




53






Example

A belt is required to transmit 18.5 kW from a pulley of 1.2 m diameter running at 250
rpm to another pulley which runs at 500 rpm.The distance between the centers of pulleys is
2.7 m. The following data refer to an open belt drive, = 0.25. Safe working stress for
leather is 1.75 N/mm2. Thickness of belt = 10mm. Determine the width and length of belt
taking centrifugal tension into account. Also find the initial tension in the belt and absolute
power that can be transmitted by this belt and the speed at which this can be transmitted.
54






55

Area of cross section of belt




Also A = b x t
1503.18
= b x 10
Therefore, b = 150.318 mm

Standard width b = 152 mm



2
2
Total given power 18.5
1503.18 mm
Power transmitted per mm area 0.01231
= = =
56



V- BELT DRIVE
Introduction

When the distance between the shafts is less, then V-belts are preferred. These are endless and
of trapezoidal cross section as shown in Figure. It consists of central layer of fabric and
moulded in rubber or rubber like compound. This assembly is enclosed in an elastic wearing
cover. The belt will have contact at the two sides of the groove in the pulley. The wedging
action between the belt and groove will increase the coefficient of friction making the drive a
positive one.

















57


Types of V - belts




















a) Endless V-belt
b) Assembling of V-belt
c) Narrow V-belt
d) Wide V-belt with cogs
e) Narrow V-belt with cogs
f) Double angle V-belt
g) Great angle V-belt
h) Vee-band
i) Pol-rib belt



Advantages of V-belt over Flat belt
Advantages:
Compact and give high velocity ratio.
Provides shock absorption between driver and driven shafts.
Positive and reliable drive.
Because of wedging action in the grooves, loss of power due to slip is less.
There is no joints problem as the drive is of endless type.

Disadvantages:
Initial cost is more as the fabrication of pulleys with V-grooves are complicated.
Cannot be used when the center distance is large.
Improper belt tensioning and mismatching of belt results in reduction in service life.


58
Ratio of belt tensions for V-belt or rope drive
V-Belt drive or rope drive runs in a V-grooved pulley as discussed earlier. The cross-section
of V-belt is shown in Figure.

















Let, 2 = angle of groove
RN = normal reaction between each side of groove
and the corresponding side of the belt strip PQ

From Figure Resolving Forces Vertically,

R = RN sin + RN sin = 2 RN sin

Total frictional force = RN + RN = 2 RN

In case of V-belt or rope, there are two normal reactions as
shown in Figure, so that the radial reaction R is 2 RN sin
and the total frictional force = 2( RN) = 2 RN
Consider a short length PQ of belt subtending angle at
the center of the pulley as shown in Figure.


















59


Let, R = radial reaction between the belt length
PQ and the pulley rim = 2RN sin
RN = Normal reaction between the belt length PQ and
the pulley rim.
T = Tension on slack side of the shot strip PQ
T+T = Tension on tight side of short strip PQ
T = Difference in tension due to friction between the
length PQ and the surface pulley rim
= Coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley
surface
= effective coefficient of friction = /sin
The strip PQ will be in equilibrium (figure) under the action of four forces T, T+ T, 2
RN and R where 2 RN is the frictional force which is opposing the motion






















60



61

62
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR V-BELT

1. Selection of belt c/s
Equivalent pitch diameter of smaller pulley
de = dp.Fb
Where , dp = d1
Fb = smaller diameter factor

Based on de select the c/s of belt
If d is not given them based on power select the c/s of beltand diameter d1

2. Velocity


3. Power capacity
Based on the cross-section selected, calculated the power capacity N* from the formulas.

4. Number of V belts



N= Total power transmitted in kW
N*= power capacity
Fa= Service factor
If the condition is not given then assume medium duty and 10-16 hours duty per day.






or

1
2 cos
2
D d
C

| |
=
|
\
1
180- 2 sin
2
D d
C

| |
=
|
\

63



Correction factor for angle of contact = Fd

(If the type is not given select V - V - Belts)

Therefore, Number of belts = i




Select a V-belt drive to transmit 10 kW of power froma pulley of 200 mm diameter mounted
on an electric motor running at 720 rpm to another pulley mounted on compressor running at
200 rpm. The service is heavy duty varying from 10 hours to 14 hours per day and centre
distance between centre of pulleys is 600 mm.







64

v. Number of Belts


The nearest standard value of nominal pitch length for the selected C-cross section belt L =
2723 mm
Nominal inside length = 2667 mm

For nominal inside length = 2667 mm, and C-cross section belt, correction factor for length
Fe = 0.94


65


ROPE DRIVES
Introduction

When power is to be transmitted over long distances then belts cannot be used due to the
heavy losses in power. In such cases ropes can be used. Ropes are used in elevators, mine
hoists, cranes, oil well drilling, aerial conveyors, tramways, haulage devices, lifts and
suspension bridges etc. two types of ropes are commonly used. They are fiber ropes and
metallic ropes. Fiber ropes are made of Manila, hemp, cotton, jute, nylon, coir etc., and are
normally used for transmitting power. Metallic ropes are made of steel, aluminium. alloys,
copper, bronze or stainless steel and are mainly used in elevator, mine hoists, cranes, oil well
drilling, aerial conveyors, haulage devices and suspension bridges.

Hoisting tackle (Block and Tackle Mechanism)
It consists of two pulley blocks one above the other. Each block has a series of sheaves
mounted side by side on the same axle. The ropes used in hoisting tackle are
Cotton ropes
Hemp ropes and
Manila ropes
The pulleys are manufactured in two designs i.e. fixed pulley and movable pulley.

Pulley system
A pulley system is a combination of several movable and fixed pulleys or sheaves.
The system can be used for a gain in force or for a gain in speed. Hoisting devices employ
pulleys for a gain in force predominantly. Pulley systems for a gain in forces are designed
with the rope running off a fixed pulley and with the rope running off a movable pulley.
Consider a hoisting tackle (block and tackle mechanism) as shown in fig.










66









67

STEEL WIRE ROPES
A wire rope is made up of stands and a strand is made up of one or more layers of wires as
shown in fig. the number of strands in a rope denotes the number of groups of wires that are
laid over the central core. For example a 6 19 construction means that the rope has 6 strands
and each strand is composed of 19(12/6/1) wires. The central part of the wire rope is called
the core and may be of fiber, wire, plastic, paper or asbestos. The fiber core is very flexible
and very suitable for all conditions.

The points to be considered while selecting a wire rope are
Strength
Abrasion resistance
Flexibility
Resistance of crushing
Fatigue strength
Corrosion resistance.
Ropes having wire core are stronger than those having fiber core. Flexibility in rope is
more desirable when the number of bends in the rope is too many.













DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WIRE ROPE
Let d=Diameter of rope
D=Diameter of sheave
H= Depth of mine or height of building
W= total load
WR= Weight of rope
dw= Diameter of wire
A= Area of c/s of rope
Pb= Bending load in the rope
Fa= allowable pull in the rope
Fu= Ultimate of breaking load of rope
n= Factor of safety
Ws= Starting load










68






69


problem
Select a wire rope to lift a load of 10kN through a height of 600m from a mine. The weight of
bucket is 2.5kN. the load should attain a maximum speed of 50m/min in 2 seconds.

Solution:
From table select the most commonly used type of rope i.e. 619
From table for 619 rope Fu= 500.8 d2 N where d in mm
Weight per meter length = 36.310-3 d2 N/m where d in mm
Wire diameter dw = 0.063 d, mm
Area of c/s A = 0.38 d2, mm2
Sheave diameter D= 45 d, mm

From table for 600 m depth
F.O.S = n = 7
1. Total load
W= Load to be lifted + weight of skip = 10000+ 2500= 12500N


70






CHAIN DRIVE
Introduction
Chain is used to transmit motion from one shaft to another shaft with the help of
sprockets. Chain drives maintain a positive speed ratio between driving and driven
components, so tension on the slack side is considered is as zero. They are generally used for
the transmission of power in cycles, motor vehicles, agricultural machinery, road rollers etc.

Merits and demerits of chain drives Merits
1. Chain drives are positive drives and can have high efficiency when operating under ideal
conditions.
2. It can de used for both relatively long centre distances.
3. Less load on shafts and compact in size as compared to belt drive.

Demerits
1. Relatively high production cost and noisy operation.
2. Chain drives require more amounts of servicing and maintenance as compared to belt
drives.

71
Velocity ratio in chain drive
Let n1= speed of driver sprocket in rpm
n2 = speed of driven sprocket in rpm
z1= number of teeth on drivers sprocket
z2 = number of teeth on driven sprocket
Therefore Velocity ratio n1/n2= z1/z2

Chains for power transmission
The different types of chain used for power transmission are:
i. Block chain ii. Roller chain iii. Inverted-tooth chain or silent chain.

ROLLER CHAIN
It consists of two rows of outer and inner plates. The outer row of plates in known as pin link
or coupling link whereas the inner row of plates is called roller link. A Pin passes through the
bush which is secured in the holes of the inner pair of links and is riveted to the outer pair of
links as shown in Fig. Each bush is surrounded by a roller. The rollers run freely on the
bushes and the bushes turn freely on the pins.
















A roller chain is extremely strong and simple in construction. It gives good service under
severe conditions. To avoid longer sprocket diameter, multi-row-roller chains or chains with
multiple strand width are used. Theoretically, the power capacity multistrand chain is equal to
the capacity of the single chain multiplied by the number of strand, but actually it is reduced
by 10 percent.

Inverted tooth chain or silent chain
It is as shown Fig. these chains are not exactly silent but these are much smoother and quieter
in action than a roller chain. These chains are made up of flat steel stamping, which make it
easy to built up any width desired. The links are so shaped that they engage directly with
sprocket teeth. In design, the silent chains are more complex than brush roller types, more
expensive and require more careful maintenance.







72













Chordal action
When a chain passes over a sprocket, it moves as a series of chords instead of a continuous
arc as in the case of a belt drive. Thus the center line of a chain is not a uniform radius. When
the driving sprocket moves at a constant speed, the driven sprocket rotates at a varying speed
due to the continually varying radius of chain line. This variation in sped ranges from



Where
n
1
= Speed of the driving sprocket in rpm
d
1
Pitch circle diameter of the driving sprocket in mm
z1 = number of teeth on driving sprockets.
It is clear from above that for the same pitch, the variation in speed and articulation
angle decreases, if the number of teeth in sprocket is increased. The average speed of the
sprocket as
given by


Where p = pitch of the chain in mm and z = number of teeth in sprocket. This chordal action
of the chain is shown in Fig.
















73
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR ROLLER CHAIN














Let p = Pitch
d1 = diameter of smaller sprocket
d2 = diameter of larger sprocket
n1 = speed of smaller sprocket
n2 = speed of larger sprocket
z1 = number of teeth on smaller sprocket
z2 = Number of teeth on larger sprocket
L = Length of chain in pitches
C = Center diameter
Cp = Center distance in pitches

1. Pitch of chain


Where p in mm, and n1= speed of smaller sprocket
Select standard nearest value of pitch from Table
Chain number
Breaking load Fu
Measuring load w

2. Number of teeth on the sprockets
From Table for the given ratio select the number of teeth on the smaller sprocket (z1)
Since

Number of teeth on larger sprocket = z2
3. Pitch diameters



74



4. Velocity

5. Required pull



6. Allowable pull


7. Number of strands in a chain


8. Check for actual factor of safety



= pitch diameter of smaller sprocket
= pitch of larger sprocket
75

6. Allowable pull


10. length of chain


11. Correct centre distance



Select a roller chain drive to transmit power of 10 kw from a shaft rotating at 750 rpm to
another shaft to run at 450 rpm. The distance between the shaft centers could be taken as 35
pitches.
Data:
N= 10 kw; n1 = 750 rpm; n2 = 450 rpm; C = 35 pitches



76





77