Review of Educational Research

http://rer.aera.net The Scholarship of Dr. Asa G. Hilliard, III: Implications for Black Principal Leadership
Linda C. Tillman REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2008 78: 589 DOI: 10.3102/0034654308321454 The online version of this article can be found at: http://rer.sagepub.com/content/78/3/589

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Review of Educational Research September 2008, Vol. 78, No. 3, pp. 589607 DOI: 10.3102/0034654308321454 2008 AERA. http://rer.aera.net

The Scholarship of Dr. Asa G. Hilliard, III: Implications for Black Principal Leadership
Linda C. Tillman University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill
For over 40 years the scholarship of Dr. Asa G. Hilliard has impacted the fields of educational psychology, testing and measurement, teacher education, and African and African American history. Dr. Hilliard was also concerned about school leadership, and much of his work is closely aligned with current discussions about school reform and accountability as they relate to effective school leadership. The purpose of this article is to present a review of a selected body of Dr. Hilliard's scholarship, and to situate this work in the context of African American principal leadership and the education of African American students.

KEYWORDS:

Black education, leadership, principals.

There is much that can be said about the work of Dr. Asa Grant Hilliard, III (Nana Baffour Amankwatia, II). Where does one begin? In the months since his transition, many of us who knew and respected Dr. Hilliard have reflected on his brilliance; his dedication to the social, emotional, and academic success of students of African descent; his challenges to researchers and scholars; and his lasting legacy. For more than 40 years Dr. Hilliards work has impacted the fields of educational psychology (Hilliard, 1992), testing and measurement (Hilliard, 2000a), teacher education (Hilliard, 1989, 1991a, 1991b), and African and African American studies (Hilliard, 1998, 2000c). Although Dr. Hilliards work was primarily focused in these disciplinary areas, he was also concerned about school leadership. Thus, there are themes in his work that have implications for the preparation of school leaders and how school leaders can impact the education of African American students. The purpose of this article is to present a review of a selected body of Dr. Hilliards scholarship and to situate this work in the context of African American1 principal leadership and the education of African American students. The review is intentionally narrow in its focusit has a specific racialized perspectivethe leadership of African American principals and the education of African American children. Dr. Hilliard (1995) used this approach in an essay titled Teacher Education From an African American Perspective. In this essay he wrote, While the paper has a narrow focus, an African American perspective, it has broad implications for teaching and learning as well (p. 19). Like Hilliards essay, this article has broad implications for the preparation of principals generally, but 589
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particularly African American principals. The style of the review also departs somewhat from traditional reviews. I have intentionally chosen to include numerous direct quotes from Dr. Hilliards work. The use of direct quotes is an approach that is consistent with the oral tradition of African Americans (Foster, 1997; Stanfield, 1994), and my intent is to give voice to Dr. Hilliards work on issues that are critical to the education of African Americans. The article is organized into three sections. In the first section, I provide a brief review of a selected body of Dr. Hilliards work from a specific time period, 1984 to 2007, and identify four recurring themes related to the education of African American students. In the next section, I situate Dr. Hilliards scholarship in the context of school leadership using my framework for African American principal leadership (Tillman, 2004a). I conclude the review with a discussion, some implications for practice, and recommendations for future research. Method The framework for African American principal leadership is based on my article African American Principals and the Legacy of Brown (Tillman, 2004a). The article is a review of the literature on Blacks in the principalship in the pre and postBrown eras of education. The research that was reviewed for this article is interdisciplinary, including work from the fields of history, sociology, education, and more specifically, educational leadership/administration (Tillman, 2004a, p. 103). Relevant literature was identified by searching several databases, including ERIC, JSTOR, PRO QUEST, and PSYCH INFO. In addition, I searched the major educational leadership/school administration journals (Educational Administration Quarterly, Journal of School Leadership, Journal of Educational Administration, Educational Management and Administration, and International Journal of Leadership in Education), several handbooks on educational leadership/school administration (Handbook of Research on Educational Administration; Handbook of Research on Educational Administration, 2nd edition; Jossey-Bass Reader on Educational Leadership). The search yielded more than 200 publications, and 169 of these publications were used in the review. The publications were based on empirical work and included articles, books, book chapters, paper presentations, and reports. The research was organized into five major categories: historical perspectives, preBrown principals, postBrown principals, desegregation, and African American female principals. Based on the literature, I identified four major themes to develop my framework for African American principal leadership: (a) resistance to ideologies and individuals opposed to the education of Black students, (b) the academic and social development of Black students as a priority, (c) the importance of the cultural perspectives of the Black principal, and (d) leadership based on interpersonal caring. These themes will be used to frame the discussion of Dr. Hilliards work. Much of Dr. Hilliards work is conceptual/theoretical; that is, he examined the state of education, particularly for African Americans, and posed questions for research, theory, and practice. Thus, the selected body of work reviewed here is primarily conceptual in nature and includes the period from 1984 to 2007. The criteria used to identify relevant literature for this discussion of Dr. Hilliards work was my framework for African American principal leadership, which includes the four categories just cited (Tillman, 2004a). A keyword search in relevant databases 590
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(ERIC, JSTOR, PSYCH INFO, etc.) for work by Dr. Hilliard included the terms African American principals, Black principals, school leadership, African American education, Black education, African education, academic achievement, socialization, Black culture, African culture, African American culture, resistance, race, and caring. In all, 23 publications were identified and included peer-reviewed publications and unpublished work such as reports and speeches. Of the publications, 18 met the criteria of my framework for African American principal leadership and are discussed in this review. Overview of Dr. Hilliards Scholarship: Recurring Themes From 1984 to 2007, Asa Hilliard wrote numerous articles, essays, book chapters, and books and made a number of speeches to practitioners, scholars, researchers, and policy makers about the education of African Americans in public schools. Dr. Hilliard understood that education is a highly contested site of political power and control, particularly around issues of teacher training, curriculum content, pedagogy, leadership, funding, ideologies, and cultural perspectives. Indeed, he understood that educators are engaged in a long-term struggle (Pine & Hilliard, 1990, p. 597) to combat racism in schools. Several themes are prominent in Dr. Hilliards work. In this section, I will provide a brief discussion of four of these themes: (a) the quality of services gap in education, (b) cultural proficiency, (c) minimum competency standards, and (d) inequitable educational structures. A major theme in Dr. Hilliards scholarship and speeches is the imperative for teaching and leadership that facilitates providing African American students with high-quality educational services. He understood how racism could impact the opportunities for African Americans to gain equity and access in public schools (Hilliard, 1999a, 2000c, 2003; Hilliard & Sizemore, 1984; Pine & Hilliard, 1990). Consequently, in much of Dr. Hilliards work he argued that educators (and policy makers) usually are focused on the wrong question about the achievement of African American students. Rather than asking, Why cant Black students learn? Dr. Hilliard argued that the correct question is, What is the quality of educational services African American children are receiving so that they can succeed? (Hilliard, 1999a, 2000c, 2003). Furthermore, he argued that educators should also ask, If all children can learn and if in many places children are learning, then why do we have the question, can all children learn? (Hilliard, 1999a, p. 82). For Dr. Hilliard, the solution to the underachievement of African American children was not complex and did not require the implementation of alternative teaching techniques or reform models. Rather, the solution was a moral and commonsense one: We must provide every child with high-quality educational services (Hilliard, 2000b, 2000c, 2003). Hilliard (2000c) wrote:
Currently the heaviest emphasis in the education research community in general is on children, how intelligent they are, which intelligences they have, how motivated they are, and on special methods, etc. I think that the emphases are misplaced. By now it should be clear that, for the most part, our children are geniuses with capacities to go far beyond any current school requirements. They respond very well to quite a variety of well-executed methods and techniques. There is no mystery about how to teach any of them. The priority that needs more emphasis is the deep study of the quality of services that we offer to students, the unequal distribution of those

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services and the structures of inequity such as tracking and inappropriate special education, still existing in the school. Why do our children fail to get access to the many educators who are not puzzled [italics added] about how to teach them? (p. 9)

Hilliard (2003) acknowledged, There can be no question but that the achievement of African students is, in general, far below their potential (p. 138). However, he emphasized that more than an achievement gap,2 African Americans are being held hostage to a quality of services gap (p. 140)the absence of the opportunity to learn as a result of the unequal distribution of educational resources. A second major theme in Dr. Hilliards work is his emphasis on the importance of culturally proficient teachers and leadersteachers and leaders who are knowledgeable about African culture (Hilliard, 1987-1988, 1991b, 1992, 2000c, 2007; Hilliard & Sizemore, 1984). Dr. Hilliard (1987-1988) believed The study of African culture is absolutely essential to the understanding of African American people (p. 204). He stressed repeatedly that The cultural base of the broad African American community is African (p. 204), and it is not poverty, oppression, singleparent homes, income, race, or class that defines African Americans or their academic abilities. Rather, it is their historical and political connection to Africa. He insisted that teachers and leaders must know, understand, and acknowledge the history and culture of African Americans in order to effectively teach and lead African American children. According to Hilliard and Sizemore (1984), A culturally salient and sensitive education is essential to a pluralistic nation (p. 13). A third theme prominent in Dr. Hilliards work is his critique of minimum competency standards (Hilliard, 1991a, 1991b, 1995, 1999a, 2003, 2007; Hilliard & Sizemore, 1984). Hilliard (1991a) wrote, Our current ceiling for students is really much closer to where the floor ought to be (p. 35). He pointed out that many reports about school reform were based on the assumption that minimum competency attainment should be the goal for the nation (Hilliard, 1991b, p. 203) and that few of these reports called for high levels of educational excellence for all children, regardless of race or class. In addition, Hilliard (1999a) argued that there was no mystery about how to raise student achievement: Educators must set high standards, set goals, build consensus, and facilitate a professional school climate and culture. In an essay titled The State of African Education, Hilliard (2000c) wrote:
More and more we see publicly funded, large scale off the shelf, cookiecutter standardized programs for public schools, mainly urban, mainly minimum competence, mainly non-culturally responsive. They see the Title I dollars and other funds in urban education. Policymakers increasingly have abandoned the belief in regular teachers and schools. They now shop for large-scale research based programs. We have virtually no control over these services. Some of our best educators look to these programs as saviors for our children, even though the programs do not have excellent track records. They are minimum competency at best. We are at risk. (p. 8)

Dr. Hilliard believed that African American students did not benefit from special initiatives and programs, standardized tests, or reforms based on minimum competency performance rather than high standards. For example, whereas the intent of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is to eliminate disparities in 592
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academic performance, largely based on race and socio economic status (SES) (Tillman, 2006a, p. 191; Hilliard, 2006; Hilliard & Ortiz, 2004), Hilliard (2007) argued that NCLB had not helped African American students. Rather, African American students continue to underperform in critical subject matter areas. According to Hilliard, the minimum competency requirements of NCLB have facilitated the underachievement of African American students rather than providing them with opportunities to excel academically. The pervasiveness of inequitable structures3 in education (ideas, organizational systems, definitions) is also a recurring theme in Dr. Hilliards work (1991b, 1995, 2000c, 2003, 2006, 2007; Hilliard & Sizemore, 1984; Pine & Hilliard, 1990). Hilliard (1991b) identified seven structures of inequity that lead to inequitable educational and social outcomes for students of color and low-income students: (a) goals for students, (b) belief and ideology, (c) teacher training, (d) general school design, (e) assessment, (f) curriculum, and (g) legitimation systems. For example, Hilliard noted that the use of testing as a formal assessment of students is usually designed to compare scores of African American and other students of color with their White peers and is ineffective in helping children to overcome academic problems they may be having in school. Hilliard advocated the initiation of massive changes in systems and structures (p. 209) if educators are committed to serving all children. Hilliard argued that such changes must be tied to the quality and distribution of services to childrenwell-trained teachers, equitable funding, and high standards. However, Hilliard (1991a) cautioned that restructuring would not succeed if the fundamental belief system does not fit the new structures that are being created (p. 36). These and other themes (the politics of education, tracking, instructional practices) permeate Dr. Hilliards work. Although the themes discussed here were often aimed at revolutionizing teacher education, they are also applicable to educational leadership. In the next section I situate Dr. Hilliards work in the context of school leadership, employing my framework for African American principal leadership. African American Principal Leadership: The Scholarly Legacy of Asa G. Hilliard, III In Tillman (2004a) I reviewed the literature on African American principals in the pre and postBrown v. Board of Education eras and found four consistent themes: (a) resistance to ideologies and individuals opposed to the education of Black students, (b) the academic and social development of Black students as a priority, (c) the importance of the cultural perspectives of the Black principal, and (d) leadership based on interpersonal caring. The themes were not linearrather, they often overlapped and several themes could be found in individual studies. Likewise, Dr. Hilliards work is not linear. It is often the case that several themes in Dr. Hilliards work can be found in the same article, book, book chapter, or speech. In my review of the literature on African American principals, I acknowledged that a possible limitation was the focus on the positive aspects of Black educators in the principalship. However, like Siddle Walkers (2003) examination of segregated schools, as well as much of Hilliards focus on effective teachers, I chose to focus on good schools to highlight scholarship on Black principals in the pre and postBrown eras that would expand the narrow lens through which 593
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Black leadership has historically been viewed (Siddle Walker, 2003, p. 59). The discussion shifts now to a consideration of themes in Dr. Hilliards work related to the leadership of Black principals in the context of the education of African American students. Resistance to Ideologies and Individuals Opposed to the Education of Black Students Pre and postBrown Black principal leaders4 resisted deficit ideologies and individuals who sought to deny Black children an equitable and excellent education. As noted in my review of the literature (Tillman, 2004a), these Black principal leaders
fought against theories of inferiority, funding structures that disadvantaged Black students, an emphasis on vocational over academic preparation, and the displacement of massive numbers of Black teachers and principals. They risked their professional careers and their economic livelihood and stood in the way of opposition to equitable systems of education. Lacking any real power to implement policy, they worked with Black parents who went before White school boards to secure needed resources for schools. In the face of these challenges, they continued to educate Black children, doing more with less. (p. 132)

The theme of resistance can be found in much of Dr. Hilliards work. In Saving the African American Child, Hilliard and Sizemore (1984) noted that African Americans were in a continuous struggle to gain access to and participate in an equitable and excellent educational system. Hilliard and Sizemore declared that African Americans must never leave the total education of our children in the hands of others! (p. 21). Rather, they urged African Americans to resist ideologies that include labeling African American children as deficient, theories of Black inferiority, and systems that unequally distribute educational resources to children. Hilliard and Sizemore noted that deficit ideologies in education had historically served to marginalize African Americans, and they argued that African Americans must mount independent efforts to educate their children. Hilliard (1987-1988) cited the work of Harold Cruise who argued that African Americans have been forced to endure separate but equal and integration ideologies that were produced by those who apparently failed to recognize the fact that the U.S. is now, always has been, and in the near future will remain, ethnically and racially a culturally plural society (p. 203). Thus, Hilliard argued that African Americans must resist the ideology of a mainstream society as this ideology could only result in assimilationthe marginalization of African Americans as a culturally distinct group. Black principals who seek to resist these ideological pressures would find support in Hilliards scholarship. Hilliards keen awareness of the role of prejudice, discrimination, and racism in U.S. schooling also has implications for school leaders. In Rx for Racism: Imperatives for Americas Schools, Pine and Hilliard (1990) argued that racism had sabotaged our nations efforts to provide a high-quality education for all children (p. 593). In their view, students of color experienced what the authors called conceptual separation from their roots and were forced to situate their own experiences in the context of assumptions, paradigms, constructs, and language of 594
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other people (p. 596). Furthermore, Pine and Hilliard emphasized that schools must confront racism by becoming moral communities that model empathy, trust, cooperation, fairness, and justice as well as communities of conscience that foster harmony and mutual respect between Whites and people of color. Schools that have a moral imperative to combat racism must also become socially just, caring institutions where students are nurtured and developed by caring teachers and school leaders. Pine and Hilliard suggested five strategies to combat (resist) institutional racism in schools: (a) Confront and challenge racism, (b) increase the pool of teachers of color, (c) develop a multicultural curriculum, (d) improve pedagogical practices, and (e) teach character development and self-esteem. For example, the authors argued that increasing the pool of teachers of color would provide more role models for students from racially and ethnically diverse groupsrole models who could relate to these students racially and culturally. Although this was an admirable goal in 1990, recent statistics (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2006) indicate that the teaching force remains predominantly White and female. Thus, the majority of African American and other students of color continue to be taught by teachers who may have little training and experience in teaching students from racial, ethnic, and low-income backgrounds. Dr. Hilliard worked as a researcher, consultant, and speaker in numerous schools across the country. Hilliard (1991a) advised educators (and school leaders), particularly African Americans, to resist a structure ideology that permeates the society, causing many of us to doubt the fundamental human potential of the masses of our children (p. 33). He noted that there were many exemplary schools with exemplary teachers and leaders who were successful working with students regardless of their race, SES, or external factors that might affect their out-ofschool lives. These teachers and leaders believed that all children could achieve if they were given opportunities to learnthat is, the appropriate quality and distribution of educational services. Dr. Hilliard (1991b) cautioned that educators must not be distracted by miseducation strategies (p. 200) such as the teaching of White supremacy, IQ testing, tracking and sorting, and the absence of racially and ethnically balanced curriculum materials. He identified an additional miseducation strategyespousing the rhetoric that all children can learn without ensuring that all children can learn at demanding academic levels (p. 202). According to Hilliard, these ideologies are detrimental to the education of African American children and must be dismantled and replaced with other ideas more appropriate to a democratic education (p. 203). Dr. Hilliards constant critique of the use of IQ and standardized testing (Hilliard, 1991b, 2000a, 2003, 2007; Hilliard & Sizemore, 1984) closely aligns with the theme of resistance. Hilliard (1991b) referred to IQ testing as a custodial paradigm that is, children are placed in the custody of IQ testing (p. 207). In his article, Excellence in Education Versus High-Stakes Standardized Testing, Hilliard (2000a) critiqued high-stakes testing as an invalid method for testing intelligence or achievement and as inappropriate as a reform tool or as a tool for raising student achievement. According to Hilliard, the politics of standardized testing has negatively affected African American children. In a critique of the book The Bell Curve (Hernstein & Murray, 1994), he argued that the authors see IQ as intelligence and they see intelligence as a causal factor for poverty and for affluence, or low and high class status (p. 296). Hilliard further argued that high-stakes testing is not 595
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an innocent school improvement activity (p. 297). Rather, like IQ testing, it is the enemy of millions of children who have unrecognized genius (p. 297). Furthermore, Hilliard argued that IQ testing and standardized tests have no meaningful validity, measure low levels of thinking, are not connected to teacher competence, and impede opportunities for educators and communities to structure an excellent education for African American and other children of color. In a later critique of IQ testing, Dr. Hilliard (2003) wrote: The current use of intelligence testing in education is a meaningless practice that offers us no help in understanding the differences in achievement between Africans and others (p. 136). In addition, he noted:
In other words, there is a belief system and a behavior system in education, and in the supporting academic disciplines, that provide the rationale for the continuation of brutal pessimism with respect to African students, and for inappropriate pedagogical responses to the African condition. Not only do these ideological positions exist, but the more important problem is that, in general, educators are in denial about their existence. Hence the need for explicit documentation of the savage inequalities, and the need for staff development and education of educators and the public in general about the savage inequalities. Otherwise, the error and propaganda about the absence of capacity of African students and the failure to provide the appropriate resources will persist. (p. 141)

Dr. Hilliards scholarship is a caution to educators that they must think carefully about IQ testing, standardized testing, and other factors that can negatively impact the educational opportunities for African American students. They must resist ideologies and individuals opposed to providing an excellent education to African American children. Black principal leaders play key roles in efforts to resist ideologies and individuals opposed to the education of Black children. Tillman (2004a) found that preBrown Black principal leaders fought ideologies and individuals and sought to remedy educational inequities and postBrown Black principal leaders operated in an era characterized by an emphasis on effective principal leadership (p. 116). Faced with making decisions about how they would educate Black children after desegregation, postBrown Black principal leaders resisted the efforts of Whites who ignored the mandates of the Brown decision, teachers who had low expectations for Black students, and less involvement from Black parents. Today, Black principal leaders must also resist deficit ideologies even in the face of a number of challenges, particularly in the large, urban, and predominantly Black school context. The underachievement of African American students, the number of African American children who live in poverty, and the disproportionate number of Black males in special education are prime targets for Bell Curvelike ideologies that Hilliard urged educators to resist. As Dr. Hilliard has challenged us, African Americans, and particularly African American school leaders, cannot be distracted or detracted from the collective goal of providing an excellent education for all African American children. The Academic and Social Development of Black Students as Priority The academic and social development of Black students was a priority for Black principal leaders described in Tillmans (2004a) review. Black principals believed 596
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in and were committed to the academic achievement of Black students. They worked to secure funding, resources, and qualified and committed teachers in an effort to provide Black students opportunities to experience success. These Black principal leaders also believed that schools should be transformational institutions that provided students with not only academic but social support. This social development did not mean assimilation into a White culture. Rather, principals believed that they must help Black students develop self-esteem, help them to set goals, help them to develop a work ethic, and help to prepare them for success in the larger societya society that often marginalized them as human beings. Black principal leaders nurtured and encouraged Black students in a manner that may be absent in many predominantly Black urban schools today. According to Tillman (2004a), the structure of urban schools with primarily Black populations often do not provide an atmosphere that is conducive to leadership practices that include commitment to students, compassion for students and their families, and confidence in students abilities (Lomotey, 1993). Dr. Hilliard spent much of his life advocating for the academic and social development of African American children. In The State of African Education, a paper presented at the 2000 American Educational Research Association annual meeting, Hilliard (2000c) wrote: The 400 year struggle for African people has been for legitimate education for the children, a high quality, culturally appropriate, truthful education/socialization for our children (p. 13). Furthermore, in Saving the African American Child, Hilliard and Sizemore (1984) declared:
For African Americans generally, quality education has always been among the highest priorities. Yet throughout our history here, we have had to struggle mightily against the forces of slavery, segregation, racism, and poverty for returns that are all too meager. (p. 13)

Advancing a position that would be a recurring theme in Asa Hilliards work (excellence), the authors argued:
Excellence in education is much more than a matter of high test scores on standardized minimum or advanced competency examinations. We expect the schools to expand the scope of knowledge and to develop the rational reflective and critical capacities of our children. We have every right to expect that, upon completion of public school work, our children will have the general skills to enter the world of work and to be fully functional members of society. (p. 15)

Dr. Hilliard also believed that African American educators must be committed to helping African American students and should partner with communities and parents to help them succeed in supporting these students academic and social development, even when schools failed to do so. He identified several strategies that would allow African American communities to promote the academic and social development of their children. According to Hilliard (1987-1988), African American communities must (a) play a key role in setting the goals for the education of its children, (b) provide models for its children, (c) systematically take steps to carefully monitor the progress of the masses of its children, (d) provide systematically for activities that express the communitys concern about what is legitimate 597
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and what is illegitimate, and (e) provide fiscal support for socialization and educational processes. Hilliard argued that the community must be conscious of itself (as people of African descent) and be proactive in its efforts to make the academic and social development of its children a priority. Like Black principal leaders in the research in my review of the literature (Tillman, 2004a), Hilliard (1991b) argued that educators cannot accept failure for African American children. Rather, educators must push for the academic and social development of African American children as a priority because there were hundreds of educators who manage to succeed quite well with children regardless of their income or racial background (p. 209). Again, Hilliards (2000a) work on standardized testing and IQ testing aligns very closely with the theme, the academic and social development of Black students as a priority. He argued that most successful educators create powerful educational environments (p. 293) and do not see poverty, single-parent families, or SES as obstacles to the academic and social development of Black children. These teachers and leaders reject ideologies based on the rhetoric of high-stakes testing and IQ test scores. Rather, they are master teachers and leaders who believe in the genius of all children and their ability to achieve at high levels. Hilliard argued that it is important to investigate how good teachers and leaders view, interpret, and use high-stakes standardized testing because based on his experiences, successful teachers were rarely preoccupied with tests. In addition to master teachers like math educators Abdulalim Shabazz and Jaime Escalante and Oakland, California elementary school teacher Carrie Secret, Dr. Hilliard also identified principals like Sandra McGary as educators who also believed in the genius of every child. These individuals did not rely on test results as the absolute indicator of a students potential. Rather, they believed that African American children could be successful beyond minimum competency levels. (Escalante taught Latino students in Los Angeles.) Hilliard (2003) presented a persuasive argument that when teachers, leaders, parents, and communities decide that African American children will receive an education that facilitates academic and social excellence, the teaching and learning paradigm changes in fundamental ways. In a paradigm that promotes academic and social excellence, educational goals are pursued and achieved by gap-closers teachers and leaders who demonstrate their capability to move students from low achievers to high achievers. Commenting on his own education he wrote:
Yet the very success of my Texas teachers, and my good teachers later in integrated schools in Colorado, represented a fundamental challenge to the conventional wisdom in teacher education and educational research, theory, and practice. These teachers worked, applying old methods, in old school structures, without Ritalin, without vouchers, with rudimentary theoretical notions, with low technologies, and with no standardized cookie-cutter research based programs or centralized micromanagement of the instructional process. For them, IQ scores did not predict school achievement, cultural deprivation theory did not explain school achievement, sociological theories about the correlation of socioeconomic status with student measured capacity and achievement were irrelevant. (pp. 142143)

Hilliard believed that master leaders could lead in any type of school regardless of race and SES. As an example, he points to the work of Sandra McGary, an 598
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African American female principal who was assigned to a predominantly African American low-performing school in Cobb County, Georgia. After McGary became principal, student test scores increased, and the school became a high-performing school within 1 year. He attributes McGarys success to her strong leadership and her commitment to the academic and social development of African American students. Hilliard wrote:
Her highest concern is with the quality of the instructional program, and that is the topic of most of her conversations with teachers. She has managed to gain the collective commitment of her staff to strive for excellence and to expend whatever energies it takes to get there. (p. 157)

Hilliard rejected the notion of a charismatic educator. For Hilliard it was not charisma that makes teachers and leaders effective with African American children; rather, it was their commitment, focus, and hard work on behalf of African American children. Hilliard argued that principals like McGary can transform ordinary and failing schools. Hilliard also points to the work of another African American female principal (unnamed) of Dunbar Elementary School in Atlanta, Georgia. During the 1980s the school, which was located in a high-poverty area, was one of the worst performing schools in Atlanta. The principal set high goals for student achievement, engaged her teachers in a goal to transform the school, and held herself accountable for facilitating the achievement of this goal. Hilliard noted that the principal was a master leader who exhibited strong leadership that was focused on the academic and social development of all children, and particularly the African American students who attended the school. Principals have the capacity to solve problems and to facilitate a culture and climate in schools that benefit all children. Black principal leaders can create environments where teachers are supported, where student success is a priority, and where excellence rather than minimum competency is the standard. Following the examples of pre and postBrown Black principal leaders, principals must lift their teachers up (Hilliard, 2003, p. 159), and they must be catalysts for the academic and social development of African American children. The Importance of the Cultural Perspectives of the Black Principal Tillman (2002) defined culture as a groups individual and collective ways of thinking, believing, and knowing, which includes their shared experiences, consciousness, skills, values, forms of expression, social institutions and behaviors (p. 4). In addition, Gwaltney (1993) noted that African Americans have a core black culture, one where most black people agree, on all levels of consciousness and in their overt actions, on what the standards of the culture are (p. xxiii). Tillman (2004a) found that the cultural perspectives of Black principals was another consistent theme in the research literature, particularly with regard to Black principal leadership in the preBrown era. PreBrown principals were central figures in the school and the community, and as leaders they espoused the racial and cultural norms of the Black community. As Siddle Walker (2003) observed: The perspective of the Black principal is central to explaining how the segregated Black schools were able to fight the demon of racism by helping Black children believe in what they were capable of achieving (p. 59). 599
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Cultural perspectives appeared to be a salient factor in the leadership of the principals, and evidence suggests the presence of a distinctly Black perspective in school leadership, based largely on culture. Similar to the leadership practices of Black principals in the segregated schooling of the South documented by Siddle Walker (2003), the leadership practices of Black principals in predominantly Black urban schools today may be based on their membership in a distinct Black culture. In my research on Black principals in a large, predominantly Black, urban school district (Tillman, 2006b), I found that same-race/cultural affiliation strongly influenced site-level decision making, selection of teachers, and interactions with parents and the community. Dr. Hilliard argued that people of African descent must know their culture, schools must recognize and include African culture in instructional materials, teachers and leaders must have high levels of cultural proficiency (being knowledgeable about students racial and cultural history and norms), and African American communities must use their culture as a foundation in the academic and social development of its children (see e.g., Hilliard, 1995, 2000c, 2003, 2007; Hilliard & Sizemore, 1984). For Dr. Hilliard, knowing ones culture was essential for educational equity and excellence. In Saving the African American Child, Hilliard and Sizemore (1984) argued that African Americans must know their culture and that the reclamation and restoration of our history and recognition and respect for our rich culture are priorities that are equal in importance to all other priorities (p. 14). In a discussion of the importance of infusing African American culture in schools, they noted, African American culture is often relegated to an inferior symbolic universe by schools, thus hiding our groups true historic struggle for survival, liberation, and enhancement (p. 22). Hilliard and Sizemore called for a culturally salient and sensitive education to attack the cumulative effects which prolonged and persistent racism has had on American society (p. 23). In this report they articulated the importance of the cultural perspectives of teachers, leaders, parents, and communities in the education of African American children. Throughout his work Hilliard emphasized that principals play a key role in the successful education of African American children. He believed that principals, like teachers, should have a high level of cultural proficiency and should model positive attitudes and behaviors toward African American children. Hilliard (2000c) emphasized the importance of cultural perspectives that are often taught and nurtured in the African American community and noted that socializing African American children to African and African American history, culture, and norms most often occurs within African American community structures. However, unlike their preBrown predecessors, it is less likely that Black principal leaders bring their same-race affiliation and cultural perspectives to the communities that they serve. Rather, it is more often the case that Black principals are not directly connected to the communities that they serve. Today, it is more important than ever that Black principal leaders bring their cultural knowledge and perspectives to their school leadership practices. Hilliards emphasis on the importance of culturally proficient teaching and leadership is instructive. Rather than viewing cultural proficiency as an add on to good teaching and leadership, he argued that the cultural perspectives of educators are a critical factor in the education of African American children. Tillman (2004a) found that Black principal leaders used their cultural perspectives to facilitate the academic 600
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and social development of Black children, resist deficit ideologies, and work with parents and communities. Although Hilliard, like Tillman, alludes to a connection between African American school leadership and African American student achievement, more research is needed to investigate the ways in which Black principal leadership, and particularly their cultural perspectives, enhance African American student achievement and facilitates a caring and just educational environment. Leadership Based on Interpersonal Caring Hilliard (1999a) argued that teachers and leaders must create and sustain educational environments that are characterized by positive interpersonal relationships they must be caring and just for all students. Thus, the relationship between teachers and students and principals and students is a critical factor in the social, emotional, and academic development of students. This emphasis is consistent with the final theme of interpersonal caring in the literature review that frames this discussion of Hilliards work (Tillman, 2004a). As noted in that review, Leadership based on interpersonal caring includes a principals direct and purposeful attention to meeting the psychological, sociological, and academic needs of students (Tillman, 2004a, p. 133). As I also observed:
The principals purposeful decision to adopt a leadership style that addresses the needs of Black students is contrary to myths about Black educators as uncaring and as unable or unwilling to relate to Black students, particularly those from low socioeconomic backgrounds. (Tillman, 2004a, p. 133)

Evidence from this review of the literature on Black principals suggests that interpersonal caring in educational leadership can be effective in creating socially just learning environments that are conducive to promoting student success. Thus, interpersonal caring is a critical element of leadership in schools with predominantly Black student populations because it is often the case that many of these students have been subjected to external and internal factors that can contribute to low self-esteem and underachievement. Consistent with my observations (Tillman, 2004a, 2004b), Hilliard and Sizemore (1984) also noted that the Brown decision resulted in a loss of Black principal leadership. Hilliard and Sizemore understood the impact of this loss for Black children and the Black community, and they called on Black educators to reach out and serve the needs and interests of African American parents and their children in a way that moves them into the larger society without destroying their ethnic identity or neighborhoods (p. 30). Reaching out and serving the Black community also demonstrates interpersonal caring and supports the theme, the importance of cultural perspectives. Hilliard (1999a) quoted Abdualim Shabazz, a highly successful math educator, who stated, You know, you have got to love your students. You have to appeal to their intellect. Then you have to appeal to their humanity. The whole thing is about relationships, not a lot about sophisticated pedagogies (p. 81). Hilliard concurs and stated, You have got to love your students. So the relationship is at the core of what you do and then you can talk pedagogy (p. 81). It is important that school leaders work to build consensus among the faculty about the goals for student achievement. This, according to Hilliard, is one way to express caring and just relationships with studentsit is good instructional leadership. In addition, Hilliard (1999b) noted that a schools treatment of its children must be examined. Is it caring? 601
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Is it just? Hilliard (2000a) posed an important question about teaching and leading African American children: Can we place our children in the care of well-prepared wise educators who love them and who have the will to teach them? (p. 14). In addition he wrote, Those who love our children and who have the will to teach them will make whatever sacrifices are necessary to raise our children up to where they belong (p. 14). Hilliard (2000a) continued to develop the theme of interpersonal caring as an essential component of good teaching and strong leadership. He argued that educators who succeed with all children despite external factors, deficit ideologies, and low expectations speak of teaching and students academic and social development in terms of high standards, their mission as teachers and leaders, and the school as a family. They also recognize students families and their communities as critical to their educational outcomes. Furthermore, Hilliard argued that teachers and leaders who adopt practices based on interpersonal caring do not need to be urged to do more for students than they are required to do as a part of their jobs because they are driven to ensure that no child is left behind, they are problem solvers (p. 294). These teachers and leaders are also gap-closers who merge theory, practice, and an ethic of care in their teaching and leadership. These master teachers and leaders often work in high-poverty, predominantly single-race schools and exhibit both standards of excellence and valid relationships (p. 302). Tillman (2004a) found that Black principal leaders exhibited various forms of caring: exposing students to good teachers and good teaching, being sympathetic and empathetic, being compassionate, and seeing children who were often held hostage to inequitable systems and institutional racism as human beings. These Black principals were master leaders, gap-closers, innovators, translators, and transformers. They exhibited what Dr. Hilliard argued that all students must have beyond tests or alternative teaching techniqueslove. Hilliards argument is consistent with Tillmans (2004a) review of research that documents Black principals leadership practices that included interpersonal caring. In other words, Black principal leaders create professional environments that nurture teachers and other support personnel, who in turn nurture African American students. This can be observed, for example, in the leadership of Black female principals like Gloria Nathan, an African American female principal in a large urban district who served as an other mother5 (Collins, 2000) to her students. Discussion and Implications There are many parallels in the scholarship of Dr. Asa G. Hilliard, III and Tillmans framework for African American principal leadership. Like the Black principal leaders in Tillmans review, Dr. Hilliard argued that Black leaders must mount a concerted effort to resist deficit ideologies and individuals who were opposed to the education of Black children. He urged educators to resist IQ and standardized testing as the absolute measure of the academic capacity of Black children and to resist (fight against) Bell Curvelike theories of inferiority and cultural deprivation. Like the pre and postBrown Black principal leaders in Tillmans review, he challenged educators to defy these ideologies by tapping into the genius in all Black children. Similar to pre and postBrown Black principal leaders who made the academic and social development of their students a priority, Dr. Hilliard constantly critiqued 602
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the educational system for its failure to educate every child, and particularly for its failure to educate the masses of Black children. He reminded us that too many Black children in U.S. public schools are being held hostage to low expectations by teachers and leaders. He strongly believed that teachers must be taught how to teach all children, and particularly low-income students and students of colorthose students who are more likely to experience a quality of services gap in their educational experience. He argued that teachers could only become proficient in teaching when they were given opportunities to teach students that are often labeled as at risk and when they were given opportunities to observe and work with master teachers who were successful with all students, regardless of race, SES, or disability. He believed that principals should provide these opportunities for teachers in the form of valid staff development (Hilliard, 1997) and additional coursework. Although Hilliards methods for achieving the academic and social development of Black children differed somewhat from those Black principal leaders in Tillmans review, the intent and the message is the same: The academic and social development of Black students must be a priority. Failure is not an option. The importance of the culture of people of African descent was a hallmark of Dr. Hilliards work. His knowledge of African history and culture was unmatched and serves as a foundation for how many scholars think about the role of culture in teaching, learning, and leadership. As leaders, pre and postBrown Black principals identified in Tillmans (2004a) review brought their unique same-race cultural perspectives to schools and communities. Their knowledge of the historical context of segregation, integration, desegregation, and resegregation was critical to their interactions with teachers, students, parents, and communities. They understood the cultural norms of the community and in the preBrown era, they helped to make the all Black school one of the cultural symbols of the community. It was their cultural connection to Black students and their families and communities that helped them to become successful leaders. Hilliard argued that school leaders must be culturally proficient. Principals must serve as advocates for Black children and their communities and use their cultural perspectives to guide their work as instructional leaderschoosing culturally salient and culturally sensitive instructional materials, hiring master teachers who have an ethic of care, and setting goals for student success. Dr. Hilliard challenged Black principals to become culturally proficient and culturally responsive leaders. Finally, Dr. Hilliard challenged educators to love and care about every student. But he emphasized that interpersonal caring is especially important for Black students, who are often viewed as outsiders in schools. Thus, it is important that educators work to facilitate socially just learning environments where students are loved and respected as human beings. As Dr. Hilliard has noted, we must feel confident that our children, our geniuses, are in the care of master leadersthose well-prepared and wise educators who will love them. Interpersonal caring requires that principals love their students. Dr. Hilliards arguments are convincing and challenge educators to take responsibility for the education of African American children. However, based on a review of his work, it is clear that Dr. Hilliards message is primarily directed toward African Americans. He believed very strongly that African Americans must take control of the education of their children, rather than leaving the total education of African Americans with schools. Emphasizing this point, he wrote, I do 603
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not demand, nor do I expect, that public schools in the United States can accommodate substantially an extension of the excellent educational traditions of African or African diasporan people (Hilliard, 1995, p. 18). In many ways he saw public schools as sites of domination over people of African descent (Hilliard, 1995). Even while he continued to work in public schools across the country as a researcher, consultant, and speaker, and even while he documented the stories of numerous teachers and leaders who successfully educated Black children, Dr. Hilliard always returned to a central argument in his work: Black people must take responsibility for the education of their children. They must mount independent efforts to ensure that their children receive quality educational services. This review draws attention to implications of Dr. Hilliards work for the preparation of school leaders. He argued: There is no place in educational leadership for puzzled leaders. Those for whom the path to success is no mystery must lead us (Hilliard, 2003, p. 165). In addition, he posed the question, Who are the school leadership educators who can produce the leaders who produce success? Hilliards questions should challenge those of us who teach in educational leadership programs. In what ways do our principal preparation programs prepare master leaders? Social justice is a popular theme in educational leadership. But we must ask ourselves in what ways do faculty in educational leadership programs promote principles of social justice, and how are these principles evident in our conceptual frameworks, coursework, interactions with students, internship placements, and our scholarship? According to Dr. Hilliard, it is imperative that colleges/schools of education produce outstanding school leaders. Although he acknowledged that some colleges/schools of education do produce outstanding leaders, he argued that this is not the norm. He argued that leadership preparation program must produce gap-closing principals who can transform schools into sites that are loving and caring, who set high standards for all students, and who mentor teachers who will also become gap-closers. According to Hilliard (2003), change cannot take place without a serious examination of gap-closing professional education (p. 161). Of course, the gap to which he referred was the quality of service Black students experience in school. Furthermore, his argument that we cannot afford to have leaders who are puzzled challenges us to pose a critical question: What is the role of leadership preparation programs in producing gap-closing leaders who are not puzzled? Returning to the theme of interpersonal caring, Hilliard wrote, If we love the children, then we will do whatever it takes to provide them with the teachers and leaders they deserve (p. 165). Dr. Hilliards work is a challenge to the field of educational leadership to examine our roles in producing gap-closing master leaders. Recommendations for Future Research The work of Dr. Asa G. Hilliard, III, has implications for research in the field of educational leadership in two specific areas: the preparation of school leaders and the leadership of African American principals. Several questions warrant further research with respect to the preparation of school leaders. First, what principal preparation models are being used to prepare aspiring principals to lead in urban, suburban, and rural school districts? That is, what specific aspects of principal preparation programs prepare aspiring principals to address the quality of service gap in schools, become culturally proficient, address minimum competency 604
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issues, and remedy inequitable educational structures. Second, how is the imperative to close gaps conceptualized and addressed in leadership preparation programs, and in what specific ways do educational leadership faculty prepare principals to become gap-closers? Third, in what specific ways are aspiring principals being prepared to help teachers become proficient in teaching all students regardless or race, class, disability, and other markers of difference? That is, how are aspiring principals being prepared to assist teachers to become gap-closers? Research on the leadership of African American principals as a specific line of inquiry is underdeveloped. Based on this review, several questions can lead to new lines of research about African Americans in the principalship. First, in what ways do the leadership practices of Black principals incorporate Tillmans (2004a) framework for African American principal leadership. That is, how do African American principals practice resistance to ideologies and individuals opposed to the education of Black students, make the academic and social development of Black students a priority, bring their cultural perspectives as leaders to their leadership practices, and practice interpersonal caring? Second, what factors affect the leadership practices of Black principals in urban schools? The majority of all Black principals work in urban school districts, yet there is a paucity of research about specific factors that affect their leadership practices. Third, what is the relationship between African American principal leadership and African American student achievement? Although there is some anecdotal evidence that there is a direct relationship between the leadership of Black principals and Black student achievement, there appears to be no specific line of research that documents whether and in what ways such a relationship exists. Asa G. Hilliard, III, (2007) reminded us that African Americans have a history of academic, cultural, and social excellence. What is needed to continue this legacy are master teachers and leaders who will make the academic and social development of African American children a priority. Master teachers and leaders are needed who will, as Dr. Hilliard stated, take charge of our tools, our problem definitions, our definition of legitimate education, our priorities, and to change directions. It is time to reach for excellence (p. 24). Notes
The terms African American and Black will be used interchangeably in this article. Although Hilliard acknowledged the existence of an achievement gap, he did not believe that it should be conceptualized solely based on a comparison of the test scores of Black and White students. Rather, he argued,
2 1

So there is an achievement gap. To me the gap between Africans and Europeans is a nonissue. The real gap is between Africans typical performance and the criterion levels of excellence, which are well within the reach of the masses of them. That is the gap that is unacceptable, given what we know about what good teaching can do, and given what we know about the genius of our children. (Hilliard, 2003, p. 139)
3

Hilliard (1991b) in a discussion of structures of inequity defines a structure as follows:

A structure may be an idea that drives practice such as thinking about intelligence, readiness, and cultural deprivation. It may be an organizational system. A structure may be definitions that are widely accepted and assumptions that go with

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them. Structures produce a momentum. Structures sustain practice over time, even when the outcomes of such practice are not beneficial and may even be harmful. Therefore, we must look closely at structures to understand equity issues. (p. 201)
4 I am using the term Black principal leader to emphasize that Black principals in the pre and postBrown eras were more than administrators and managers. Rather, they were leaders in their schools and in their communities. Thus, leadership is constructed broadly and includes advocating for Black students inside and outside of the school setting. 5 Collins (2000) defined other mothers as women who assist bloodmothers by sharing mothering responsibilities (p. 178).

References
Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed). New York: Routledge. Foster, M. (1997). Black teachers on teaching. New York: New Press. Gwaltney, J. (1993). Drylongso: A self-portrait of Black America. New York: New Press. Hernstein, R., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York: Free Press. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1987-1988). Reintegration for education: Black community involvement with Black students in schools. Urban League Review, 11, 201208. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1989). Public support for successful instructional practices for atrisk students (ERIC Document 313464). Hilliard, A. G., III. (1991a). Do we have the will to educate all children? Educational Leadership, 49(1), 3136. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1991b). Equity, access and segregation. In M. W. McLaughlin & D. C. Phillips (Eds.), The care and education of Americas young children: Obstacles and opportunities. National Society for the Study of Education, 90th Yearbook, Part 1 (pp. 199213). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1992). Behavioral style, culture, and teaching and learning. Journal of Negro Education, 61, 370377. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1995, November). Teacher education from an African American perspective. Paper presented at an Invitational Conference on Defining the Knowledge Base for Urban Teacher Education, Atlanta, GA. (ERIC Document 393798) Hilliard, A. G., III. (1997). The structure of valid staff development. Journal of Staff Development, 18, 2834. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1998). SBA: The reawakening of the African mind. Gainesville, FL: Makare Publishers. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1999a). Keynote address by Dr. Asa Hilliard, III, October 19, 1998, Colloquium on student achievement in multicultural school districts. Equity & Excellence in Education, 32(1), 7986. Hilliard, A. G., III. (1999b). What do we need to know now? Race, identity, hegemony, and education. Rethinking Schools Online, 14(2). Retrieved March 15, 2008, from www.rethinkingschools.org Hilliard, A. G., III. (2000a). Excellence in education versus high-stakes standardized testing. Journal of Teacher Education, 51, 293304. Hilliard, A. G., III. (2000b). National Urban Alliance professional development model for improving achievement in the context of Effective Schools Research. Journal of Negro Education, 69, 305322.

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Hilliard, A. G., III. (2000c, April). The state of African education. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Hilliard, A. G., III. (2003). No mystery: Closing the achievement gap between Africans and excellence. In T. Perry, C. Steele, & A. G. Hilliard, III (Eds.), Young, gifted, and Black: Promoting high achievement among African American students (pp. 131183). Boston: Beacon. Hilliard, A. G., III. (2006). Aliens in the education matrix: Recovering freedom. The New Educator, 2, 87102. Hilliard, A. G., III. (2007, March). Shaping research for global African educational excellence: It is now or never. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. Hilliard, A. G., III, & Ortiz, A. A. (2004). The effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on diverse learners. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40, 96105. Hilliard, A. G., III, & Sizemore, B. A. (1984). Saving the African American child: A report of the National Alliance of Black School Educators, Inc. Washington, DC: National Alliance of Black School Educators. Lomotey, K. (1993). African-American principals: Bureaucrat/administrators and ethno-humanists. Urban Education, 27, 394412. National Center for Educational Statistics. (2006). Digest of educational statistics. Washington, DC: Government Publications Office. Pine, G. J., & Hilliard, A. G., III. (1990). Rx for racism: Imperatives for Americas schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 7, 593600. Siddle Walker, V. (2003). The architects of Black schooling in the segregated South: The case of one principal leader. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 19, 5472. Stanfield, J. (1994). Ethnic modeling in qualitative research. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 175188). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Tillman, L. C. (2002). Culturally sensitive research approaches: An African American perspective. Educational Researcher, 31(9), 312. Tillman, L. C. (2004a). African American principals and the legacy of Brown. Review of Research in Education, 28, 101146. Tillman, L. C. (2004b). (Un)intended consequences?: The impact of the Brown v. Board of Education decision on the employment status of Black educators. Education and Urban Society, 36, 280303. Tillman, L. C. (2006a). Accountability, high stakes testing and No Child Left Behind. In F. Brown & R. Hunter (Eds.), No Child Left Behind and other federal programs for urban school districts (pp. 189200). London: Elsevier Science.
Tillman, L. C. (2006b). Researching and writing from an African American perspective: Reflective notes on three research studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 19, 265287.

Author
LINDA C. TILLMAN is professor and program coordinator in the Educational Leadership Program, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, School of Education, CB#500, Chapel Hill, NC 27713; e-mail: ltillman@email.unc.edu. She is the editor of the SAGE Handbook of African American Education. Her research interests include African American principal leadership, the education of African American children, African American parental involvement, and culturally sensitive research approaches using qualitative methods.

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