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The following systems fallow the first law of thermodynamics. However some limitation will be
observed in all such cases.
Example : 1
High Temperature
Q Q
Low Temperature
Fig-1 shows two systems, one at higher temperature and the other at a lower temperature under
going a process in which heat transferred from the high temperature system to low temperature
system. This process can takes place but it is impossible to complete a cycle by transferring heat
from low temperature system to high temperature system, by heat transfer only.
Example-2
W
Gas
Weight
Fig-2: A closed system that undergoes a cycle involving heat & work
Fig-2 shows a closed system (gas) and the surroundings. Let the gas constitute the system and as per
the discussion of first law, let this system undergoes a cycle in which work is first done on the
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system by the paddle wheel as the weight is lowered. Then the cycle is completed by transferring het
to the surroundings. However, these processes cannot be reversed, i.e. if we transfer heat to the gas
(as shown by the dotted arrow), the temperature of the gas will increase, but the paddle wheel will
not turn and raise the weight.
Example-3
Consider the running automobile vehicle is stopped by applying brakes. The breaks get hot and the
kinetic energy lost by the vehicle is gained by the breaks whose temperature increases. The first law
of thermodynamics would be satisfied if the break were to cool off and give back its internal energy
to vehicle causing the vehicle to resume its motion.
Example -4
A hot cup of coffee cools by virtue of heat transfer to the cooler surroundings but once it is cooled, it
can never be heated by addition of heat from the cooler surrounding.
Thermal Reservoir
A thermal reservoir is a body to which and from which heat can be transferred indefinitely without
any appreciable change in its temperature. Thus in general it may be considered as a system in which
any amount of energy may be dumped or extracted ou6t and there shall be no change in its
temperature.
Eg. Atmosphere, large river, sea etc.
Thermal reservoir can be of two types depending upon nature of heat interaction (i.e. heat rejection
or heat absorption) from it. Thermal reservoir which rejects heat from it is called ‘source’. While the
heat reservoir which absorbs heat is called ‘sink’.
T1, Source
Q1
HE W (= Q1–Q2)
Q2
T2, Sink
A schematic diagram of the direct heat engine is shown in the fig-3, where Q1 is the heat received by
the heat engine from the high temperature reservoir (Source at a temperature T1), W is the network
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done by the engine and Q2 is the amount of heat transferred to the low temperature reservoir (Sink at
a temperature T2).
The performance of a direct heat engine is assessed quantitatively by using a parameter called
‘Thermal Efficiency’ (η) of the engine, and it is defined as the ratio of network output from the
engine to the heat absorbed by the engine from the source. Symbolically this can be written as.
Net Work W
η th = =
Heat Supplied Q1
Where
Net work (W) = (Heat supplied to Heat-engine) – (Heat rejected by Heat-engine)
W = Q1 – Q2
Q1 − Q 2 Q
∴ η th = = 1− 2
Q1 Q1
Q rejected
or, in general η HE = 1 −
Q added
Examples of Heat engine include steam engines, steam and gas turbines, spark-ignition and diesel
engines, and the "external combustion" engine. Such engines can provide motive power for
transportation, to operate machinery, or to produce electricity.
Qadded
Boiler
2
1
WT
WC
Compressor Turbine Generator
4 3
Condenser
Qrejected
The Steam turbine plant in fig-4 shows that heat is added to the high pressure water (working fluid)
from 1–2 in a Boiler (Source), the high pressure steam is expanded in a turbine from 2-3 and
produces positive work. After expansion the low pressure and low temperature steam goes to the
Condenser (Sink) where it condenses by giving up the heat to a cooling agent from 3-4. The
condensate coming out of the condenser will be at low pressure. The pressure of this condensate is
increased by means of a Compressor from 4-1, and the high pressure water is sent back to the Boiler.
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The work required for compression is quite small as compared to positive available in turbine and is
supplied by the turbine itself.
Thigh
Source
Q1 = Qadded
Q2 = Qrejected
Tlow
Sink
∴ WT – WC = Qadded – Qrejected
Net Work W
The Efficiency of the Heat-Engine is η HE = = net
Heat Supplied Q added
WT − WC
=
Q added
Q added − Q rejected
=
Q added
Q rejected
η HE = 1 −
Q added
a. Heat Pump
Heat pump refers to a device used for extracting heat from a low temperature surroundings and
sending it to high temperature body, while operating in a cycle. In other words heat pump maintains
a body or system at temperature higher than surroundings, while operating in cycle. Working Cycle
for a heat pump is given below (fig-6)
4
Warm Environment
or
Warm Indoor
Qrejected
Condenser
3
2
WNet
Expansion Compressor
Valve
4
1
Evaporator
Qadded
Cold Environment
or
Cold Outdoor
Heat pump works by exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and condensing fluid
known as a refrigerant.
The working fluid, in its gaseous state (1), is pressurized and circulated through the system by a
compressor. On the discharge side of the compressor (2), the now hot and highly pressurized gas is
cooled in a heat exchanger, called a Condenser, until it condenses into a high pressure, moderate
temperature liquid (3) by rejecting heat (Qrejected). The condensed refrigerant then passes through a
pressure-lowering device like an expansion valve. This device then passes the low pressure liquid
refrigerant (4) to another heat exchanger, the evaporator where the refrigerant evaporates into a gas
via heat absorption (Qadded). The refrigerant then returns to the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
T1, Body
Q1
T1 > T2 HP W
Q2
As the heat pump transfers heat from low temperature from low temperature to high temperature,
which is non spontaneous process, so external work is required for realizing such heat transfer. Heat
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pump shown picks up heat Q2 at temperature T2 and rejects Q1 for maintaining high temperature
body at temperature T1. For causing this heat transfer heat pump is supplied with work W as shown.
Since the heat pump is not work producing device and also its objective is to maintain a body at high
temperature, so its performance is measured through a parameter called ‘Coefficient of Performance’
(C.O.P). The Coefficient of performance is defined by ratio of desired effect and net work done for
getting the desired effect.
Desired Effect
C.O.P =
Net Work Done
Net work = W
Desired Effect = Heat transferred Q1 to high temperature body at temperature, T1.
∴ ( C.O.P ) HP = Q1
W
Also W = Q1 – Q2
Q1
So ( C.O.P ) HP =
Q1 − Q 2
b. Refrigerator
Refrigerator is device similar to heat pump but with reverse objective. It maintains a body at
temperature lower than that of surroundings while operating in a cycle. Working Cycle for a
refrigerator is given below (fig-8)
Surrounding
medium
Qrejected
Condenser
3
2
WNet
Expansion Compressor
Valve
4
1
Evaporator
Qadded
Refrigerated space
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Refrigerator also works by exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and condensing fluid
known as a refrigerant. (Freon or Ammonia)
The working fluid (refrigerant), in its gaseous state, is pressurized and circulated through the system
by a compressor. As the refrigerant is compressed, it increases in temperature and pressure (1-2).
After the compressor the refrigerant passes through the heat exchanger, called a Condenser, until it
condenses into a high pressure, moderate temperature liquid by rejecting heat (Qrejected) to a
surrounding environment. The condensed refrigerant then passes through a pressure-lowering device
like an expansion valve, which reduces the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant (3-4). This
device then passes the low pressure liquid refrigerant to another heat exchanger called Evaporator
where the refrigerant evaporates into a gas by heat absorption (Qadded). The refrigerant then returns to
the compressor and the cycle is repeated (4-1).
Q1
T1 < T2 R W
Q2
T2, Body
Fig-9: Refrigerator
Refrigerator also performs a non spontaneous process of extracting heat from low temperature body
for maintaining it cool, therefore external work W is to be done for realizing it.
The block diagram (fig-9) shows that refrigerator extracts heat Q2 for maintaining body at low
temperature T2 at expense of work W and rejects heat Q1 to high temperature surroundings.
Net work = W
Desired Effect = Heat absorbed Q2 from low temperature body at temperature, T2.
Here W = Q1 – Q2
Q2
∴ ( C.O.P ) refrigerator =
Q1 − Q 2
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Note: • Heat pump and Refrigerator are also called as Reversed Heat Engines
• C.O.P values of heat pump and refrigerator can be related as: (COP)HP = (COP)refrigerator + 1
Statements of Second Law of Thermodynamics:
There are two classical statements of second law of thermodynamics
1) Kelvin – Planck statement
2) Clausius statement
High Temperature
High Temperature Reservoir
Reservoir
Heat
Heat Work
Heat Engine
Work
Heat
Heat Engine
Not Possible
Low Temperature
Reservoir
Possible
Fig-10: Illustration of Kelvin-Plank Statement
This statement states that it is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a cycle and
receives a given amount of heat from a high temperature body and does an equal amount of work.
The only alternative is that some heat must be transferred from working fluid at a lower temperature
to a low temperature body as shown in fig-4.5
This statement also implies that it is impossible to build a heat engine having a thermal efficiency of
100 percent.
Clausius statement
‘It is impossible to construct a device operating on a cycle whose sole effect is transfer of heat from
a low temperature body to high temperature body.’
High Temperature High Temperature
Reservoir Reservoir
Heat Heat
Work
Refrigerator Refrigerator
Heat Heat
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Fig-11: Illustration of Clausius statement
This statement is related to the devices converting work into heat i.e. heat pump or refrigerator, says
that it is impossible to construct a heat pump or refrigerator that operates without an input of work.
Hence, external work is necessary to drive a heat pump or refrigerator which in effect transfers heat
from a cooler body to a hotter body or extracts from cooler body to a hotter body.
This statement also implies that the coefficient of performance is always than infinity.
The Kelvin-Plank and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their consequences, and either
statement can be used as the expression of the second law of thermodynamics. Any device that
violates the Kelvin-Plank statement also violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa. This can be
demonstrated as follows.
Proof of violation of the Kelvin-Plank statement results in violation of the Clausius statement
Q1 Q3 Q3
HE
W
HP ≡ HP
Q2 Q2
Consider a heat engine producing net work W by extracting heat with only one reservoir at
temperature T1, thus based on violation of Kelvin-Plank Statement. Let us also have a perfect heat
pump operating between two reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T2 as shown in fig-12 above. Let the
work requirement of heat pump may be met from the work available from heat engine.
From the Fig-12,
Since all the work output from the Heat engine is supplied to the Heat Pump
Therefore for Heat Pump
Q1 = Q2 – Q3
i.e. the combination of heat engine and heat pump shall thus result in a equivalent system working as
heat pump transferring heat from low temperature T2 to high temperature T1 without expense of any
external work. This heat pump is based on the violation of Clausius statement and therefore not
possible.
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Proof of violation of the Clausius statement results in violation of the Kelvin-Plank statement
Source, T1
T1, Source
Q1= Q3 Q3 (= Q2 )
W
HE HP
≡ Q1
Q2 Q2
HE W
Sink. T2
Consider a heat pump which operating in cycle transfers heat from low temperature reservoir to high
temperature reservoir without expense of any work, thus based on violation of Clausius statement.
Heat pump transfers heat Q1 to high temperature reservoir by extracting heat Q2 from low
temperature reservoir.
Mathematically, as no work is done on pump, so
Q2 = Q3
Let us also have a perfect heat engine operating between two reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T2 as
shown in fig-13 above.
W = Q1
Because Q1 is equal to Q3 (i.e heat rejected by heat pump) , and Q3 again equal to Q2 (i.e. heat
supplied to heat pump).
Therefore there is no transfer to the low temperature reservoir, and hence the combination of heat
engine and heat pump thus result in a equivalent system working as heat engine transfers heat T1
from the high temperature reservoir and produces equivalent amount of work.
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Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind (PMM-1)
Q=0 Q=0
W W
Engine Machine
It is an imaginary device which produces a continuous supply of work without absorbing any energy
from the surrounding or from the system. Such a machine in effect creates energy from nothing and
violates the first law of thermodynamics. (fig-14)
As per the law of conservation of energy, no engine can produce mechanical work continuously
without some other form of energy disappearing simultaneously.
Thermal
Reservoir
W=Q
Perpetual Motion
Machine-2
Fig-16: PMM-2
Without violating the first law, a machine can be imagined which would continuously absorbs heat
from single thermal reservoir and would convert this heat into work. The efficiency of such machine
would be 100 percent. This machine is called the perpetual motion machine of second kind (PMM2)
Fig-16 shows the PMM2. a machine of this kind will be evidently violates the second law of
thermodynamics.
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Reversible and Irreversible process
When the system undergoes change from its initial state to the final state, the system is said to have
undergone a process. During thermodynamic process the one or more of the properties of the system
like temperature, pressure, volume, enthalpy or heat, entropy etc changes. The second law of
thermodynamics enables to classify all the processes under two main categories: reversible or ideal
process and irreversible or natural process.
Reversible Process
A process that, once having taken place, can be reversed and in doing so leaves no change in either
the system or the surroundings is called reversible process. In this process every state along some
path is an equilibrium state. This process is possible if the net of heat and net work exchange
between the system and the surrounding is zero for the combined process.
A reversible process is shown in the fig-17; let us suppose that the system has undergone change
from state A to state B. If the system can be restored from state B to state A, and there is no change
in the universe, then the process is said to be reversible process. The reversible process can be
reversed completely and there is no trace left to show that the system had undergone thermodynamic
change.
The phenomenon of a system undergoing reversible change is also called as reversibility. In actual
practice the reversible process never occurs, thus it is an ideal or hypothetical process. All
thermodynamic process are attempted to reach close to the reversible process in order to give best
performance
Irreversible Process
A process for which a system cannot be restored to its initial state and in doing so it influences either
the system or surroundings is called irreversible process. In this process the system passes through a
series of non-equilibrium states
An irreversible process is shown in the fig-18; let us suppose that the system has undergone change
from state A to state B, in which the process will not retrace the reverse path to restore the original
state.
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A Al
The irreversible process is also called as natural process because all the processes occurring in the
nature are irreversible processes. The phenomenon of system undergoing irreversible process is
called as irreversibility.
Some of the examples of irreversible process are:
a) Combustion process b) Mixing two fluids
c) Free or unrestricted expansion d) Heat transfer through finite temperature difference
e) Process involving friction f) Plastic Deformation
1. Friction
Friction
Piston
Gas
Friction is the familiar form of irreversibility associated with the bodies in motion. When two bodies
in contact are forced to move relative to each other, for example consider the piston cylinder
arrangement shown in fig-19, a friction force that opposes the motion develops at the interface of
cylinder and the piston, some work is needed to overcome this friction force. The energy supplied as
work is eventually converted to heat during the process and is transferred to the bodies in contact.
Even when the direction of motion of the piston is reversed, more of the work is converted to heat
while overcoming the friction force that also opposes the reverse motion of piston.
Friction is also encountered between a fluid and solid and even between the layers of a fluid moving
at different velocities.
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Vacuum W
Gas Gas
Membrane Q
(a) (b)
Fig-20: Unrestrained Expansion
An unstrained expansion is shown in the fig-20, in which a gas is separated from vacuum by a
membrane. When the membrane is ruptured, the gas fills the entire tank (fig-20a). The only way to
restore the system to its original state is to compress it to its initial volume, while transferring heat
from the gas to the surrounding until it reaches the initial temperature (fig-20b). Since the
surroundings are not restored to their initial state, unrestrained expansion is an irreversible process.
QH
Heat W
Q
Pump
QL
(a) (b)
Heat transfer occurs only when there exist temperature difference between bodies undergoing heat
transfer. Consider the transfer of heat from a high temperature body to a low temperature body as
fig-21(a). The only way of reversing this process, that is, transferring heat from low temperature
body to high temperature body is by means of heat pump as shown in fig-21(b), which requires some
external work. Hence, the process is an irreversible one.
O2 N2 (O2 + N2) O2 N2
Now, if this mixture has to be separated back to oxygen and nitrogen, an air separation plant has to
be used, which requires some amount of work and heat transfer. Hence, we conclude that the mixing
of two substances is an irreversible process since the surroundings are not restored to their initial
state.
5. Electrical resistance
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Q
I
The flow electric current (I) through a wire represents work transfer, because the current can drive
motor which can raise a weight. Because of electrical resistance dissipation of electrical work into
internal energy or heat takes place as shown in fig-23. The reverse transformation from heat or
internal energy to electrical work is not possible.
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[A theoretical heat engine developed by Sadi Carnot]
A heat engine operating in an ideal, reversible cycle (also called as Carnot cycle) between two
reservoirs without any losses is called reversible heat engine. Eg: Carnot Heat Engine
A reversible heat engine has got significantly higher thermal efficiencies than existing heat engines
operating within the same temperature ranges.
This reversible heat engine can made to operate efficiently as either a forward heat engine or as a
reverse heat engine at any given selected moment; thus, permitting the present heat engine to be
utilized as an air conditioner or heat pump, or, alternatively, if a heat source is provided to the
engine, as a forward heat engine producing a work output.
Carnot Cycle
Source, T1
Diathermic Cover
Q1
W Adiabatic
Expansion
Adiabatic
Cover Adiabatic
Compression
Q2 Adiabatic
System
Sink. T2
1
Q1
1-2: Isothermal Heat Addition
T1 2-3: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
3-4: Isothermal Heat Rejection
2 4-1: Reversible Adiabatic Compression
p
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Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle in which the working substance passes through a sequence of
processes and it is brought back to its initial state. The cycle is named after Sadi Carnot, it is being
discussed below.
Consider a substance contained in an insulated cylinder except its cylinder head with a frictionless
piston. Referring to Fig- 24 above the substance is subjected to following sequences of processes.
(a) Heat Q1 is transferred during isothermal process 1-2 to the system at temperature T1 from a heat
reservoir which is at a temperature infinitesimally higher than that of the system.
(b) Next the adiabatic cover is placed on the cylinder head and during the process 2-3 the system is
allowed to expand adiabatically so that final temperature becomes T2.
(c) The adiabatic cover is removed and the diathermic cover placed on a cylinder head by which
cylinder is made in contact sink which is at a temperature lower than that T2, Heat Q2 is transferred
isothermally during the process 3-4 to the sink from the system.
(d) Finally the diathermic cover is replaced by adiabatic cover on the cylinder head, and the system
undergoes compression process 4-1. The temperature of the system increases from T2 to T1 during
the process.
Thermal efficiency of Carnot engine: the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of
work output, W to the heat input, Q1. Therefore,
Work Output
Efficiency, η =
Heat Input
Since the heat transfer during the adiabatic process 2-3 and 4-1 are zero (Adiabatic process), the net
work done from first law of thermodynamics, we can determine as fallows:
∫ δQ = ∫
δW
= Q1-2 + Q2-3 + Q3-4 + Q4-1
i.e. W = Q1 + 0 – Q2 + 0
Q1 − Q 2 Q
∴ Efficiency, η = = 1− 2 ------------- (1)
Q1 Q1
While describing the cycle no specific characteristics were imposed regarding the working
substance. However, let assume that the working substance is an ideal gas. We can apply first law of
thermodynamics to various as fallows:
Q = W + ΔU ( Where, ΔU = mcvΔT)
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For process (3-4): Isothermal Heat rejection
ΔU = 0 (isothermal process)
V
∴ Q2 = W3-4 = m R T2 loge 4
V3
V3
= – m R T1 loge
V4
For process (4-1): Reversible Adiabatic Compression
Q4-1 = 0
∴ W4-1 = – (ΔU)4-1 = (U4 – U1)
= – m cv (T1–T2)
V2 V3
= m R T1 loge + m cv (T1–T2) – m R T1 loge – m cv (T1–T2)
V1 V4
V2 V3
W = m R T1 loge – m R T1 loge
V1 V4
W
Carnot effieciency, η =
Q1
V2 V
m R T1 log e − m R T2 log e 3
V1 V4
=
V
m R T1 log e 2
V1
V3
log e
T2 V4 ----------------- (2)
= 1−
T1 log V2
e
V1
Considering the adiabatic process (2-3) and (4-1)
1
V3 T1 γ −1
=
V2 T2
1
γ −1 V3 V4 V2 V3
and V4 = T1 ∴ = or = ----------------(3)
V1 T2 V2 V1 V1 V4
T2
η = 1− ----------------- (4)
T1
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Combining the equation (4) and (1)
Q2 T
η = 1− = 1− 2
Q1 T1
Q1 Q 2
or, = ---------------(5)
T1 T2
It is obvious from the equation that heat transferred is proportional to the temperature of the heat
engine
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