Lecture 16 (Network Layer) Outline

„ Internet Network Layer:

z Internet Control Protocols
z Multicast

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 16.1. Internet Control Protocols

„ IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol

„ ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
„ ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
„ RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

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 16.1.1. Internet Control Message Protocol

„ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):

z Network-layer protocol located “above” IP:
ICMP messages carried in IP datagrams

z Used by hosts, routers, gateways to communicate

network-level information.
error reporting: unreachable host, network, port.
query: e.g. echo request/reply (used by ping).
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 16.1.1. Internet Control Message Protocol

„ Example usage: Traceroute operation.

z Tracing the forwarding path.
z Sends IP datagram (TTL=1) to destination host
Starts timer.
First router decrements TTL to 0, discards
datagram, sends back ICMP "time exceeded"
message (now first router in path is identified).
Receives ICMP message - calculate round trip time
from timer.
z Sends IP datagram (TTL=2) to identify the second
router.
z Process continues until destination host reached.
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 16.1.1. Internet Control Message Protocol

„ Traceroute operation.
z Example: Sending from 137.189.97.122 to
www.netscape.com on a different network in USA.
Tracing route to www24.netscape.com [207.200.73.73]over a maximum of 30 hops:
1 <10 ms <10 ms <10 ms 137.189.99.252
2 20 ms 10 ms 10 ms csc0g05brb.net.cuhk.edu.hk [137.189.196.240]
3 40 ms 10 ms 30 ms csc0g08brb.net.cuhk.edu.hk [202.40.218.9]
4 10 ms 50 ms <10 ms csc0g04brb.net.cuhk.edu.hk [202.40.218.46]
5 561 ms 351 ms 380 ms e1.hongkong.exodus.net [209.1.10.121]
6 291 ms * * SanFrancisco-Cisco1.exodus.net [206.40.71.1]
7 430 ms 381 ms 370 ms core1.exodus.net [206.40.94.121]
8 361 ms * 331 ms scca-02-f9-0-0.core.exodus.net [209.1.169.17]
9 341 ms * * mae-west-ames-h0-0-0.core.exodus.net [209.1.10.166]
10 * * * Request timed out.
11 240 ms 270 ms 241 ms 144.232.8.9
12 430 ms 241 ms 240 ms 144.232.3.5
13 281 ms 350 ms 310 ms 144.232.8.81
14 320 ms 601 ms 330 ms 144.232.4.97
15 311 ms 400 ms 291 ms sl-netscape-1-s-T3.sprintlink.net [144.228.146.26]
16 280 ms * 270 ms h-207-200-71-20.netscape.com [207.200.71.20]
17 321 ms 340 ms 341 ms h-207-200-73-73.netscape.com [207.200.73.73]
Trace complete.

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 16.1.2. Address Resolution Protocol

„ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

z Dynamic mapping of logical address to physical address.

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 16.1.2. Address Resolution Protocol

„ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

z A knows B's IP address, wants to learn physical
address of B.
z A broadcasts ARP query pkt, containing B's IP
address.
all machines on LAN receive ARP query.
z B receives ARP packet, replies to A with its (B's)
physical layer address.
z A caches (saves) IP-to-physical address pairs
until information becomes old (times out).
soft state: information that times out (goes away)
unless refreshed.

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 16.1.2. Address Resolution Protocol

z ARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data link frame

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 16.1.3. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

„ Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP):

z Dynamic mapping of physical address to logical address.

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 16.1.3. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

z RARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data link frame

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 16.1.3. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

„ RARP can not provide the info on subnet

mask.
„ Alternative solutions to RARP:
z BOOTP: Bootstrap Protocol.
z DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
z Both protocols are application-layer protocols.

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Multicast:
z Is an act of sending datagram to multiple
receivers with single “transmit” operation.
z Analogy: one teacher to many students.
„ Question: How to achieve multicast?
z Multicast via unicast.
z Network multicast – native IP multicast.
z Application-layer multicast

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Multicast via unicast:

z Source sends N unicast datagrams, one
addressed to each of N receivers.

routers
forward unicast multicast receiver (red)
datagrams
not a multicast receiver (white)

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Network multicast:
z Router actively participate in multicast, making
copies of packets as needed and forwarding
towards multicast receivers.

Multicast
routers (red) duplicate and
forward multicast datagrams

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Application-layer multicast:
z End systems involved in multicast copy and
forward unicast datagrams among themselves.
z Example: MBone.

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Internet multicast service model:

z A single address to identify a multicast group.
z Anyone can join a multicast group.
z Multicast routers deliver datagrams to hosts that
have joined.
128.59.16.12

128.119.40.186

multicast 128.34.108.63
group
226.17.30.197
128.34.108.60

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Multicast groups:
z Hosts addresses IP datagram to multicast group.
Class D Internet addresses reserved for multicast:

z Host group semantics:

anyone can “join” (receive) multicast group.
anyone can send to multicast group.
z No network-layer identification to hosts of
members.

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 16.2. Multicast

„ Joining a mcast group: two-step process

z local: host informs local mcast router of desire to
join group:
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
z wide area: local router interacts with other routers
to receive mcast datagram flow.
many protocols (e.g. DVMRP, MOSPF, PIM).
IGMP
IGMP

wide-area
multicast
routing

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IGMP
 16.2.1. IGMP

„ IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol

z host: sends IGMP report when application joins
mcast group.
IP_ADD_MEMBERSHIP socket option.
host need not explicitly “unjoin” group when leaving.
z router: sends IGMP query at regular intervals.
host belonging to a mcast group must reply to
query – soft-state membership.

query report

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 16.2.2. Multicast Routing

„ Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers

having local mcast group members.
„ Approaches for building mcast trees:

Source-based trees Group-shared tree

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 16.2.2. Multicast Routing

„ Approaches for building mcast trees:

z Source-based tree (SBT): one tree per source.
Different tree from each sender to receivers.
Approaches: Shortest path trees, Reverse path
forwarding.
z Group-shared tree (GT): group uses one tree.
Same tree used by all group members.
Approaches: Center-based trees, Minimal spanning
(Steiner).

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 16.2.2. Multicast Routing

„ Shortest Path Tree:

z mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path routes
from source to all receivers.
Dijkstra’s algorithm.

S: source LEGEND
R1 2
1 R4 router with attached
group member
R2 5
router with no attached
3 4
R5 group member
R3 6 i link used for forwarding,
R6 R7 i indicates order link
added by algorithm

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 16.2.2. Multicast Routing

„ Center-based trees:
z Single delivery tree shared by all
z Identify one router as “center” of tree.
z To join:
Edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to
center router.
join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center.
join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this
center, or arrives at center.
Path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router.

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 16.2.2. Multicast Routing

„ Center-based trees: an example

z Suppose R6 chosen as center.

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6 R7

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 16.2.2. Multicast Routing

„ Multicast routing protocols:

z DVMRP: Distance Vector Multicast Routing
Protocol.
Uses reverse path forwarding, source-based tree.
z PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast.
Dense mode:
group members densely packed in “close” proximity.
bandwidth are plentiful.
uses RPF, source-based tree.
Sparse mode:
group members “widely dispersed”.
bandwidth are not plentiful.
uses center-based approach.
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 16.2.3. Overlay Networks: MBone

„ MBone (Multicasts Backbone):

z is a virtual Internet Backbone for Multicast IP.
z comprises of a virtual network of “multicast
islands'', interconnected by unicast tunnels.

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 16.2.3. Overlay Networks: MBone

„ MBone tunnel:

z Multicast packets are transmitted point-to-point

between multicast routers (mrouters).
z mrouter takes out the encapsulated packet and
take appropriate action:
multicast or broadcast the packet locally using
native LAN technology (such as Ethernet or FDDI).
re-encapsulated the packet and send it on to
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Communication and mrouters in the chain.
Computer Networks 27
 16.2.3. Overlay Networks: MBone

„ MBone multimedia applications:

z VideoConference (vic)
z Visual Audio Tool (vat)
z WhiteBoard (wb)
z Robust Audio Tool (rat)
z Other Tools
„ MBone resource:
z IPMulticast home pages:
http://www.ipmulticast.com
z MBone FAQ:
http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/internet/mbone-
faq.html
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 16.3. Further Readings

„ Internet Network Layer:

z Internet Control Protocols : Section 24.5.
z Multicast : Ross Section 4.8.

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 Next Lecture

Transport Layer
(Forouzan Chapter 22,
Section 24.6 – 24.7)

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