CHAPTER 22: MATERIALS SELECTION AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

Price and availability of materials. How do we select materials based on optimal performance? Applications:
-- shafts under torsion -- bars under tension -- plates under bending -- materials for a magnetic coil.

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PRICE AND AVAILABILITY

Current Prices on the web: e.g., http://www.metalprices.com
-- Short term trends: fluctuations due to supply/demand. -- Long term trend: prices will increase as rich deposits are depleted.

Materials require energy to process them:

-- Energy to produce materials (GJ/ton) Al PET Cu steel glass paper 237 (17) 103 (13) 97 (20) 20 13 9 -- Cost of energy used in processing materials ($/MBtu) elect resistance propane oil natural gas 25 17 13 11

Energy using recycled material indicated in green.

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RELATIVE COST, c, OF MATERIALS

Metals/ Alloys 100000 50000 20000 10000 5000
Pt Au

Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond

Polymers

Composites/ fibers

Diamond

c=

$ / kg ($ / kg)ref material

Relative Cost (c)

2000 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.1 0.05

Ag alloys Tungsten Ti alloys Cu alloys Al alloys Mg alloys
high alloy

Si wafer Si nitride CFRE prepreg Si carbide AFRE prepreg Carbon fibers Aramid fibers GFRE prepreg Nylon 6,6 PC Epoxy PVC PET LDPE,HDPE PP PS

Al oxide Glass-soda

Reference material: -- Rolled A36 plain carbon steel. Relative cost, c , fluctuates less over time than actual cost.
Based on data in Appendix C, Callister, 7e.
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = Aramid, Glass, & Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites.

E-glass fibers Wood

Steel
pl. carbon

Concrete

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Integrated Circuits
The microelectronic circuitry, including the integrated circuits are used in our modern computers, calculators, and other electronic devices

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The heart of the integrated circuit (IC) :the chip

a small rectangular substrate of high-purity and single-crystal silicon (or Ga-As) onto which millions of circuit elements are imprinted. circuit elements (i.e., transistors, resistors, diodes, etc.) are created by selectively adding controlled concentrations of specific impurities to extremely minute and localized regions near the surface of the semiconducting material. the chips are small in size, with the largest being on the order of 6 mm on each side and approximately 0.4 mm thick

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WAFER MANUFACTURING
The Silicon Crystal is Sliced by Using a Diamond-Tipped Saw into Thin Wafers Sorted by Thickness Damaged Wafers Removed During Lapping Etch Wafers in Chemical to Remove any Remaining Crystal Damage Polishing Smoothes Uneven Surface Left by Sawing Process

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Silicon Wafer

Photograph of a 100-mmdiameter silicon wafer. Each of the small rectangles shown is an individual IC chip or die.
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The performance of ICs

The performance of ICs is limited: 1.by the characteristics of the semiconducting materials 2.by the metallization process, 3. rather by the quality of the package. Chips are very fragile: i. Silicon is a relatively brittle material ii. Gallium arsenide is even more brittle. On silicon ICs, aluminum or an aluminumsilicon alloy (99 wt% Al, 1 wt% Si) is used as the metal conductor which is metallized onto the chip surface to form a very thin film

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LEADFRAME DESIGN AND MATERIALS

A leadframe is a thin layer of metal that connects the wiring from tiny electrical terminals on the semiconductor surface to the large-scale circuitry on electrical devices and circuit boards. The leadframe consists of 1. a central plate onto which the die is mounted, 2. and an array of contact leads to which wire connections may be made from the contact pads on the chip.

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Photograph of a leadframe on which the central plate and contact leads are labeled.This package design is popular with digital IC manufacturers primarily because its production can be highly automated.
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Some of the functions that an integrated circuit package (leadframe) must perform:
1. To permit electrical contact between the devices on the chip and the

macroscopic world. The contact pads on the surface of the IC are so minuscule and numerous that accommodation of macroscopic wiring is simply not possible. 2. To disperse excess heat. While in operation, the many electronic devices generate significant quantities of heat, which must be dissipated away from the chip. 3. To protect fragile electrical connections on the chip from chemical degradation and contamination. 4. To provide mechanical support so that the small and fragile chip may be handled. 5. To provide an adequate electrical interface such that the performance of the IC itself is not significantly degraded by the package design.

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The properties of the material to be used for the leadframe: (1) The leadframe material must have a high electrical conductivity.
(2) The leadframe, the die attach central plate, and die-bonding adhesive must also be thermally conductive so as to facilitate the dissipation of heat generated by the IC. (3) A coefficient of thermal expansion comparable to that of Si is highly desirable; a thermal expansion mismatch could destroy the integrity of the bond between the IC and the central plate as a result of thermal cycling during normal operation. (4) The leadframe material must also stick on to the die-bonding adhesive, and the adhesive must also be electrically conductive. (5) A secure and electrically conductive joint between the leadframe and the connecting wires must be possible. (6) The leadframe must be resistant to oxidation and retain its mechanical strength during any thermal cycling that may accompany the die-bonding and encapsulation procedures. (7) The leadframe must also withstand corrosive environments at high temperatures and high humidities. (8) It must be possible to mass produce the leadframes economically.

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Chapter 23 - 13

DIE BONDING
The die-bonding operation consists of attaching the IC chip to the central supporting leadframe plate. 1. For the copper alloys attachment may be made using a goldsilicon eutectic solder; however, melting of the solder requires heating to 500 oC. 2.Another adhesive possibility is an epoxy bonding agent, which is normally filled with metal particles (frequently Ag) so as to provide both a thermally and electrically conductive path between the chip and the leadframe. Curing of the epoxy is carried out at temperatures between 60 oC and 350 oC. Since the amounts of thermal expansion are different for the Cu alloy leadframe plate and Si chip, the epoxy adhesive must be capable of absorbing any thermal strains produced during temperature changes such that the mechanical integrity of the junction is maintained.

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WIRE BONDING
The next step in the packaging process involves making electrical connections between the metallized chip pads and the leadframe; this is accomplished using connecting wires . The most commonly used wire material is gold(a gold alloy containing a small amount of berylliumcopper that is added to inhibit grain growth). Gold wires are round and have diameters that are typically 18 m , 25m, or 50 m. Less costly Cu and Al have also been employed for contact wires. A wire-bonding procedure is normally carried out using a microjoining operation

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WIRE BONDING

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Two different types of microjoints are possible: ball and wedge.

Ball joints are possible for gold wires since the melted wire end forms into a small ball because of the high surface tension of gold. Bonding of this molten ball with the contact pad or leadframe is accomplished by making mechanical contact with the bonding surface while both wire and surface are subjected to ultrasonic vibrations.

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A ball microjoint

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Chapter 23 - 19

A scanning electron micrograph of a ball microjoint and a wedge microjoint

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Materials of encapsulation
Both ceramic and polymeric materials are used to encapsulate IC packages; 1)Ceramics are extremely resistant to moisture penetration and are chemically stable and chemically inert. Glasses are the most commonly utilized ceramic materials. 2)Polymeric materials are used in the largest volume for packaging encapsulation because they are cheaper, may be produced at lower temperatures. Epoxies and polyurethanes are commonly used.

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Package Encapsulation:( hermetic sealing)

The microelectronic package must be provided some type of protection from corrosion, contamination, and damage during handling and while in service.

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Another packaging design, tape automated bonding (or TAB),

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Chapter 23 - 24

Chapter 23 - 25

Bibliography

http://www.casetechnology.com/implanter/implanter.html http://www.micron.com/content.jsp?catID=-8178&edID=16482 http://www.casetechnology.com/links.html http://www.msil.ab.psiweb.com/english/msilhist5-e.html http://www-3.ibm.com/chips/bluelogic/manufacturing/tour/ http://www.sematech.org/public/news/mfgproc/mfgproc.htm http://www.hongik.edu/~photonic/pe2k1/semi/index.html http://my.netian.com/~jinimp/semi/_lappingpolishing.html http://jas2.eng.buffalo.edu/papers.html http://www.photronics.com/internet/corpcomm/publications/basics101/basics.htm #section3
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SUMMARY
Material costs fluctuate but rise over the long term as: --rich deposits are depleted, --energy costs increase. Recycled materials reduce energy use significantly. Materials are selected based on: --performance or cost indices. An IC chip is bonded to the leadframe plate using either --a eutectic solder or an epoxy resin. The leadframe material must be both --electrically and thermally conductive, and, ideally, --have a coefficient of thermal expansion that matches the IC chip material (i.e., silicon or gallium arsenide)
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SUMMARY
Copper alloys are commonly used leadframe materials. Very thin wires (preferably of gold, but often of copper or aluminum) are used to make electrical connections from the microscopic IC chip contact pads to the leadframe. Ultrasonic microjoining welding techniques are used where each connection joint may be in the form of either a ball or wedge. The final step is package encapsulation, wherein this leadframewirechip assembly is encased in a protective enclosure. Ceramic glasses and polymeric resins are the most common encapsulation materials. Resins are less expensive than glasses and require lower encapsulation temperatures; however, glasses normally offer a higher level of protection.
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ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading: Failure of an Automobile Rear Axle

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

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