Evolution of Power Electronics Engineering

A. M. Haque
Power Electronics Department, Lukhdhirji Engineering College - Morbi.
haqueanwarul@yahoo.co.in

M. J. Vadhavaniya
Inst. & Control Engineering Department, National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research - Chandigarh.
profmjv@yahoo.com

M. V. Makwana
Power Electronics Department, Lukhdhirji Engineering College - Morbi.
shafimakwana@indiatimes.com

Shimi S. L.
Inst. & Control Engineering Department, National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research - Chandigarh.
Shimi.reji@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Power Electronics is the technology associated with the efficient solid-states conversion, control and conditioning of
electrical power. It has gone through more than four decades of intense technological revolution (a silent one, being mostly unnoticed by the public and the decision makers!). Since the development of Thyristor it has emerged as a key technology in all the areas of power processing viz, generation, transmission and utilization. The evolution of Power Electronics has closely followed by the enhancement of modern power semiconductor devices, which are closely linked to the advance in fabrication techniques for power integrated circuits and the packaging concepts. Power electronics is the field of electronics which deals with conversion, control and switching of electrical energy for efficiently utilization of power and playing a major role in revolutionizing the industrial processes. It provides the essential link between micro-level of electronics controllers and the mega- watt level of industrial power. Power Electronics has gained the momentum since late1980s and early 1990s. Within the next 20 years, power electronics will shape and condition the electricity somewhere between its generation and all its users. Power electronics, therefore, should now be considered as a full-fledged and independent technological discipline, and should be placed with full dignity in all the university curricula.

1.1

Introduction to Power Electronics Power electronics is the technology associated with the efficient solid state conversion, control and conditioning of electrical power. The advent of Thyristor has revolutionized the art of electric power conversion and its control and since then it has emerged as key technology in all the areas of power processing, viz. generation, transmission and utilization. The fundamental of power electronics are well established and they do not change rapidly. How-ever, the device characteristics are continuously being improved and new devices are added. Presently, power electronics uses, besides SCRs, other power semiconductor devices such as GTOs, BJTs, IGBTs, power MOSFETs and more recently MCTs. With the emergence of the modern power devices, we have achieved saving in cost, space and energy, reduction in maintenance, improvement of reliability, high quality performance , complete controllability with maximum flexibility and clean environment. With evolution of micro-electronics and micro-computers, power electronics is now a multidisciplinary technology. Power electronics occupies an indispensable position in the field of battery charging, UPS, electroplating, electrolysis, galvanization and welding. It also plays an important role in all sorts of electric drives and lighting

control. Feed drives of machine tools, multi motor drives in rolling mills, spinning machine, wire drawing mills, lifts and many other drives may be given the required characteristics by means of Power electronic control. Electronically generated high-frequency energy offers possibilities in the wood working and plastic industries for economical production of furniture, plywood and plastic articles. No boundaries can be earmarked for the application of Power Electronics, especially with the present trend of integrated design of power semiconductor devices, micro processors and controlled equipment. Flexible alternating current transmission system composed of static devices used for HVAC transmission of electrical energy. The power rating of Power-electronic systems, range from a few watts in lamps to several hundred mega-watts in HVDC transmission systems. It is believed that within the span of 10-years, almost 80% of the electric power consumed in utility systems will passed through Power electronics and this figure will eventually reach 100% in the future. Chronology of Power Electronic: 1891 Ward Leonard dc motor speed control 1897 Development of three phase diode bridge rectifier (Graetz Circuit).

1902 - Mercury Arc Rectifier by Peter Cooper Hewitt (U.S.A) 1904 - Vacuum diode by J.A.Fleming. 1906 - Vacuum triode by de-Forests. 1909- Steel tank mercury arc rectifier by B.Schaefer 1914-Controlled mercury arc rectifier by Langmuir 1926 Hot cathode Thyratron 1933 Invention of Ignitron Rectifier 1948 - Invention of Transistor. 1954 - Invention of Germanium power diode 1957 - Invention of SCR. 1960 - Use of mercury arc converter for HVDC 1971- Vector Control of AC Motor is introduced 1975- Invention of Giant Power- BJT by TOSHIBA. 1978 Invention of Power MOSFET 1980 High Power GTO 1983 - IGBT Introduced 1987 Fuzzy Logic applied in Power Electronics 1991 ANN applied to DC Motor Drive 1996- Forward Blocking IGCT introduced by ABB. Electronics Revolutionary Steps in Power E lectronics is depicted in following chart.

which finally control the instant of turn-on of semiconductor devices forming the solid-state power converters system. In this manner, behaviour of the load circuit can be controlled as desired, over a wide range.
THYRISTOR CONVERTER CIRCUIT LOAD

MAIN POWER SOURCE

DIGITAL CIRCUIT

CONTROL UNIT
COMMAND

FEED BACK SIGNAL

Fig.1. Power Electronic System. Diversified Applications:Residential: Air-conditioning; Cooking; Lighting; Space heating; Refrigerators; Electric door opening; Dryers; Fans; Personal computer; Vacuum cleaners; Washing & sewing machine; Light dimmers; Food mixture; Food warmer trays; Electronic Blankets. Commercial: Advertising; Heating; Air-conditioning; Central refrigeration; Computer & Office equipment; UPS; Elevator; Light dimmer & flashers. Aerospace: Space shuttle power supplier; Satellite power supplies; Air craft power system. Industrial: Arc furnace; Induction furnace; Blowers & fans; Pumps & compressors; Industrial lasers; Transformer tap changer; Rolling mills; Textile mills; Cement mills; Sugar mills; Coal mining; Welding; Excavators. Transportation: Traction control of electric vehicle; Electric locomotive & battery charger; Street cars, trolley buses, subways. Tele-communication: Battery charger; DC power supplies; UPS. Utility System: HVDC transmission; HVAC transmission; Excitation systems; Static circuit breaker; Fans and boiler; Feed pumps; Supplementary energy system [1].

Power Electronic System As shown in fig. 1 main power source may be an AC supply or DC supply system. The output from the Power electronic circuit may be variable DC or AC voltage, or it may be a variable voltage and frequency. In general, the output of a power electronics circuit depends upon the requirements of the load. The feedback component measures a parameter of the load, and compares it with the command in control unit. The difference of the two passes through the digital circuit

1.2

1. 3 Thyristor Need of New Era Until 1956, the application of semiconductor was confined to low power circuits and electronic engineering was also called as light current engineering. In September 1956, four engineers of Bell telephone laboratory, USA, published a paper entitled PNPN transistor switches in the proceedings of the institute of Radio Engineers. This paper triggered intensive research on PNPN device. In 1957, Gordon Hall of General

Electric Co. U.S.A developed the three terminal PNPN silicon based semiconductor device called silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) having characteristics similar to that of thyratron gas tube and structure wise it visualized as consisting of the two transistors( a p-n-p and an n-p-n, inter-connected to form a regenerative feedback pair). The name THYRISTOR is derived by a combination of the capital letter from THYRatron and transISTOR. Continuous modification and improvement in its design as well as fabrication techniques have made it more and more economical and suitable for various control purposes. Later on, many other power devices having characteristics similar to that of an SCR were developed. Thyristor is a general name given to a family of power semiconductor switching devices, all of which are characterized by a bistable switching action depending upon the PNPN regenerative feedback. Thyristor is a semiconductor device having three or more junctions; four or five p and N semiconductor layers; and 2, 3, or 4 terminals. Its maximum flexibility in operation; faster dynamic response and lower acoustic noise are the added advantages. This device has revolutionized the art of solid state power conversion & control. The Other Members of Thyristor Family Are: SCS (Silicon Controlled Switch) LASCS (Light Activated SCS) LASCR (Light Activated SCR) PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor) LAPUT (Light Activated PUT) SUS (Silicon Unilateral Switch) SBS (Silicon Bilateral Switch) ASBS (Asymmetrical SBS) LAS (Light Activated Switch) Diac , Triac

1.3.2 Principle of operation If a positive voltage is applied to anode with respect to cathode and with gate not connected to a triggering voltage source, a small forward leakage current flows which increases with voltage until turn-on is initiated by avalanche action. The corresponding voltage is called forward break over voltage (V FBO). The voltage across the thyristor then falls to on-stage voltage V T. when trigger voltage applied to the gate, break over voltage is reduced to a minimum on-stage voltage, and if the current through the device is more than latching current the thyristor continues to conduct even if the trigger voltage is removed. Its main power connection is made to the anode and the cathode, and turn-on signal is applied between the gate and cathode. Thyristor has three basic modes of operation: Reverse blocking Forward blocking

Forward conduction
In forward conduction mode, with forward bias voltage, a thyristor can be made to conduct by any of the four techniques: Exceeding forward break over voltage. Gate triggering. dv /dt turn on. Irradiation of gate cathode junction. In general practice gate triggering technique is applied for normal operation of thyristor. 1.4 Thyristor categories The great strides taken in the industrial applications of power electronics during recent years have demonstrated that this versatile tool can be of great importance in increasing production, efficiency and control. The power electronic circuits which are also known as ``Thyristorised power controller generally classified into the following five broad categories [2]. 1.4.1 AC DC Converter These controllers convert fixed ac voltage to a variable dc output voltage. There controller circuits use line voltage for their communication. Hence, they are also called as line commutated or naturally commutated recifiers. 1.4.2 DC AC Converter An inverter converts a fixed dc voltage to an ac voltage of variable frequency and of fixed or variable magnitude. This type of controllers use forced communication methods to turn-off the thyristors.

Thyristor Has Replaced Industrial Devices Like:

Thyratron Mercury arc converters Ignitrons Magnetic amplifier Motor Generator Sets Auto Transformers Induction regulator Contactors Motor starter Rheostats Mechanical speed changers Relays , Fuses and many more others. 1.3. 1 Thyristor Manufacturing Process: Depending upon the method of manufacturing process thyristors are classified into three types. - Alloy diffused - All diffused or semi-planar - Planar

1.4.3 DC DC Converter A chopper converts fixed dc input voltage to variable dc output voltage. Therefore, choppers are also referred as dc to dc converters. Forced commutation is used to turn-off the thyristors. 1.4.4 AC AC Converter These circuit converters input power at one frequency to output power at a different frequency through one stage conversion. The Cyclo- convertors are most commonly used for obtaining low frequency ac voltage. 1.4.5 AC Voltage controllers These circuits convert a fixed ac voltage directly to a variable ac voltage at the same frequency using line communication. 1.5 Application Areas of Different Categories is as shown in Table 1. [3]. Thyristor

Power. This results in reduction in cost, size, EMI (Electro-magnetic interference) and improvement in reliability. A PIC is often differentiated from a high voltage integrated circuit (HVIC) where the voltage is high but current is small. Recently a large family of new enhanced PICs that include power-MOSFET smart switches, half bridge inverters, two-phase step motor drives, one quadrant choppers for the dc motor drives, three-phase diode rectifier, PWM Inverters, applicationspecific PICs (ASPICs) have become available. 1.6.1 Power Electronic Devices Power electronic devices operating in the switching mode from the heart of the power electronic drives and they have gone through a dynamic revolution in recent time. Since the birth of SCR, gradually other devices such as Triac, light-activated SCR (LASCR), inverter-grade fast thyristor, asymmetrical SCR (ASCR) reverse-conducting thyristor (RCT), gate-assisted turn-off thyristor (GATT) were introduced. during the last 10 years , SCR have been challenged by the enhancement of the self- commutating devices like Gate Turn Off Thyristor(GTOs), Power- BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistor), Power-MOSFETs(Metal Oxide Semi-conductor field Effect Transistors), IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar transistors) etc. Presently Power Electronics uses, besides SCRs, other power semiconductor devices such as GTOs, Power BJTs, Power MOSFETs, IGBTs and more recently MCTs (MOS Controlled Thyristors) [4]. 1.6.2 Power Devices Performance Parameters Power electronic devices are used as a switch should ideally possess the following performance parameters. Unlimited voltage and current ratings. Instant turn-on and turn-off times. Zero leakage current. Zero switching and conduction losses. Zero gate/base drive power requirement Ability to withstand current over-loads and voltage transients. Ease of protection against spurious turn-on and fault conditions, Low cost and ease of assembly 1.6.3 Selection of Switching Devices In actual practice, none of the power electronic device satisfies the entire performance parameter requirement. Many devices have relative merits which make them suitable for one application than other. In some areas there is overlapping options available for the choice of devices. The important criteria in selecting devices for circuit application mostly include the parameters of the rating, switching times, switching and conduction losses, control strategy and finally the cost of the circuit.

1.6 Enhancement in Power Electronic Devices Evolution of microelectronics and microcomputers has advanced the Power electronics to be a complex multidisciplinary technology by the synthesis of the following diverse technological disciplines. Power electronics devices, components and materials Converter circuit topologies Control of the motor drives and power systems Control theory-analysis and simulation Analog and digital electronics Micro-electronics/micro-computers/digital-signal processors Computer aided simulation and design tools Application specific integrated circuits (ASIC) Each of these component disciplines are developing very rapidly and providing a tremendous challenge to the research and development in power electronics. The present power electronic devices use exclusively silicon as the basic material. However, new type of materials like gallium arsenide, silicon carbide and diamond show tremendous promise for future generation of devices. Silicon carbide and diamond in synthetic thin film-form are particularly interesting because of their large band gape, high carrier mobility and high electrical and thermal conductivity. A diamond power MOSFET for example, can have sixth order magnitude of power, fifty (50) times higher frequency, less conduction drop and 6000 C junction temperature compared to a silicon power device. It is seen that the trends are in the invention of new and improved switching devices. In new enhanced power integrated circuits (PICs), the control and Power Electronics are integrated on the same chip called Smart

1.6.4. Modern Power Devices The development of power semiconductor devices can be related to the handling of high voltage and currents as dictated by the load and supply constraints. The evolution of power electronics has closely followed by the enhancement of power semiconductor devices, since the invention of transistors and Thyristors. Progress in their growth has been closely linked to the advances in fabrication techniques for integrated circuits and in packaging concepts. A variety of these devices are presently available covering a large power spectrum ranging from a few watts to several hundreds of kilowatts. Presently available power devices can be classified into three groups according to their degree of controllability: Diodes-on and off states controlled by power circuits. Thyristors-turned-on by a control signal but must be turned-off by the power circuit. Controllable switches- turned on & off by control signals. The controllable switch category includes several power devices such as Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), gate turned off Thyristors (GTO), Power-MOSFET, IGBT, and SIT/SITH and MCT. A concise discussion is cited over here one after another [5],[6],[7]. Table 2- Modern Power Devices with Ratings
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Power Semiconductor Devices Power Diode Thyristor SITH GTO Triac BJT Power MOSFET SIT IGBT MCT Maximum Voltage in (volt) 3000 6000 4000 4000 1200 1200 1000 1200 1200 1000 Maximum Current in (Amp) 3500 3500 2200 3000 300 400 50 300 400 100 Maximum Frequency in (Hz) 1 1 20 10 0.4 10 100 100 20 20

1.7 Modern Control of Power Electronics In the Performance of a power electronic system, control plays a key role. The recent advent of microelectronic components and chips has reduces he size and cost to the controller and has improved the performance. In a particular power electronic system, the control used depends on the desired system performance, the driving load and the converter topology [8]. 1.7.1 Microcontroller and Microcomputer Control Microcontroller and microcomputer control improves system reliability, eliminates electromagnetic interference and drift problems and provides significant const reduction in control hardware in addition to hierarchical control capability, information storage, monitoring and diagnostics. A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features: central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32- or 64-bit processors. volatile memory (RAM) for data storage. ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter storage. discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an individual package pin. serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs). other serial communications interfaces like IC, Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller Area Network for system interconnect. peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog. clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit. many include analog-to-digital converters, some include digital-to-analog converters. in-circuit programming and debugging support [8]. The advance microcomputer functions in control may be on-line estimation of parameter and state, performance optimization, fault tolerant control, optimal and adaptive control, expert and fuzzy control, etc [9]. 1.7.2 FPGA and VLSI Control FPGA stands for Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). It is an integrated circuit that can be configured by the user in order to implement digital logic functions of varying complexities. FPGA can be very effectively used for control purposes in processes demanding very high loop cycle time. The implementation of a digital controller in a FPGA can be parallel, resulting in very high speeds of operation [10]. A VLSI chip can be defined as a chip typically containing more than 100 000 devices. This chip works in

Table-3 Modern Power Devices with Conditions

Device SCR,GTO ,SITH,MCT BJT, Power-MOSFET IGBT,SIT SCR,GTO BJT, Power-MOSFET IGBT,MCT TRIAC, RCT Power Diode ,PowerMOSFET,SCR,GTO BJT,IGBT,SITH,SIT,MCT Switching Condition Pulse gate signal for Turn- ON state Continuous gate signal in Turn-ON state Withstand Bipolar voltage Withstand uni-polar voltage Bi-directional current devices Uni-directional current devices

conjunction with other VLSI chips or works alone. The VLSI control have advantages like improved speed, higher reliability, parallel signal processing, low power consumption and low cost for high volume applications [9]. 1.7.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Control In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge, like an expert, and not by following the procedure of a developer as is the case in conventional programming [11]. Fuzzy logic is a mathematical system that analyzes analog input values in terms of logical variables that take on continuous values between 0 and 1 [11]. The fuzzy control is more suitable in the process where the model is ill defined or complex, has high nonlinearity with a parameter variation problem and feedback sensor signals are imprecise. Thee fuzzy control and expert system techniques have hardly been applied in power electronics systems [9]. The term Neural network has been derived from the analogy of the nervous system of the human brain in which neurons are interconnected by input dendrites and output axons. A neural computing network can be realised as distributed computing system with parallel-input parallel-output where a set of first order nonlinear differential equations are solved parallel. The neural network algorithm can be implemented on a cluster of DSPs or a special purpose analog computer [9]. 1.8 Application 1.8.1 Power Electronic Drives Solid state power electronics has opened up new vistas in the motor control. Thyristor drives has been widely used throughout industry and, for normal industrial applications, a dc motor powered by a Thyristor converter is now a popular choice as a variable speed drive. The static variable-frequency ac drive uses a cage-rotor induction motor or synchronous reluctance motor powered by a static frequency converter. This gives a versatile and robust variable-speed machine which has the advantage over conventional variable speed drives of higher accuracy, better reliability, reduced maintenance and higher efficiency. The main objection to the static ac drive has been on economic grounds, since the cost of the static frequency converter has often been considered excessive. However, power semiconductor prices are steadily decreasing as production volume grows and manufacturing techniques improve, and the future of the solid-state ac drive is assured. The replacement of dc machine by an ac motor also has economic benefits, since increasing labour and material costs are weakening the position of the dc motor with its elaborate commutator construction. The disadvantages of mechanical commutation are well known

and the Thyristor controlled dc motor drive also produces a greater degree of ac mains distortion than certain types of solid-state ac motor drive. Because of these factors, and a growing awareness of the performance possibilities, a more widespread application of the solid-state ac drive is inevitable. When extremely precise speed control or precise speed matching is demanded, the solid-state ac drive is being used to provide standards of accuracy and reliability which have never before been achieved. The improving economic position of the solid-state ac drive also means that, in the future, it will be increasingly considered for general purpose applications [3],[4]. 1.8.2 Power Electronics on the Pavement of HVDC Transmission Large consumption of electrical energy is an index of the industrial growth and prosperity of a nation. The demand of electrical power is increasing through out the world and in developing country like India, the demand of electrical power is doubling every five to ten years. In some countries excellent hydro-power sites are available, but at far distance from load centres. To avoid pollution hazards and also from economical consideration, the thermal power plants are now located near mouth of the coal mines. All these problems involve the transmission of large block of power over long distances which can be done more economically by using H.V.A.C. transmission lines. However, Voltage regulation associated with reactive power balance, Steady state, Transient state & Dynamic stability are the main technical problems associated with long AC power transmission. These problems of AC transmission have led to the development of DC transmission [12]. However, as generation and utilization of power remain at alternating current, the use of an HVDC link requires converter at each end station of the line. The transformers and thyristors are the main equipments in a converter station. At sending end the Thyristor operate as rectifiers to convert AC in DC which is transmitted over the line as shown in fig 2.a.

Fig. 2 .a Converter System At the receiving end the Thyristor operate as inverters to convert DC into AC which is utilized at receiving end.

The physical process of conversion is that the same converter station can switch from rectifier to inverter by simple control action and, thus, power can be transmitted in either direction as shown in fig.2.b.

cable system making use of sea return. Since then more and more HVDC systems have been set up. In 1970 Thyristor replaced the valves based on mercury- arc technique. At present the biggest HVDC link is ITAIPU in Brazil (two bipoles, 300KV, 6300MW). The highest system voltage reached is 600KV [13]. FUTURE SCOPE The on-going development of interconnection standards and regulations will present both market opportunities and technology challenges for the Power Electronics industries. Future trends and development efforts will need of focus on improving efficiency and reliability, communication and interface, thermal management, reduce parts and points of failure, packaging and bringing down the cost.

Fig. 2 .b Control Characteristics. The first commercially used HVDC link in the world was built in 1954 between the mainland of Sweden and the island of Gotland. This was a monopolar, 100KV, 20MW,

REFERENCES
[1] Rai Haris C., (2006) Industrial & Power Electronics, Umesh Publications, Delhi. [2] Ned Mohan, (2011) Power Electronics Converters,Applications and Design, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd. [3] Sen P.C., (2010) Thyristor DC Drive, John Wiley & Sons. New York. [4] Mittal R. (1993) Electronic Devices. G.K. publishers, Jabalpur. [5] Berde M. S. (2009) Thyristor Engineering, Khanna Publications, Delhi. [6] Dr. .Bimbhra P. S., (2007) Power Electronics, Khanna Publication, Delhi. [7] Rashid M.H., (2006) Power Electronics circuits, devices and applications, Prentice- Hall of India, Delhi. [8] Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org. Microcontroller control. [9] B. K. Bose, Recent Advances in Power Electronics, IEEE Trans. Power Electronics, Vol. 7, pp. 12-14, January 1992. [10] Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org. Field programmable gate array. [11] Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org. Artificial Intelligence. [12] Hingorani Narain G. (2011) Understanding FACTS. [13] Vadhera S.S. (2009) Power system Analysis & stability, Khanna Publisher, Delhi. [14] Murphy J.M.D. (2001) Thyristor control of AC motors, Umesh Publications, Delh. [15] Sugandhi / K.K.Sugandhi, (1998) Thyristor Theory and Applications, Wiley Eastern Limited. Delhi. [16] Singh S.N., (2007) A text book of Power Electronics, Dhanpat Rai & Company (P) Ltd., Delhi.

Table 1- Power Devices Area of Applications Sr. No. 1. Categories of thyristors AC DC Converter (Rectifiers) Applications DC drives rolling mills, printing press, printing mills, textiles, Wire winders, machine tools, electric traction; slip power energy recovery scheme; power supplies-low power radio and electronic equipment, stabilized and uninterrupted supply, dc supply ac inverter systems; electrochemical and electrometallurgical process- electroplating, anodizing, galvanizing, aluminium reduction, metal refining, chemical gas production; battery charging; rectifier substation for traction system; HVDC systems; X-ray & welding equipment; reflectors and theatre dc lightning systems; adjustable reactive lightning systems; adjustable reactive load. A.C. Drives motoring and regenerative, electric traction; slip energy recovery; power supplies general purpose, uninterruptible emergency; HVDC transmission and transformers; High frequency melting furnace; surface heat treatment; Tempering; Dielectric drying; Medium frequency tools; Electronics of vehicles shop and aircraft; ultra -centric fuses. D C Drives Electric traction, battery operated vehicles, regenerative drive; Slip ring induction motor rotor resistance control; Regulated dc power supplies; AC welding equipment; Electrostatic gas purifier; Temperature control in electric furnace; DC Static switch; Advertising Display and light dimming in theatres. AC Drives Induction and synchronous motor drives, Electric traction, Gearless rotary kiln; rolling mills, Air craft generators; Heating converters for furnaces; propulsion drive for electric locomotives. AC Drives Large pump and fans; motor starters and fan regulators; Induction and resistance heating and control; static reactive power compensation; power supplies; Lamp dimmers.

2.

DC AC Converter (Inverters) DC DC Converter (Choppers) AC AC Converter (CycloConverters) AC Voltage Controllers

3.

4.

5.