Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Evolutionary Approaches to the Arts
An Introduction
i. Origins and principles
About fifteen years ago several distinct lines of scholarly and scientific study began to come
together to form a new field, variously referred to by such nonce formulations as "evolutionary
aesthetics," "biopoetics," and "bioaesthetics". The researchers who were discovering a common
interest came from widely different fields; they included
evolutionary psychologists, human ethologists and sociobiologists who had realized the
astonishing amount of time and energy humans spend on artistic activities, and wondered why
they did;
psychophysicists and neuroscientists whose equipment, such as tachistoscopes, neuronal probes,
computer databases, and MRI scanners, was now sophisticated enough to give meaningful
information about artistic and aesthetic experience;
researchers in the psychology of art and art therapy who were dissatisfied with existing Freudian
methods and wanted data to supplement their own findings;
literary, musical, arthistorical, and theatrical scholars in the humanities who desired a way out of
what they perceived as the dead end of poststructuralism;
philosophers of science and sociologists who were exploring the implications of new ideas such
as chaos and complexity theory for understanding the social selforganization of humans and
other higher animals;
1
anthropologists exploring the parallels between animal and human ritual;
experts in signaling theory interested in the richer forms of human communication;
games theorists studying the emergence of shared values through replication dynamics and group
selection;
computer simulation experts looking for interesting nonlinear systems to model;
experts in infant development and early socialization;
scholars in myth, folkore and oral tradition seeking prehistoric roots for their data;
investigators of sexuality interested in geneculture interaction;
aesthetic philosophers wanting new foundations for their inquiries;
and many more.
The principles of the new field might be summed up as follows:
1. It makes sense to study human arts and aesthetic experience by scientific methods and using
scientific information. (This principle is not as obvious as it sounds. It assumes, for instance,
that human beings have a nature; that art and aesthetics are not just inaccessibly subjective
chasm between the physical and mental worlds; and that methods can be found that are equal to
the sheer complexity and inherent ambiguity of the subject.)
2. Art and beauty are human universals and are features of an animal that evolved.
3. The arts and the related capacities of aesthetic experience are direct or indirect products of
adaptation.
4. The evolution of art and beauty involved a feedback between biogenetic and sociocultural
elements.
5. The results of that evolution should show up in specific neural and somatic functions and
structures, and in the developmental process.
2
6. The origins and history of the arts in all cultures can be better understood using these
perspectives; and may in turn cast light on the meaning of the scientific data.
7. Such knowledge may help us both in knowing our own nature, and also in the making,
exegesis and experience of the arts.
Biopoeticsor whatever we want to call itbeing a new field, it is presently at the stage of
collecting data, checking out what methods and schemas are useful, and establishing the scope
territory, giving a sense not only of the possible shape of the field as it matures but also its
general neighborhood and related problem areas. It will thus perhaps cover a rather larger
landscape than the bit of it that can be usefully studied for the time being; but it might not hurt to
be oriented in the wider world of human inquiry. I will locate the essays in this collection within
the overall schema, as a way to illustrate the rich material and new insights to be gleaned in the
new field, as a hint about where the best researchers are concentrating their energies at this stage
of the game, and as an introduction to the essays themselves. Readers are welcome to quarrel
with my assignment of the articles to specific classifications, for most of them cover a good deal
of ground, and the relations among the categories I will distinguish are at least as interesting as
the categories themselves. But it may be useful to tease out the threads of inquiry, however
interwoven they must be in practice.
ii. General theory of natural nomogenesis
Thus, first of all, we might locate our new field in the context of a large change that has quietly
been going on in the sciences over the last few decadesa change in our attitude toward the
lawfulness and order apparent in the universe. The major component of this change is the idea of
3
nomogenesis itself: the notion that the laws and ordered constants of natureand of the human
derivatives from naturewere not given from the foundations of the world, but emerged through
an evolutionary historical process. Cosmological physics tells us that the regularities that seem
so fundamental to the universe were once, so to speak, up for grabs, and that many possible
universes beside our own could have, and maybe did, spring into existence in the wild riot of the
informational context. The nonlinear mathematics of fractals shows the astonishing formal
inventiveness of the most apparently simpleminded recursive systems. Chaos and complexity
theory show new kinds of order emerging out of chaos in a range of disciplines, from classical
dynamics through chemistry to bacteriology and ecology, and even urban development, traffic
studies, and the sociology of voting. In cybernetics and computer science the emphasis has
changed from Turinglike programming that uniquely specifies the track by which machine logic
acquires its conclusion, to such global emergentist problemsolving processes as neural networks
and genetic algorithms. Such systems achieve evolutionary optima through an untraceable and
unrepeatably complex process of competition, collusion, and the differential weighting of
connections through the contingencies of the history of the system itself. Games theory has used
the computer to get beyond the simplicities of oneshot zerosum games to look at the results of
many iterations of interactive game situations, and assess the ideal game strategies of replicating
or sexually reproducing players. In the study of time it is becoming increasingly commonplace to
observe that time itself evolved, paradoxically, over time. The full suite of temporal
characteristics that we notice today in the activities of humans and other higher animals
alternative futures, alternative pasts, a present moment, future and past themselves, and even such
apparent fundamentals as the entropyincreasing direction of time, its features of before and after,
earlier and later, and its very continuity, cease one by one to be meaningful concepts as one goes
back toward the origin of the universe, and as one passes the points where organisms to which
such categories might apply first emerged.
4
One consequence of this new approach is that biological evolution, and the special relationship
between biological evolution and cultural evolution in which we are interested, can now be seen
in the context of a much larger process of evolutionary emergence. Thus if we are dealingas we
are in the arts and aestheticswith informational systems, it becomes highly relevant whether and
how a human patterning of information in art or in the appreciation of natural and human beauty
might correspond to the actual patterning of information as it evolves in the rest of the universe.
Our art and our appreciation of beauty might actually constitute a useful picture of the way things
really are out there, and if this is so, such a picture might help us survive to reproduce. Another
consequence is that the comfortable distinction which we used to be able to make, between
mental and physical, intentional and extensional, culture and nature, nurture and inheritance, the
socially constructed and the biologically constructed, study and subject, simply will no longer
hold. Human beings are selfdomesticated animals; our brains and bodies are not only the causes
of our cultural and behavioral activities, but also their resultsince reproductive success and
cultural adaptation are engaged in a positive feedback system with no real governor except the
drag of the generational cycle. Human art may be like those strange attractors of complex
processes that seem to emerge, ghostly and fragmentary at first, as they are traced out in their
characteristic phasespace.
Two essays in this collectionKoen dePryck's and mineaddress some of these larger issues,
within which biopoetics as such must be located. One of the questions DePryck asks is a rather
startling one at first, but is perfectly legitimate if one is an evolutionist. If human beings are
creative, and humans evolved out of nature, and nature, like human creators, seems to invent new
species of things, isn't nature creative too? And if human creativity is a matter of talent, what
kind of talentedness does nature exhibit? The question is somewhat unfamiliar in the context of a
general modernist project that has been largely devoted to representing the physical universe as
5
passive and deterministic, but it opens up surprising new avenues for understanding the human
arts. My essay on the caduceus deals with a number of biopoetic topics, but one of them is the
general process of emergence through iterative feedback of which, as I and the ancient sages take
it, biological evolution is but one example.
iii. Outlining the field
Within the context of a theory of natural creativity we find the topic of biopoetics/bioaesthetics
itself: an evolutionary account of the making and experiencing of beauty. This topic includes,
but exerts a new leverage upon, postmodern and poststructuralist questions about aestheticsis it
indeed the function of art to make beauty? is beauty any more than a social construction? and so
on. The evolutionary perspective enables us to critique in a cogent way the existing body of
theory, and outline coherent adaptationist/neurobiological alternatives, while preserving the best
of what has been gained by the introspective and deconstructive turn in the acadenic humanities
and social sciences. In this collection Denis Dutton provides an important essay that places the
new field in a philosophical context. A fine piece by Joseph Carroll, one of the most trenchant
critics of poststructuralism and other nonscientific approaches in the humanities, accepts the
challenge of providing a substitute for the failed ideas of the past, and outlines the main research
questions of the new field. Ellen Dissanayake, who has been no less articulate about the reasons
why humanists need to rethink their positions, offers an essay that confronts the chief criticism of
the new paradigmthat it is reductionistic. Her hierarchy of levels of aesthetic pleasingness,
from the most genedriven to the most complex and individuallydifferentiated, can provide a
useful guide for all of us in the future. By implication Nancy Easterlin's article, though I would,
strictly, classify it as a more "applied" than theoretical piece, agrees with Dissanayake's,
6
illustrating how Hans Christian Anderson imbibed but transformed the old bioadaptationbased
genre of the fairytale, transforming it into high art through his personal experience and his
enriching artistic skills of irony and fertile ambiguity.
iv. Evolutionary psychology of the arts and aesthetics
Continuing to develop subcategories of inquiry in our subject, we might now recognize a large
intersection with the burgeoning field of evolutionary psychology. One can get only so far as
long as we treat the psyche as a black box, relaying adaptive and genetic commands and
suggestions into individual somatic behavior and perception. What is the evolutionary
psychology of the appreciation of beauty? What is the evolutionary psychology of the making of
evolutionarypsychology approach, arguing that the coherent style of traditional art objects is a
way of creating a sort of artificial lineage, extending to a larger cultural group than could be
justified on strict sociobiological grounds the kind of cooperative impulse nurtured by inclusive
fitness. Wayne Allen's fine piece on mythic stories shows how art can mediate between the
antagonistic drives of xenophobia and exogamy/trade, allowing intergroup relationships that are
neither dangerously naive nor isolationistically paranoid. Camilla Power and Christopher Knight
also deal profoundly with evolutionary psychology, especially in the area of sexual relations, but I
will take up their contributions in more detail under the rubric of artistic origins.
v. Emotion
7
Another emerging field, the psychosociological study of emotion, must also be reckoned with.
The emotions of love, solidarity, shame, laughter, fear, joy, and so on clearly figure hugely in our
artistic rituals, stories, visual art, music, drama, and so on. Emotions are perhaps the chief way
by which evolved and proven adaptive biases influence our behavior, and can thus be harnessed
or cathartically purged by art. Several of the contributions to this volume discuss this
Dissanayake, and Easterlinthough a fuller treatment must await further professional engagement
among the relevant groups of researchers.
vi. Distinguishing aesthetics and art
Two somewhat different questions arise at this point, each of which requires its own sort of
answer:
What is the evolutionary psychology of the experience of beauty, or aesthetics? and
What is the evolutionary psychology of the making of art?
The distinction may be illustrated by reminding ourselves of two different sorts of explanation:
Darwin's hypothesis that we like certain bright colors because they are indicators of the ripeness
of fruit, and Ellen Dissanayake's idea that we decorate ritual objects involved in adaptive ritual
ceremonies in order to "make them special." Obviously human artists recruit the natural
aesthetics of color preference to ritual ends, and, going in the opposite direction, attribute by
myth snd symbolism ideological meaning derived froim ritual to natural phenomena that we find
attractive. But the receptors and effectors of beauty have their own integrity, and demand both a
separate treatment and a more overarching natural aesthetics to bring them together. Several of
8
the essays in this volume touch on these topics, especially those of Coe, Dissanayake, Knight,
Power, Allen, Easterlin, and Turner.
vii. The neurobiology of art and beauty
However, another set of important questions now looms up before us. So far we have been
looking at the evolutionary "Why" of art and beauty, but not the neurobiological "How." What
are the psychophysics, neuroanatomy, neurochemistry and, generally, the perceptual, cognitive,
computational and informational hardware of aesthetic activity? What neural structures, for
explicit forms which are neither oversimple nor overcrowded? What neurotransmitters,
neuropeptides, hormones, and other neurochemicals are involved in our experience and making
of beauty? How does the architecture of the brainwith its greater or lesser division of function
as between left and right hemispheres, frontal, lateral, parietal, temporal, occipital cerebral areas,
its larger specialization among the cortical, cerebellar, and midbrain divisions, and its networked
Hebbian electrochemical neural microorganizationhow does this complex organ interpret and
limit the adaptive assignments provided to it by its environment, in such a way as to make sense
of aesthetic behavior? How does the mechanism of memory, and its connection with dreams and
brainstates in general, figure into the aesthetic picture? Again, these questions tend to divide
into those concerning experience and those concerning activity, and call for a synthesis of the
experience, though some of us (Dissanayake, Turner, and dePryck, for instance) have begun to
explore such issues elsewhere.
9
viii. Linking evolution and neurobiology
Another major set of questions involves the connection between adaptationist/genetic theories of
art and beauty, and neurobiological ones. How does the feedback system of culture and genetics
work? In the process of fetal development and maturation, how does genetic information
encoding instructions relevant to aesthetic behavior get translated into somatic structures? What
is trhe relationship between gene and brain, culture and gene? Recent games theory analysis of
replication dynamics, by such researchers as Brian Skyrms, Elliott Sober, and David Wilson, has
fully rehabilitated the theory of group selection: ethical behavior, cooperation, and altruism now
seem to have reputable evolutionary pathways for their emergence, involving such requirements
as efficient signaling, that naturalize the values that we regard as nobler, and liberate them from
the narrow and questionable realm of pure social construction. Disciplines as various as
paleoanthropology, embryology, homeobox gene theory, information theory, rational expectation
economics, political philosophy, and contract law all have vital pieces of the puzzle to contribute.
The connections that are suggested, such as the one between signaling and morality, are clearly of
the utmost relevance to students of the arts. Several of our contributors touch on these subjects,
including Knight, Power, Coe, Cooke, Cox, Argyros, and Turner. My work on the caduceus
suggests that this topicthe iterative reproductive feedback between biology and cultureis
already an extremely ancient one in human thought, indeed as old as human history itself, and
much traditional wisdom on the subject is still to be gleaned. I shall return at the end of this
introduction to the special challenges offered to our research by this topic.
10
ix. Methodology
The last major topic of the new theory would be a methodology of the neuroevolutionary study of
the arts. What kind of evidence might or should biologybased literary scholars or art critics or
musicologists usetextual, optical, acoustic, genetic, biographical, cultural, medical, and so on
to open up the bioaesthetic elements of an artistic work? How might judgements of quality and
value flow from the new studies? How might one prove one's point? How might one avoid the
cliché of the scientist's objective analytical stancethe wretched artist under his microscopethe
same cliché that has dogged anthropologists in the past and is now so notorious a feature of
relevant is evidence from the study of "works without authors"the products of folk traditions
to the analysis of art by historical individuals? How can one reconcile the largely statistical
methods by which one might acquire good hard evidence about human biocultural inheritancein
such studies as Brett Cooke's fine work on proverbswith the highly individuated and original
creations of a great artist? In this volume Carroll and Dissanayake tackle such problems
theoretically, and Easterlin practically; but at this stage we have only scratched the surface, and
there is much more work to be done. Cooke's analysis of proverbs may be the first example of
the use of statisticallysystematic scientific observation in the biopoetic study of literature.
The existing body of traditional critical theory and aesthetic philosophy, now lying largely
project. In finding ways to acquire close knowledge of an artist's work while still preserving the
respect due human genius and the delight of experiencing its work, we do not need to reinvent the
11
wheel. The new methods of humanistic anthropology, in which the anthropologist is not the
detached superior analyst but the humble apprentice of the culture being studied, can also provide
an appropriate model. The arts should not be the dissection corpse or even the patient of the
bioaesthetic critic, but the critic's guide and inspiration. In his works on Zamiatin and Pushkin
alas, too long to be included in this bookBrett Cooke has shown that great writers have their
own piercing insights into the kind of animal we are. Certainly, any researcher should assume
until proven otherwise that a major artist probably has an even better grasp of the folk tradition
and even its biological implicationsthough perhaps in terms that are not strictly scientificthan
the researcher him or herself. I hope that my own contribution, which purports among other
things to establish that evolution itself is a very ancient concept, will help establish that principle.
In this context several old canardsand some genuine reproachesthat have been brought against
biogenetic approaches would need to be met and dealt with. Do such approaches reduce us to
biological robots? Do they not grossly oversimplify the subtle texture of artistic works, and
coarsen the delicate experience of beauty? It is not a legitimate reply to point out, however
accurately, that contemporary postcolonial, feminist and other socialconstructionist approaches
do just the same thing, turning human beings into sociocultural robots, trampling beauty into the
ground, and reducing art to barren ideological tracts. We should set ourselves higher standards
than those of our predecessors, and take to heart the depressing example of nineteenth century
social "Darwinism" and twentieth century racial studies. But we have far better material to work
economics and psychology, or the naive epistemic power theories of twentieth century
poststructuralism. If biological evolution can bring about the exquisitely differentiated species of
organisms, the astonishing range of behaviors, the uniqueness of biological individuals, and the
intelligent autonomy of higher animals, it is surely rather a warrant for human freedom,
individuality and creativity than a disproof of them. In this volume several pieces explicitly or
12
implicitly reckon with these issues, including those of Carroll, Storey, Easterlin, Cox,
Dissanayake, Turner, Argyros and dePryck. Argyros, especially, bluntly assesses the danger that
the new field might turn into a new artistic orthodoxy; while dePryck, with characteristic
panache, turns the issue on its head by deriving human free originality from that of nature itself.
x. Origins of the arts and aesthetic experience
Flowing from more general and synchronic theories of the relations among art, aesthetics, and
biologyand acting as testable hypotheses to prove or disprove themare theories of the specific
origins of the arts in human prehistory. Did the arts, as Knight and Power argue so persuasively,
come out of female collusion in a sex strike? Or did they originate, qua Coe, as ways of
extending the signals that indicate kinship to a larger community, recruiting drives belonging to
biological inclusive fitness into the service of political coalitionbuilding? Or are both theories
part of the same complex and idiosyncratic pathway, by which human artistic capacities and
inclinations emerged? One overarching issue here is whether that historical and in a sense
contingent pathway, whatever it was, was uniquely necessary to the emergence of modern human
artistic activity, or whether the inter and intraspecific adaptive pressures that came to a head in
human evolution would inevitably have found some way or other to blossom into the arts. Were
there several different pathways, in different parts of the prehistoric human world? Were there
emergence of the arts more like the unavoidable crystallization of a cooling supersaturated
solution; or like the butterfly effect, in which a tiny and local swerve in the normal course of
things can snowball up into a hurricane? Or is the process really a combination of the two, the
13
particular human aesthetic psychology being rooted in idiosyncratic events, while the tendency
toward art in general is a function of the emergence of any highly encephalized, neotenic,
bipedal, social primate? The serpent or dragon, which is something of a minor theme in this
instance, possibly aware of the identical symbolism of the Chinese goodluck serpent, calls his
iterativelygenerated fractals "dragons." It could perhaps be taken as an emblem of the feedback
of nature and culture, and the meandering flow of the river that flows from that wellspring.
Theories of origins, unlike more general theories of human nature, are testable, though not
without difficulty. We cannot yet go back in time and observe the origins of the arts. The work
of Knight and Power is an exemplary demonstration of how one might begin to go about testing
such theories, showing the large interdisciplinary scope that would be necessary to conduct the
inquiry. One would have to consult various fields: paleoanthropology, the biology of human
sexual reproduction, archeology, art history, economics, political anthropology, primatology, the
craft of hunting, folklore, oral tradition, kinship studies, and comparative religion, to name but a
few. And one would need to offer the kind of predictions that they do, that are hostage to clear
empirical support or deconfirmation. Perhaps we will end up with a reasonably robust historical
tracing of our entire aesthetic path from primate ritual, through early human ritual, oral tradition,
myth and folk art, to selfconscious and specialized contemporary art genres.
xi. Theory and practice
14
Before we go on to the next major area of research that is suggested by biopoetics, that is,
practical art criticism, we need to consider what kind of work is required to bridge the gap
between theory and practice. Even if we have shown that a given emotional inclination or craft
genre or artistic capacity or archetypal theme is 1.) congruent with the natural aesthetics of the
universe, 2.) created by biocultural coevolution, 3.) rooted in our neurobiology, 4.) exemplified in
human artistic practice, and 5.) demonstrably generated from some point of origin, we will still
need a body of parttheoretical, partcraft tradition that will teach us how to apply our knowledge
to specific sculptures, dramas, poems, pieces of music, and so on. Here the study of those
transition points where anonymous folk art begins to transform into a "high" art, featuring the
individuated and trademarked productions of name artists, is especially important. The Homeric
epics and Icelandic sagas, where for the first time a Homer or Snorri emerge out of a nameless
mass of storytellers, are good examples. The kind of pioneer scholarship that Lord and Parry did
on the oral epic, or Child on the ballad, or the Grimms on the fairytale, or Nagy and Burkert on
Greek ritual performance, or the work in other genres that has been done by the
ethnomusicologists, medieval drama scholars, mythologists, traditional quilt collectors, and film
and Jazz historians, will become increasingly relevant. In this volume several essays demonstrate
ways of going from biopoetic theory to practice: Easterlin's, Allen's, Storey's, and Turner's quite
explicitly, others less so.
xii. Practical criticism: from evolutionary anthropology to art
15
Turning toward practical criticism, again several different directions of research offer themselves.
The first would go, so to speak, from anthropology to art. How do we understand a given work
better, for instance, by knowing that it is playing off some ethological kinship problem? If the
situation is problematic in the given human society of the work's locale, is the artist contrasting
that problem with a less problematic human norm, or showing it as exemplary of a universal
comic or tragic paradox in our nature? This branch of biopoetic criticism might focus on the
heritable elements of either the formal characteristics of the arts, or their content. It might be
aimed at establishing to what extent the melodic form or pictorial composition or rhymescheme
of a work can be understood in terms of inherited and evolved human aptitudes; or it might, for
instance, sharpen our understanding of inlaw jokes within a given drama in the context of the
more general chokepoints in human reproduction protocols. Are there contradictions between
genetic and cultural imperatives? In this volume Kozintsev's insightful and mordant piece on
Russian humor provides a good example of how we may understand the work of major novelists
in the light of biopoetics. How, he asks, do Russian novelists cope with what he regards as a
dysfunctional social adaptation of our natural human tendency to divide the world dualistically
into good and bad? In the course of answering this question, he is able to offer a remarkably
original explanation of the difference between Russian and Western forms of satire. Again in the
Russian context, Gary Cox's essay offers some fascinating speculations on traditional Slavic
kinship systems and their disruption by Asian political and military conditions, and the cultural
and linguistic forms that have resulted.
xiii. Practical criticism: from neuropsychology to art
16
The second major direction of study would go from neuropsychology to art, and would address
such questions as how our awareness of the neurosensory roots of a specific artistic form or
genretheme and variation in music, beginningmiddleend structure in story and drama, a rich
hierarchy of detailfrequencies or dazzling colors or expressive figurative scale exaggerations in
visual art, or the likemight deepen our understanding of a work whose technical virtuosity both
stretched and reaffirmed those structures. Here the questions and answers would involve the
structure and chemistry of the acculturated brain, rather than the selective pressures on savanna
huntergatherers, but the two kinds of explanation would be complementary. Ellen Dissanayake's
piece in this book touches on this subject, and some of the work that she, Argyros, dePryck, and I
have done elsewhere goes further along these lines; but for the most part we have had to postpone
this aspect of the work until there is a greater infusion of expertise from mother fields.
xiv. Practical criticism: from art to anthropology and neuropsychology
The third direction would, reversing the flow, go from art to anthropology, and would be
radically futureoriented. Given human nature in general as we are coming to understand it, and
human aesthetic nature in particular, what effects on culture and behavior might we predict of a
given development in the arts? How have past works of art catalyzed aspects of human nature for
good or ill? Consider the role of the Kosovo oral epics in the religious bloodfeuds of the
Balkans, or, on the other hand, the effect of Shakespeare on generations of relatively cooperative
and negotiationoriented AngloSaxons. The fourth direction would go from art to
neuropsychology: how has art recruited or deflected or retrained our inherited mental and
emotional makeup? How might it do so in the future? Does film cutting, for instance, recalibrate
17
our visual appreciation of dance, storytelling, even sculpture? Along these lines Alex Argyros'
provocative essay speculates on the effects on society if our own views were generally accepted.
xv. Practical criticism: differences in sensory media
A fifth direction of practical criticism might be a renewed attack on an old problem: how to
evaluate the differences among the sensorycognitive and informational modes of the arts.
Knowing what we hope we will know about the human aural, visual, kinetic, tactile, and
olfactory systems, their organization in the brain, their evolutionary provenance and biological
history, and their traditional uses in human culture worldwide, what can we say about the value
of works in different media, and how can we help audiences appreciate them better? What are
Lieder of the great German composers, to the Gesamtkunstwerken of the Peking Opera, Wagner,
traditional Indian and Balinese drama, Diaghilev, Kabuki and Robert Wilson? Again, can
skating or cuisine or dogbreeding or internet web design muster the sensorycognitive resources
to produce true great art? Storey's delightful piece on laughter, which moves interestingly
between different artistic mediasurrealistc painting and TV sitcom especiallycomes into this
category.
xvi. Practical criticism: bioaesthetic content in the arts
18
A sixth direction of practical criticism would be to turn the mirror backwards, so to speak, and
ask what the arts can tell us, in their explicit content and implicit modus operandi, about our own
evolution and neurobiology. For after all the deposit of the human arts is also a deposit of the
most brilliant thinking and perceptive noticing that has ever been done by human beings, created
by people who were neurobiologically our equals, gifted in addition far beyond most of us, and
with access to lifetimes of experience no less rich than ours. My own piece on the meaning of
the caduceus is an example of this kind of critical emphasis.
xvii. What works in the arts?
Let us now turn to the last major division of the subject as I envisage it: a working arts aesthetics.
What works in the arts, and what doesn't? Given what we know about human nature, its
emergence, the traces it retains of its own history, the neuropsychological predispositions and
abilities it gifts us with, its traditional interplay with cultural systemsand given, too, the
awareness we will have gained from biopoetic criticism of how artists have made art out of the
raw materials offered by our naturewhat advice and principles can be offered to the artists of
the future? Would "smellivision" or interactive Digital Videodisk narrative plug in to our
inherited aesthetic aptitudes? Given the apparent failure of serial music, what resources of
timbre, rhythm, electronic distortion, cultural content, and so on, caqn be added to the existing
tonal vocabularyand how can that vocabulary be further developed? How can the traditional
visual arts deal with the challenge of photographic reproduction, other than, as has been the case
in modernism, by fullscale retreat? What are the limits of human memory, that provide a syntax
for poetic and musical rhythm, and a natural pulse for narratives? At what point does the
identification of an audience with a dramatic character break down? If we tinker with human
19
nature itself by means of genetic engineering or neuralcybernetic prostheses, how might the
resulting changes affect our ability to make and appreciate art? The essays by Carroll,
Dissanayake, Easterlin, and Argyros are especially relevant to this line of inquiry, and it has been
a constant issue in much of my own work.
xviii. New artistic movements
Related to this last topic is a project that has just commencedthe creation and study of new
movements in the arts based on the ideas explored in this volume and in the other biologybased
studies of the arts that have begun to emerge. As we now know from anthropology, individuals
and societies do not keep still under scrutiny or ignore the assessments that scholars and
scientists make of them. And as Foucauld has yet again reminded us, there is no way of keeping
knowledge and action from contaminating each other. We might as well accept and as good
citizens attempt to guide the new movement or check it according to our best understanding of
what is good, true, and beautiful, and with due respect to others. Ideas about human nature are
always and rightly fraught with real consequences; but the twentieth century has proved to us in
blood that to deny the existence of human nature altogether is no solution. Manifestoes attended
the birth of the Renaissance (Erasmus, Rabelais, More, Sidney, Ficino, Vico), Romanticism
(Wordsworth, Shelley, Schiller, Schlegel) and Modernism (van der Rohe, Pound, Artaud,
Breton). They have already begun to appear as the twentieth century turns over into the twenty
first, signaling the growing impact of the new scientific approaches towards the arts, and the
rapprochement between the arts and the sciences, the humanities and the sciences,
Geisteswissenschaft and Naturwissenschaft, that has started to take place. More manifestoes will
20
be written, and they will need good criticism and careful scholarship to place and evaluate them.
Argyros' essay boldly takes on many of the issues that will arise as the new artistic movement
gathers momentum.
xix. The usefulness of biopoetics
We challenge any school of poststructuralist scholarship to come up with a set of questions as
interesting, challenging, or important as the ones I have reported in this introduction. The
collapse of humanities enrollments is widely, and I believe accurately, attributed to the sense of
dead end, irrelevance, foundationlessness, and arbitrary ideological drift that characterizes the
late phases of the poststructuralist turn. Many students, and even many professors, are bored
with the strident justso stories of radical feminist, gay/lesbian, and postcolonial criticism.
Without discarding the real insights that those schools providedreminders, really, of the eternal
and unremarkable requirement that we place anyone's opinions in their political contextthe new
movement can revitalize the whole area of the humanities and the social sciences, and inject a
vigorous shot of new content and new method. The stakes are high; there is a growing
realization, for instance, that education is in a state of crisis, and that much of the problem is due
to the deep inadequacies of our model of the human mind. What is the nature of the human
animals we educate? What potentialities for moral and aesthetic motivation do that nature offer,
that can be put at the disposal of their own free selves and channelled into productive lives, rather
21
than the pursuit of gang acceptance, drugs, violence, and promiscuous sex? The arts, too, which
are a growing and important part of the economy and give employment to millions, could use a
shot in the arm; and the new field could provide a nourishing connection between popular and
highbrow art that has been lacking since the rise of the modernist avant garde. The new field of
biopoetics offers, as one of my colleagues joked rather cynically, a splendid mealticket for
researchers in the humanities and social sciences for the next hundred years. What is reassuring
about this is that the research will not only keep scholars off the streets but also be useful to
society.
22