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Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION
Indian Railway is one of Indias most effective networks that keep together the social, economical, political and cultural fabric of the country intact. Be it cold, mountainous terrain or the long stretches through the Thar desert, Indian Railways cover the vast expanse of the country from north to south, east to west and all in between.When it comes about communication system of railways, we discuss optical fibres and SDH equipments. Indian Railways have gone in for modern communication technology and are using optical fibre cable. This cable is free from copper and is, therefore, not prone to theft. It provides superior quality of communication with built in large number of telephones channels to meet future need of train operation and safety. 2572 Kilometres of Optical fibre communication system have been commissioned on the Nagpur-Itarsi, Nagpur-Durg, Itarsi-Bhusawal, Jhajha-Mokama, ToriGumia, Ambala-Saharanpur, Adra-Midnapur, VSKP-Golanthra, Shoranur-Ernakulam, TataChakradharpur, Delhi and Bombay area section as part of railway electrification so far. Indian railway has also taken a policy decision that in future along with railway electrification, they will lay 24 fibre optic cable. They have also started making efforts for the commercial exploitation of their existing communication infer structure and to exploit their right of way along the tracks by private parties laying their Optical Fibre Cables. In the report we will explore about the communication system of Hajipur Railway Station.
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used in fibre-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibres are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibres are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibres are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fibre lasers.
The yellow cables are single mode fibres; the orange and blue cables are multi-mode fibres: 50/125 m OM2 and 50/125 m OM3 fibres respectively. Optical fibre typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection.
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This causes the fibre to act as a waveguide. Fibres that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibres (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are called single-mode fibres (SMF). Multi-mode fibres generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibres are used for most communication links longer than 1,050 meters (3,440 ft). Joining lengths of optical fibre is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibres must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with heat. Special optical fibre connectors for removable connections are also available.
B. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non-conducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fibre consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fibre, or gradual, in graded-index fibre. B.1 Index of refraction: The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about 300 thousand kilometres (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fibre is 1.52. The core value is typically 1.62. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using optical fibre for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to
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travel 1000 kilometres in fibre, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fibre between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometre distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16 of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course the fibre in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fibre).
C. FIBRE
An optical fibre consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection. The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibres is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fibre cores.
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Two main types of optical fibre used in optic communications include multi-mode optical fibres and single-mode optical fibres. A multi-mode optical fibre has a larger core ( 50 micrometres), allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors. However, a multi-mode fibre introduces multimode distortion, which often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher dopant content, multi-mode fibres are usually expensive and exhibit higher attenuation. The core of a single-mode fibre is smaller (<10 micrometres) and requires more expensive components and interconnection methods, but allows much longer, higher-performance links.
1.Core: 8 m diameter 2.Cladding: 125 m dia. 3.Buffer: 250 m dia. 4. Jacket: 400 m dia.
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In order to package fibre into a commercially-viable product, it is typically protectively-coated by using ultraviolet (UV), light-cured acrylate polymers, then terminated with optical fibre connectors, and finally assembled into a cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and then run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These fibres require less maintenance than common twisted pair wires, once they are deployed.
D. TECHNOLOGY
Modern fibre-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fibre, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibres that is routed through underground conduits and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone systems, and cable television companies.
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D.1 Transmitter:
A GBIC module (shown here with its cover removed), is an optical and electrical transceiver. The electrical connector is at top right, and the optical connectors are at bottom left The most commonly-used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs produce incoherent light, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient, and reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range, and directly modulated at high frequencies. In its simplest form, an LED is a forward-biased p-n junction, emitting light through spontaneous emission, a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width of 30-60 nm. LED light transmission is also inefficient, with only about 1 % of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually converted into launched power which has been coupled into the optical fibre. However, due to their relatively simple design, LEDs are very useful for low-cost applications.
D.2 Receivers:
The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which converts light into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, a p-i-n photodiodes, and
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avalanche photodiodes. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors are also used due to their suitability for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers. Optical-electrical converters are typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain from the incoming optical signal, which may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the channel. Further signal processing such as clock recovery from data (CDR) performed by a phase-locked loop may also be applied before the data is passed on.
(usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). For instance, NTT was able to achieve 69.1 Tbit/s transmission by applying wavelength division multiplex (WDM) of 432 wavelengths with a capacity of 171 Gbit/s over a single 240 km-long optical fibre on March 25, 2010. This was the highest optical transmission speed recorded at that time.
E. MECHANISMS OF ATTENUATION
Attenuation in fibre optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance travelled through a transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fibre optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. The medium is usually a fibre of silica glass that confines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has gone into both limiting the attenuation and maximizing the amplification of the optical signal. Empirical research has shown that attenuation in optical fibre is caused primarily by both scattering and absorption. The propagation of light through the core of an optical fibre is based on total internal reflection of the light wave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level, can cause light rays to be reflected in random directions. This is called diffuse reflection or scattering, and it is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection.
Dispersion:
For modern glass optical fibre, the maximum transmission distance is limited not by direct material absorption but by several types of dispersion, or spreading of optical pulses as they travel along the fibre. Dispersion in optical fibres is caused by a variety of factors. Intermodal dispersion, caused by the different axial speeds of different transverse modes, limits the
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performance of multi-mode fibre. Because single-mode fibre supports only one transverse mode, intermodal dispersion is eliminated.
Fig:6 Diffuse Reflection In single-mode fibre performance is primarily limited by chromatic dispersion (also called group velocity dispersion), which occurs because the index of the glass varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light, and light from real optical transmitters necessarily has nonzero spectral width (due to modulation). Polarization mode dispersion, another source of limitation, occurs because although the single-mode fibre can sustain only one transverse mode, it can carry this mode with two different polarizations, and slight imperfections or distortions in a fibre can alter the propagation velocities for the two polarizations. This phenomenon is called fibre birefringence and can be counteracted by polarization-maintaining optical fibre. Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fibre because the spreading optical pulse limits the rate that pulses can follow one another on the fibre and still be distinguishable at the receiver. Some dispersion, notably chromatic dispersion, can be removed by a 'dispersion compensator'. This works by using a specially prepared length of fibre that has the opposite dispersion to that induced by the transmission fibre, and this sharpens the pulse so that it can be correctly decoded by the electronics.
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F. REGENERATION:
When a communications link must span a larger distance than existing fibre-optic technology is capable of, the signal must be regenerated at intermediate points in the link by repeaters. Repeaters add substantial cost to a communication system, and so system designers attempt to minimize their use. Recent advances in fibre and optical communications technology have reduced signal degradation so far that regeneration of the optical signal is only needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. The main advances contributing to these performance improvements are dispersion management, which seeks to balance the effects of dispersion against non-linearity; and solitons, which use nonlinear effects in the fibre to enable dispersion-free propagation over long distances.
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Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required Lower cost of transmitters and receivers Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in specially-designed cables) Ease of operating transducers in linear mode.
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Optical fibres are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibres are susceptible to fibre fuse, resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fibre core and damage to transmission components. Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical communication is not common in short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-chip applications; however, optical systems on those scales have been demonstrated in the laboratory. In certain situations fibre may be used even for short distance or low bandwidth applications, due to other important features:
Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (although fibre can be damaged by alpha and beta radiation).
High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with different earth potentials.
Lighter weightimportant, for example, in aircraft. No sparksimportant in flammable or explosive gas environments. Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting the signal important in high-security environments.
Much smaller cable sizeimportant where pathway is limited, such as networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.
Optical fibre cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical cables. Optical cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans of 6000 meters or more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the duct system, and installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and pulled farther into the duct system as necessary.
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H. APPLICATIONS
Optical fibre is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fibre has large advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand applications. However, infrastructure development within cities was relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fibre-optic systems were complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties, fibre-optic communication systems have primarily been installed in long-distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased cost. Since 2000, the prices for fibre-optic communications have dropped considerably. The price for rolling out fibre to the home has currently become more costeffective than that of rolling out a copper based network. Prices have dropped to $850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, where digging costs are low. Since 1990, when optical-amplification systems became commercially available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of intercity and transoceanic fibre communication lines. By 2002, an intercontinental network of 250,000 km of submarine communications cable with a capacity of 2.56 Tb/s was completed, and although specific network capacities are privileged information, telecommunications investment reports indicate that network capacity has increased dramatically since 2004.
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C. LAYOUT OF EQUIPMENT
The layout of equipments in the optic fibre equipment room at wayside stations and control office shall be as per standard Drawings The equipments shall be accommodated in standard size of the racks marketed by Indian manufacturers, maximum size if the racks shall be as under :Name of Rack Size Slim Rack Euro 19 rack Width x Depth x Height 120mm x 225mm x 2750mm 600mm x 225mm x 2600mm
The wiring from battery to the location of equipment shall be inside PVC channels suitable size and suitably supported all along length.
600mm radius. Suitable fixture with HDPE pipe should be provided to ensure proper bending radius to be used at each end. Arrangement of RCC pipe under metalled road shall be as per standard drawing In case of difficult terrain along road/platforms/Railway track, etc. where trenching is difficult, trench less horizontal directional drilling may be adopted. A minimum depth of 1.2 meters to be ensured. Cable should not be buried directly, it should be laid in permanently lubricated HDPE/DWC pipes (conforming to latest RDSO/TEC specification with latest amendments) at one meter depth from surface in plains. Cable should be taken in GI pipe in rocky areas, culverts, girder bridges and PSC girder bridges (without duct). At the end of these structures where the pipe enters the trench the pipe should extend right into the trench and then should be protected with a concrete/brick masonry work, 5 meter cable should be kept at the ends. Wherever new PSC girders are being constructed, provision of ducts should be catered, OFC cable shall be taken through class B GI pipes of 80 mm diameter. In tunnel area the cable should be laid by excavating a suitable depth in the drainage area levelling the bottom surface in B class GI pipe of 80 mm diameter, the entire length of GI pipe will be concreted and substantially protected. Wherever ballast less track is constructed as in the case of long tunnels provision for HDPE pipe should be catered, which can be embedded in the concrete base. In such cases, tapping holes may be made at every 200 meters so that emergency control circuits can be tapped at convenient locations.
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This is done by applying localized heating (i.e. by electric arc or flame) at the interface between the butted, pre-aligned fibre end, causing them to soften and fuse together . Mechanical splicing shall be used for temporary splicing of fibres or where fusion splicing is impractical or undesirable. At all other location and during initial installation of optic fibre cable, fusion splicing shall be adopted. E.2 Straight Joint For Optic Fibre Cable There are various types of joint enclosures available in the market. The procedure for assembly of joint closure is described in the installation manual supplied with straight joint closure. This includes the following : Material inside joint closure kit. Installation tools required. Detailed procedure for cable jointing Procedure for reopening the closure. Generally, the following steps are involved for jointing of the cable : Preparation of cable for jointing Stripping/cutting the cable Preparation of cable and joint closure for splicing Stripping and cleaving of fibres Organising fibres and finishing joints Sealing of joint closure and Placing joint in pit E.3 Fusion Splicing Of Fibre Some of the general steps with full automatic microprocessor control splicing machines shall be as under: Hands shall be thoroughly washed prior to commencing this procedure. The clean bare fibre shall be dipped in the beaker of ethyl alcohol of the ultrasonic cleaver and ultrasonic clever switched on for 5-10 seconds.
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The bare fibre shall then be placed inside V groove of the splicing machine by opening clamp handle, in such a way so that 1 mm gap is available between the electrodes and the end of fibre being spliced and heat shrink protector inserted. The same procedure shall be repeated for other fibre. The start button on the splice controller shall be pressed. The machine shall pre-fuse set align both in X and Y direction and then finally fuse the fibre. The splice shall be inspected on monitor provide on the fusion splicing machine, there shall be no nicking, bulging and cores are adequately aligned. The above procedure shall be repeated if the splice is not visually good looking. The heat shrink protector shall be slid over the splice and tube shall be placed in tube heater. Heating shall be considered complete when soft inner layer is seen to be oozing out of the outer layer of the protector. The steps 9a) to (h) above shall be repeated for other fibres. E.4 Mechanical Splicing Of The Fibre There are two types of mechanical splicing system. In case, one with precision alignment of fibre in V groove and fibre ends are sealed with some index matching fluid and adhesive. The other system uses ultrasonic light source for curing optical adhesive in addition to alignment etc. The general steps involved above are as under: Stripping and cleaving of fibres shall be done as per standard Clause. Protective end cap shall be removed from mechanical splice and vent tube pulled up. Adhesive shall be injected into splice as specified by supplier into splice. Fibre shall be inserted till it butts against fibre end already bonded in place. Adhesive shall be cured with UV light following exposure times as specified by supplier. The steps (a) to (e) above shall be repeated for all fibres.
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Chapter-3
SDH EQUIPMENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) has evolved as a result of standardization by ITU (International Telecommunication Union). The format allows different types of signal formats to be transmitted over OFC. The STM-N signals are generated using a standard multiplexing pattern. Generally, STM-1 & STM-4 are used in Indian Railways.STM-1 can accommodate 63 E1 streams/10/100 Ethernet. In Railways, SDH only upto level 16 are used. The various SDH signal levels along with the bit rates are shown below.
Standards The relevant standards to be followed in the SDH architecture are as below: (a) ITU-T G.691 Optical Interfaces for single channel SDH systems with Optical Amplifiers and STM-64 systems. (b) ITU-T G.707 Network Node Interface for the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). (c) ITU-T G.781 Structure of Recommendations on Equipment for the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) (d) ITU-T G.782 Types and characteristics of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) Equipment.
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(e) ITU-T G.783 - Characteristics of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) Equipment Functional blocks. (f) ITU-T G.803 Architecture of Transport Networks based on the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). (g) ITU-T G.813 Timing Characteristics of SDH Equipment Slave Clocks (SEC). (h) ITU-T G.825 The Control of Jitter and Wander Within Digital Networks which are based on the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). (i) ITU-T G.826 Error Performance Parameters and Objectives for International, Constant Bit rate Digital paths at or above the primary rate. (j) ITU-T G.831 Management Capabilities of Transport Networks based on Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). (k) ITU-T G.957 Optical Interfaces for Equipment and Systems relating to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). (l) ITU-T G.958 Digital Line Systems based on the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) for use on Optical Fibre Cables. (m) ITU-T 1.432 B-ISDN User Network Interface Physical Layer Specification criteria.
3.2 INSTALLATION
A. SIZES OF ROOM
The layout requirement of equipment room shall apart from housing equipment, should cater for enough movement space for doors and routine measurement of equipments.
B. SPACING
(a) The spacing between ceiling and cable carrier from the rack may be (min) 30 CM. The cable carrier itself may be mounted 30 CM minimum above the rack. (b) There must be a space of 2 meters (min) between two rows of double sided rack. (c) The space between equipment rack and wall/other racks should be minimum 2 meters.
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(d) It should be ensured that the room where the equipment is installed is well ventilated and illuminated and is at least 3 meters away from major sources of electromagnetic radiation such as photocopier and facsimile machines. (e) The rack on which the equipment is to be mounted shall be either slim rack (2750 mm height, 120 mm width and 220 mm depth) or on standards 19 rack or CP 7 bay. The racks shall be provided with suitable covers on all sides to protect entry of rodent, etc. (f) All connections from the equipment to be terminated on the suitable MDF mounted on the rack. All cables may be carried above the wayside on cable carriers separated from the ceiling. The cable carrier may be of 15 CM to 30 CM in width.
C. EARTHING
All equipment, sheath of underground cable and the screen indoor cable etc. should be connected to the main station earth as per approved standards. The earth resistance shall be maintained less than 2 ohms.
D. POWER SUPPLY
The equipment shall operate on 48 Volt DC with positive earth. Preferably power supply shall be installed in a separate room adjacent to the equipment room. The common power supply source for all digital equipments can be provided if: All equipment work on 48 Volt DC with positive earth. Capacity of power supply equipment is adequate for all digital communication equipments.
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B. CONFIGURATION
The system should support various application configurations required by Indian Railways like Point to point topology Bus topology Mesh topology Ring topology
C. MULTIPLEXING
The system should be compatible with MUX as per RDSO specifications IRS/TC: 68/04 with latest amendments, if any.
D. TRIBUTARIES
The SDH system should facilitate transport of the various tributaries like PDH system (2Mb/sec, 34 Mb/sec, 140 Mb/sec) Tributary STMs DS3 (44.736) signals 10/100 Mb/sec Ethernet systems
F. INSTALLATIONS
The guidelines shall be adopted for the installations of SDH equipments. The system shall be commissioned after carrying out all pre-commissioning checks specified by the manufacturer or the laid down policies.
G. PROTECTION SWITCHING
The communication systems provided should preferably have Automatic protection switching. Generally, the switching should take place within 60 m sec. Revertive (systems reverts automatically to the original circuits after restoration of defect) systems shall be adopted, normally.
H. SYNCHRONIZATION
The equipment shall have provision of deriving timing signal on internal, external and incoming digital signal tributaries. The equipment shall have automatically switching over from one timing signal source to another in case of failure of primary source. The system should also have facility for manual selection of clock. Synchronization as per approved scheme shall be ensured.
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3.4 MAINTENANCE
A. GENERAL
The SE/JE of the section should maintain close liaison with the Engineers/Managers of Rail Tel Corporation of India (RCIL) in ensuring proper maintenance of the SDH equipment wherever the maintenance is being carried out by RCIL. A proper log/record of incidences of interruptions occurring in the sections. Maintain the history of all the equipment failures and keep track of defective and working spare modules.
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CONCLUSION
During my 30 days training in INDIAN RAILWAYS, HAJIPUR, I acquired important information & experience from my relevant Section. In the section, all persons helped me. After doing the training, I became aware of various techniques involved in telecommunication department of Indian Railways. Here I have learnt about communication system in Railways using OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE and SDH Equipments, their operation, control and maintenance. Overall my experience is very good. And now I can say that signal and telecommunication department is the heart of INDIAN RAILWAYS and is an important factor in development of any country.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. General Description Provided By DSTE, Hajipur Railway. 2. Training Manual on Signal & Telecom System, Indian Railways. 3. www.indianrailways.gov.in 4. www.google.co.in
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