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Designing and Conducting Research: Humanistic, Ethical

and Islamic Approach
Dr. S. M. Ali Akkas
Email: akkas54@gmail.com, info@cdss.ingeniousbd.org
Web: www.cdss.ingeniousbd.org

1. Designing Research

1.1 What is a Research Design?

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an
enquiry or a research study constitute a research design. Research design is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline
of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data.

More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being made?
iii. Where the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
vi. What periods of time will the study include?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will be used
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?

1.2. Main Parts of Research Design

1. The Sampling Design: This part deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study.

2. The Observational Design: This part relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made.

3. The Statistical Design: This part concerns with the question of how many items are
to be observed and how information and data gathered are to be analyzed.

4. The Operational design: This part deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
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RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

FF

FF
I
Review concepts
Define and theories Interpret and
research Formulate Design research Collect data Analyze data report
problem hypothesis including sample (Execution) (Test hypotheses
Review previous design if any)
research findings
III V VII
IV VI
II

Where F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system to which

it is transmitted.

FF = feed forward (Service the vital function of providing

criteria for evaluation
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1.3. Feature of Research Design

a) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
b) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing data.
c) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain – (a) clear statement of the research
problem; (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c)
methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

1.4. Feature of a Good Design

A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,

and economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes
the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered as a good design. The
design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in
many investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides
and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.

2. Conducting Research
Where designing of the research ends, conducting starts. Conducting covers steps of the
research process such as determining sample design, data collection, analysis and
interpretation of data, and report writing.

2.1 Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. Sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Sample design can be of
different types:

1) Deliberate sampling: This method also known as purposive sampling method

involves deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample which represents the universe.

2) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as probability

sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
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inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples has the same chance of
selection.

3) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to

select every 15th name of a list, every 10th house on one side of the street and so on.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.

4) Stratified sampling: In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of

non-overlapping sub-populations or strata and sample items are selected from each
stratum.

5) Quota Sampling: This method of sampling depends on interviewer’s judgment as

regards taking samples from quota of each stratum.

6) Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample.

7) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.

Under this method the concept of clustering is applied at different stage say: states,
districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.

8) Sequential sampling: This is a complex sample design determined according to

mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This
design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical
quality control.

2.2 Collecting the Data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in
context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. These
are:
1) By observation
2) Through personal interviews
3) Through telephone interviews
4) By mailing of questionnaires
5) Through schedules

2.3 Analysis of Data

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment
of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation
and then drawing inferences. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well-defined
statistical formulae.
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2.4 Hypothesis Testing

After analyzing data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypothses. Various
tests, such as Chisquare test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. Hypotheses testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting it.

2.5 Generalizations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at a generalization, i.e., theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research leis in
its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.

2.6 Preparation of Report

Writing of report must contain the following:

1) The layout of the report

The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.

In the preliminary pages of the report should carry title and date for followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a
list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have: (a) introduction; (b) summary of findings; (c)
main report, and (d) conclusion.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in
the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

2) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems’, ‘there may be’, and the like.

3) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be only used if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.

4) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints

experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
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3. Humanistic, Ethical and Islamic Approach

3.1 Humanistic and Ethical Approach

One of the greatest havoc done in the inquiry of knowledge of social sciences is the
separation or compartmentalization of knowledge without keeping, denying or loosely
accepting interconnections or linkages or interdependency among various disciplines of
knowledge. Consequently, research has been brought under narrow framework of
materialistic interpretation of reality. The tendency of making each discipline
independent of other disciplines has denied interpretation of each separate discipline of
knowledge from a broader framework of knowledge i.e., the worldview of reality. This
has reduced complete knowledge into deformed individual parts having conceptual
frameworks of their own.

As a result, narrow materialistic interpretation in the name of objectivity has been the
framework of modern method of inquiry. This has given unbridled license in the hands of
science to be immoral working against humanity and doing unethical practice. Nuclear
research on developing weapons of mass destruction, thus, could be justified then on
many counts.

In medical science also intracytoplasmic injection of spermatozoon, preimplantatory

diagnosis has raised concerns for the humanity. One of the questions arises at this
occasion is to determine if research on pre embryo is legitimate or not. The issue
provokes some reluctance and severe criticisms concerning the future of the children
obtained by such techniques: risk of slippery slope, possibly leading to a form of
eugenics, and the fundamental and philosophical problem of the status of the embryo
(Sureau C. website)1

The above along with other medical, ethical and societal concerns about costs, access,
and quality of care are causing health care practitioners to consider for a more
comprehensive model of medical decision making known as Economic, Clinical, and
Humanistic Outcomes (ECHO) to provide a theoretical basis for considering potential
trade-offs among econoimic, clinical, and humanistic variables in optimizing the
allocation of health care resources (Kozma CM, Reeder CF, Schulz RM, website)2.

1
Sureau C., Morals, logic and ethics in reproductive health,
www/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&emd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=7994585&query_h1=2&itool
=pubmed.
2

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8111809&dopt=Ab
stract
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3.2 Islamic Approach

3.2.1 Quranic World View

According to Quranic world-view the cosmos has been created and kept in a state of
balance. A close study of the Quran reveals that it wants to educate us for maintaining
equilibrium in every field of human activity. It gives us not only a philosophy but also a
structural framework to maintain equilibrium between philosophy and action. The salient
features of the Quranic world-view are summarized as:3

1. There is one and only one Creator who is Almighty, Intelligent, Eternal, Dynamic
and Director of the cosmos; and that is Allah.4
2. The cosmos is all the way and time obedient to the Creator. It is well organized,
integrated and in a state of equilibrium.5
3. Man is vicegerent and slave of the Creator. As a vicegerent he has been given
potentialities to understand the world and to work any way he may like. As a
slave he is expected to work obediently in coherence with obedience.6
4. A time will come when the cosmos will be reorganized and man will be judged as
to whether or not he utilized his potentialities as an obedient vicegerent in
coherence with the divine equilibrium and will be rewarded accordingly.7

3.2.2 The Quranic Method of Enquiry

When we talk of the Quranic method of enquiry, the Quranic world-view itself becomes a
paradigmatic part of methodology; revelation i.e., Wahy as such becomes a source of
information and faith, prayer and taqwa incorporate as ethical parts of method. Non-
paradigmatic part consists of spiritual and non-spiritual (or physical) methods. Among
them intuition, inspiration and dream may be considered as spiritual methods while
history, observation, experimentation, reason and inference are included as non-spiritual
methods.8

3.2.2.1 Paradigm

The Islamic methodology is characterized by its explicit statement of the macro-

paradigm, or perception of reality. The perception of reality is derived from the Quran
and Sunnah.

3
Kirmani, M. R.: “Quranic Method of Enquiry” in in Research Mehology in Islamic Perspective edited by
Mohammad Muquim, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi 1994. Pp. 97.
4
Al Baqarah 255
5
Ha Meem, As Sajda: 11, al Mulk:3-4, ar Rahman:7.
6
Al-Bakara:30-31, al-ariat:56, ar Rahman:7-8.
7
Ibrahim: 48, al-Momin:16-17.
8
Op cit. Kirmani, M. R. p. 98.
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The most important concept is the unity of this reality. Allah (SWT) has created the entire
universe. Nothing moves and develops of its own accord. The laws of Allah govern this
universe. It is an ordered universe, a cosmos. All its pieces are finely tuned to the
ultimate Reality. And it is a purposeful universe with an underlying moral intent.

According to Thomas Kuhn “A paradigm is what the members of a scientific community,

and alone, share. Conversely, it is their possession of a common paradigm that constitutes
a scientific community of a group of otherwise disparate men.”9. Imre Laktos defined
scientific research program (SRP) as special kind of operational paradigm. “All scientific
research programs may be characterized by the ‘hardcore’ surrounded by a ‘protective
belt’ of auxiliary hypothesis which has to bear the brunt of tests.”10 He shows that an SRP
has two types of components, namely, the rigid element (i.e. the hard core) and the
flexible (i.e. the protective belt). Blaug points out that Lakatos acknowledges the fact that
hardcore is irrefutable by its advocates.11 The hardcore is irrefutable because, “it
contains, besides purely metaphysical beliefs, a positive heuristic consisting of a
particularly articulated set of suggestions or hints on how to change and develop the
refutable variants of the research program, that is on how to modify and sophisticate, the
‘refutable’ protective belt.” We should know that Lakatos’ acknowledgement that the
hardcore contains the normative elements and that it is irrefutable by its advocates. This
acknowledgement helps us to understand the important role of hardcore and its normative
content in the SRP. The recognition by Lakatos that the existence of the normative beliefs
in an SRP is perfectly in line with the standard scientific traditions of paradigm building
underscores the importance of the normative content in the hardcore of al Faruqi’s plan.12

The Western paradigm, based on materialism, gives a limited worldview and a specific
theory of knowledge. Discussing the implications of materialism for scientific
investigation Zakaria Bashir says, “The cardinal proposition of materialism is that only
the sensible world is knowable. Consequently, it is possible to make a knowledgeable
claim about the physical world only through the senses.” This position of Western
paradigm is known as the Logical Positivist Theory of meaning.

The basic position of the Islamic theory of knowledge is founded on the principle that,
“Islamic epistemology begins with the premise that originally all knowledge is Allah’s
knowledge. He taught Adam, the first man, His ‘worlds’ and ‘names’ and He imparted to
Adam the names of every things.”13

9
Thomas Kuhn, “Second Thoughts on Paradigm,” in Frederick Suppe edited The Structure of Scientific
Theories (Urban, University of Illinois Press, 1974) pp. 459-482.
10
Imre Lakatos and A Musgrave, eds., Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (Cambridge University
Press, 1970.
11
Ibid.
12
Mark Blaug, “Kuhn vs Lakatos, or Paradigm vs Research
programs in the History of Economics,” in Garry Gutting ed., Paradigm and Revolutions, (Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame Press, 1980) p.144.
13
Zakaria Bashir, “Towards an Islamic Theory of Knowledge, Part 1,” Arabia: The Islamic World Review,
March 1986 pp. 74-75.
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Bashir argues that in the western paradigm of materialism, “there are no divine
revelations, and prophets are merely great men, wise men or heroes. The (oughts) of
morality can be reduced to material considerations relating to material interests and
utilities of this life. The reason for this total exclusion of religion from Western
epistemology is not difficult to find. Bashir explains the reason for this: “In the Western
conception, religion is not a domain where reason is exercised. Religion is the domain of
faith, where reason and faith could, at times, be mutually exclusive. Not so in the Islamic
theory of knowledge, where religion is the domain where reason is exercised to its fullest
capacity. When reason is so extended, it will recognize its own limits, and admit the
existence of true, incorrigible, and infallible knowledge, which is obtainable only from
genuine and authentic messengers of God. Hence the Quranic conception of knowledge is
perfectly real and objective, and easily lends itself to all the categories of validation and
confirmation.”14

It is worth mentioning that the new architect of a new Scientific Research Proposal (SRP)
for the enhancement of human knowledge is Dr Islmail Razi al Faruqi. His SRP has been
regarded as great contribution towards the progress and enhancement of the knowledge of
all mankind. Since truth is a whole – a unity - while the Western paradigm’s capability is
limited to the materialistic aspect of knowledge only, mankind is in dire need of a
paradigm capable of explaining the entire truth. Here it is that Dr. Faruqi’s SRP for the
Islamization of knowledge provides us with direction, destination, and methodological
guidelines.15

3.2.2.2 From Paradigm to Methodology

From this paradigm follows the basic methodology adopted by the Islamic researcher, the
methodology of synthesis. During the course of investigation it links parts to the whole,
seeks the overall purpose in segments and fits the pieces of reality into the total design.
Parts of reality are meaningful only when they are perceived as parts and not the whole.
An event, per se, is meaningless unless linked to the whole and perceived as a pause in
the continuum. Synthesis, therefore, restores the aspects of reality, to individual events,
their legitimate position in the scheme of universe – a position lost in the pursuit of
analytical rigor.

14
Ibid.
15
Mohammad Arif, “The Islamization of Knowlwdge and Some Methodological Issues in Paradigm
Building: The General Case of Social Science with Special Focus on Economics” in Research Mehology in
Islamic Perspective edited by Mohammad Muquim, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi 1994. Pp.
190-191.
15
Capra, F.(1982): The Turning Point Science Soc. & Culture, Simon & Schuster, New York, p.53.
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3.2.3 Aim of Islamic research

Research methodology in Islam is not for research sake rather for the sake of finding
whole truth or complete reality.

The single aim which can be set forth for Islamic research is working out of entire
Islamic system of life as applied to the condition of our own times in a way which may be
convincing to the modern mind.

The working of the Islamic system may proceed on the following lines:16

(1) The first problem is to understand the Islamic system. The question is what are
the fundamentals of Islamic system of life? What elements go to characterize a
system as Islamic? These characteristics must be visualized before any step to
work out the system in its details can be undertaken.
(2) The next question is related to the utility and practicability of Islam in modern
times? Is the Islamic system of life applicable to modern conditions? How can we
justify this claim in the historical perspective?
(3) The third problem is what will be the complete picture of Islamic system when it
is applied to the condition of our times? What will be its social structure? How
will its economy operate? How will it solve the complicated political problems of
modern society? And how will it deal with the problem of individual life?

All through the history of Islamic research, experimentation and empirical investigation
were pursued with the vigour and spirit to satisfy Allah and to serve mankind. The latter
purpose is the cornerstone of Islamic research structure and helps to define, in
conjunction with former, the scope and goal of scientific endeavour, in general, and
social phenomenon in particular.

The exploration of this world through experimentation to the benefit of mankind, to seek
the sustenance and comforts of life has been strongly recommended by the Quran. “And
seek the bounties of Allah.”17

Thus, Islamic research methodology defines the approach, the perspective of Reality: it
assigns a purpose to research – acquisition of knowledge to seek the Reality, recognizes
Allah and promotes the good of humanity.18

16
Ansari, A. Haque, “Nature and Scope of Islamic Research, Ibid. pp. 40-41.
17
Al Quran: 62:10.
18
F. R. Faridi, Ibid. pp. 62.
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Gantt chart
Showing Implementation Plan of a Hypothetical Survey

Month August’06 September’06 October’06

Week 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th

Activities
1. Selection of the villages
with field visit 4md

2. Questionnaire setting
6md
3. Pre-test of questionnaire
4md

4. Finalization of
questionnaire 2md
5. Selection and training of 4md
Investigators

6. Fielding of Investigators
and supervision 2md
Transportation
7. Administering of
Questionnaires 10md
8. Tabulation information
10md
9. Analysis of data
10md
10. Report writing
7md
11. Submission of Report
2md
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