Chapter 4

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRONIK & KEJURUTERAAN KOMPUTER SUBJECT : CONTROL PRINCIPLES BEKG 2323
CHAPTER 4 : TIME RESPONSE Objectives Students should be able to: Find the time response from the transfer function Use poles and zeros to determine the response of a control system Describe quantitatively the transient response of first-order and second
order systems 4.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 2, we learned how transfer functions can represent linear, time-invariant systems. In chapter 3 systems were represented directly in time domain via the state and output equations. After domain mathematical representation of subsystem, subsystem is analyzed for transient and steady state response to see if these characteristics yield desired behavior. Chapter 4 is devoted to the analysis of system transient response. 4.2 POLES, ZEROS, AND SYSTEM RESPONSE The output response of a system is the sum of two responses: the forced response and the natural response. Forced response is also called the steady state error or particular solution. Natural response is called the homogenous solution.
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FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRONIK & KEJURUTERAAN KOMPUTER SUBJECT : CONTROL PRINCIPLES
BEKG 2323
Poles of a Transfer Function Value of Laplace transform variable, s that cause the transfer function to be come infinite; or Any roots of the denominator of transfer function that are common to roots of numerator. Zeros of a Transfer Function Value of Laplace Transform variable, s that cause to become zero; or Any roots of numerator of the transfer function that common to roots of denominator. Poles and Zeros of a First-Order System Example: Given a transfer function as shown in Figure 4.1 (a). A pole exists at s = -5 and a zero exists at 2.
Figure 4.1(c):
where,
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To show properties of poles and zeros, let us find the unit step response of the system shown in Figure 4.1 above. This is achieved by multiplying the transfer function with step function. Hence, the output transform will be:
3 2 ( s + 2) A B C ( s) = = + = 5 + 5 where: s(s + 5) s s + 5 s s + 5
A=
B=
( s + 2) ( s + 5) ( s + 2)
s
=
s 0
2 5
3 5
=
s 5
Thus, c (t ) =
2 3 5t + e 5 5
From the development summarized in Figure 4.1(c), we draw the following conclusions:
1.
A pole of the input function generates the form of the forced A pole of the transfer function generates the form of the natural A pole on the real axis generates a exponential response of the form
response (i.e., the pole at the origin generated a step function at the output).
2.
response (i.e., the pole at 5 generated e-5t).

3.
et , where is the pole location on the real axis. Thus, the farther to the left
a pole is on negative real axis, the faster exponential transient response will decay to zero (i.e., again the pole at 5, see Figure 4.2 for the general case).
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4.
The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the forced and
natural responses.
Figure 4.2 Ex 4.1 Given the system of Figure 4.3, write the output, c(t), in general terms. Specify the forced and natural parts of the solution.
Figure 4.3 Solution: By inspection, each system poles generates an exponential as part of the natural response. The inputs pole generates the forced response. Thus,
C ( s) =
K1 K2 K3 K4 + + + s ( s + 2) ( s + 4) ( s + 5) Response Forced Natural

Response
Taking inverse transform, we get

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c(t ) =
K1
Response
+ K 2e 2t + K 3e 4t + K 4e 5t Natural Response
Forced
Ex 4.2
A system has a transfer function, G ( s ) =
10( s + 4)( s + 6) . ( s + 1)( s + 7)( s + 8)( s + 10)
Write, by inspection, the output, c(t), in general terms if the input is a unit step.
C (s) =
A + s Forced
Response
B C D E + + + ( s + 1) ( s + 7) ( s + 8) ( s + 10) Natural Response
c(t ) = A + Be t + Ce 7 t + De 8t + Ee 10t Natural Response Forced

Response
4.3
FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS A first order system without zeros can be described by the transfer function shown in Figure 4.4(a).
Figure 4.4
If the input is a unit step , where R( s ) =

1 s
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The Laplace transform of the step response is C(s), where
C ( s) = G ( s) R( s) =
a s( s + a)
(Eq 4.1)
Taking the inverse transform, the step response is given by,
c(t ) = c f (t ) + cn (t ) = 1 e at
(Eq 4.2)
where the input pole at the origin generated the force response cf (t) = 1 , and the system pole at a, as shown in Fig.4.4(b), generated the natural response cn (t) = -e at . This equation is then plotted as shown in Figure 4.5.
Lets examine the significance of parameter a, the only parameter needed to describe the transient response. When t = 1 a
e at
or
t =1 / a
= e 1 = 0.37
(Eq 4.3) (Eq 4.4)
c(t ) t =1 / a = 1 e 1 = 1 0.37 = 0.63
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Now we define three transient response performance specifications. Time Constant
1/a is the time constant of the response. From Eq.(4.3), the time constant can be described as the time for e-at to decay to 37% of its initial value. Alternately, from Eq.(4.4), the time constant is the time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of its final value (Fig.4.5). The reciprocal of the time constant has the units (1/seconds), or frequency. We can call the parameter a the exponential frequency. Since, the derivative of e-at is a when t = 0, a is the initial rate of change of the exponential at t = 0. Thus, the time constant can be considered a transient response specification for a first-order system, since it is related to the speed at which the system responds to a step input. The time constant can also be evaluated from the pole plot (Fig.4.4(b)). Since, the pole of the transfer function is at a, we can say the pole is located at the reciprocal of the time constant, and the farther the pole from the imaginary axis, the faster the transient response. Rise Time, Tr
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Rise time, Tr is defined as the time for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value. Rise time is found by solving Eq.(4.2) for the difference in time at c1(t) = 0.9 and c2(t) = 0.1. Hence,
Tr =
where,
2.3 0.1 2.2 = a a a

and
c1 (t ) = 1 e at = 0.9 1 e at = 0.9 e at = 1 0.9 at = ln(1 0.9) = 2.3 t = 2.3 a
c2 (t ) = 1 e at = 0.1 1 e at = 0.1 e at = 1 0.1 at = ln(1 0.1) = 0.1 t = 0.1 a
Settling Time, Ts
Settling time is defined as the time for the response to reach, and stay within, 2 % of its final value. Letting c(t) = 0.98 in Eq.(4.6) and solving for time, t , we find the settling time to be:
ln(1 0.98) 3.91 4 Ts = = a a a
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First-Order Transfer Functions via Testing Since the transfer function is a representation of the system from input to output, the systems step response can lead to a representation even though the inner construction is not known. With a step input, we can measure the time constant and steady-state value, from which the transfer function can be calculated. Consider a simple first-order system, G ( s ) = K /( s + a ) , whose step response is
C (s) =
K K /a K /a = s( s + a) s ( s + a)
If we can identify K and a from laboratory testing, we can obtain the transfer function of the system. For example: Assume the unit step response given in Figure 4.6. It has the first-order characteristics no overshoot and nonzero initial slope. From response we measure the time constant, that is, the time for the amplitude to reach 63% of its final value. Since the final value is about 0.72, the time constant is evaluated where the curve reach 0.63 0.72 = 0.45, or about 0.13 second. Hence, time constant = 0.13 =
1 1 = 7.7 . , therefore a = a 0.13
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To find K, we realize that the forced response reaches a steady-state value of K / a = 0.72 Substituting the value of a = 7.7, we find K = 0.72 7.7 = 5.54. Thus, the transfer function for the system is
G(s) =
5.54 s ( s + 7.7)
Actually, the response of Figure 4.6 was generated using the transfer function of
G(s) =
5 s ( s + 7)
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Ex 4.3 A system has a transfer function, G ( s ) =
50 . Find the time s ( s + 50)
constant, Tc ; settling time, Ts ; and rise time, Tr. Answer: Tc = 0.02 s ; Ts = 0.08 s, and Tr = 0.044 s
4.4
SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS: INTRODUCTION A second-order system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described. Varying a first-order systems parameter simply changes the speed of the response; changes in the parameters of a second-order system can change the form of the response. Example, a second-order system can display characteristics much like a first-order system or, depending on component values, display damped or pure oscillations for its transient response. Numerical examples of the second-order system responses are shown in Figure 4.7. All examples are derived from Fig.4.7(a), the general case, which has two finite poles and no zeros. The term in the numerator is simply a scale or input-multiplying factor that can take on any value without affecting the form of derived results.
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By assigning appropriate values to parameters a and b, we can show all possible second-order transient responses. The unit step response then can be found using C(s) = R(s) G(s) , where
R( s ) = 1 , followed by a partial-fraction expansion and the inverse s

Laplace transform. Overdamped Response, Figure 4.7 (b) For this response,
C (s) =
9 9 = s ( s 2 + 9 s + 9) s ( s + 7.854)( s + 1.146)
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two real poles that come from the system. The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response; each of the two system poles on the real axis generates an exponential natural response whose exponential frequency is equal to the pole location. The output initially could have been written as ;
c(t ) = K1 + K 2 e 7.854t + K 3e 1.146t

This response is called overdamped (Figure 4.7(b). It seems that the poles could tell the form of the response without the tedious calculation on the inverse L-transform.
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Underdamped Response, Figure 4.7 (c) For this response,
C (s) =
9 s ( s 2 + 2 s + 9)
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two complex poles that come from the system. Compare the response of the second-order system to the poles that generated it. First compare the pole location to the time function, and the compare the pole location to the plot. From Fig.4.7(c), the poles that generate the natural response are s = -1 j 8 . Comparing these values to c(t) in the same figure, the real part of the pole matches the exponential decay frequency of the sinusoids amplitude, while the imaginary part of the pole matches the frequency of the sinusoidal oscillation. Lets compare the pole location to the plot. Figure 4.8 shows a general, damped sinusoidal response for a secondorder system. The transient response consists of an exponentially decaying amplitude generated by the real part of the system pole times a sinusoidal waveform generated by the imaginary part of the system pole.
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The time constant of the exponential decay is equal to the reciprocal of the real part of the system pole. The value of the imaginary part is the actual frequency of the sinusoid, depicted in (Fig.4.8). This sinusoidal frequency is called damped frequency of oscillation, d. Finally, the steady-state response (unit step) was generated by the input pole located at the origin. The type of response shown in Figure 4.8 is called an underdamped response, one which approaches a steady-state value via a transient response that is a damped oscillation.
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Ex 4.4: To demonstrate how a knowledge of the relationship between the pole location and the transient response can lead rapidly to the response form without calculating the inverse Laplace transform. Form of underdamped response using poles By inspection, write the form of the step response of the system in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 : System for Example 4.4
Solution First, we determine that the form of the forced response is a step. Next, find the form of the natural response. Factoring the denominator of the transfer function in Figure 4.9, we find the poles to be s = -5 j13.23. The real part, -5, is the exponential frequency for the damping. It is also the reciprocal of the time constant of the decay of the oscillations. The imaginary part, 13.23, is the radian frequency for the sinusoidal oscillations. Using previous discussion and Figure 4.7(c) as a guide, we obtain c(t) = K1 + e-5t ( K2 cos 13.23t + K3 sin 13.23t ) = K1 + K4 e-5t (cos 13.23t - )
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where,
= tan-1 K3 / K2 , K4 =
K 22 + K 32
and c(t) is a constant plus an exponentially damped sinusoid.
Undamped Response, Figure 4.7(d) For this response;
C ( s) =
9 s ( s 2 + 9)
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two imaginary poles that come from the system. The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response, and the two system poles on the imaginary axis at j3 generate a sinusoidal natural response whose frequency is equal to the location of the imaginary poles. Hence, the output can be estimated as c(t) = K1 + K4 cos ( 3t - ). The response type shown in Figure 4.7(d) is called undamped. Note that the absence of a real part in the pole pair corresponds to an exponential that does not decay. Mathematically the exponential is e-0t =1 .
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Critically Damped Response, Figure 4.7(e) For this response,
C (s ) =
9 = s (s 2 + s +9) 6
9 s (s 3) 2 +
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two multiple real poles that come from the system. The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response, and the two poles on the real axis at 3 generate a natural response consisting of an exponential and an exponential multiplied by time, where the exponential frequency is equal to the location of the real poles. Hence, the output can be estimated as c(t) = K1 + K2 e-3t + K3 t e-3t . This type of response, shown in Figure 4.7(e), is called critically damped. Critical damped responses are the fastest possible without the overshoot that is characteristic of the underdamped response.
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Figure 4.7 Observations summarized: In this section we defined the following natural responses and found their characteristics: Overdamped responses :
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Poles : Two real at -1 , -2 Natural response : Two exponentials with time constants equal to the reciprocal of the pole locations, or cn(t) = K1 e -1t + K2 e-2t Underdamped responses : Poles : Two complex at -d j d Natural response : Damped sinusoid with an exponential envelope whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the poles real part.The radian frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of the poles, or cn(t) = A e -dt cos d t - Undamped responses : Poles : Two imaginary at j 1 Natural response : Undamped sinusoid with radian frequency equal to the imaginary part of the poles, or cn(t) = A cos ( 1 t - ) Critically damped responses : Poles : Two real at -1 Natural response : One term is an exponential whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole location.Another term is the product
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TOPIC : Introduction DATE : = c (t)

n
K1 e-1t + K2 te-1t
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of time, t , and an exponential with time constant equal to the reciprocal of the pole location, or
The step responses for the four cases of damping discussed in this section are superimposed in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10 : Step responses for second-order system damping cases Notice that the critically damped case is the division between the overdamped cases and the underdamped cases and is the fastest response without overshoot. 4.5 THE GENERAL SECOND ORDER SYSTEM In this section we define two physically meaningful specifications for second-order system.
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Natural Frequency, wn - the frequency of oscillation of the system without damping. Damping Ratio,
- we define the damping ratio,
, to be:
exponentia l decay frequency natural frequency (rad/secon d) 1 natural period = 2 exponentia l time constant
b s 2 + as + b
Consider the general system
G (s) =
Without damping, the poles would be on the jw axis, and the response would be an undamped sinusoid. For the poles to be purely imaginary, a=0. Hence, by definition, the natural frequency, wn, is the frequency of oscillation of this system. Since the poles of this system are on the jw axis at j b
,
wn = b
Hence, b = wn
2
Assuming an underdamped system, the complex poles have a real part,
, equal to a/2. The magnitude of this value is then the exponential

decay frequency described in section 4.4. Hence,
a Exponentia l decay frequency = = = 2 Natural frequency (rad / sec) wn wn

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a = 2wn
Our general second-order transfer function finally looks like this: Solving the poles of the transfer function, G(s) yields:
s1, 2 = wn wn 2 1
The various cases of second-order response are a function of summarized in Figure 4.11.
and are
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Figure 4.7
Ex 4.5 Given the transfer function as shown below, find
and wn.
G(s) =
36 s 2 + 4.2 s + 36
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Solution Compare with the general second-order transfer function,
wn therefore, G ( s) = 2 2 s + 2wn + wn
wn = 36 wn = 6 and 2wn = 4.2 =

Ex 4.6 For each of the systems shown in Figure 4.12, fins the value of give the kind of response expected.
4.2 = 0.35 26
and
Figure 4.12 Answer: a) b) c)
= 1.555 , overdamped response
= 1 , critically damped response

= 0.894 , underdamped response
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4.6
UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS A common model for physical problem. A plot of this response appears in Figure 4.13 for various values of plotted along a time axis normalized to the natural frequency.
Figure 4.13 We have defined two parameters associated with second-order systems,
and wn. Others parameters associated with the undamped response are
percentage overshoot (%OS), peak time (Tp), settling time (Ts) and rise time (Tr). These specifications are defined as follow (refer Figure 4.14):
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Figure 4.14 Peak time, Tp : The time required to reach the first, or maximum Percent overshoot, %OS : The amount that the waveform Settling time, Ts : The time required for the transients damped Rise time, Tr : The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1
1.
peak.
2.
overshoots the steady state, or final value at the peak time.

3.
oscillations to reach and stay within +2% of the steady state value.
4.
of the final value to 0.9 of the final value.
Evaluation of Tp
Tp =
wn 1 2
Evaluation of %OS
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1 2 )
%OS =
where,
Cmax C final C final
100 = e (
100
Cmax = 1 + e (
C final = 1
1 2 )
and for the unit step used;
The inverse of this equation allows to solve for
by:
ln(% OS / 100 )
2 + ln 2 (%OS / 100 )
Evaluation of Ts For criteria between +2%
Ts =
4 wn 3 wn
For criteria between +5%
Ts =
Evaluation of Tr A precise analytical relationship between rise time and damping ratio, cannot be found. However, we can find the rise time using computer. Figure 4.15 illustrates the resulting curve obtained relating the variation of wntr and the damping ratio,
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Figure 4.15 If a simple expression is desired for approximations, we can obtain the values of tr over the desirable range of damping factors, from 0.4 to 0.7, and determine an average value over this range. The value of wntr for a damping of 0.4 is 1.463; the value of wntr for a damping of 0.7 is 2.126. Therefore, an average value rise time over this damping factor range is given by, tr = 1.80/wn. The pole plot for an underdamped second order system is shown in Figure 4.16.
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=cos
Figure 4.19 wd is the imaginary part of the pole and called the damped frequency of oscillation, and
d is the magnitude of the real part of the pole and called as

exponential damping frequency.
Ex 4.7 (Finding Tp, %OS and Ts from transfer function) Given the transfer function
G ( s) =
Find
100 s 2 + 15 s + 100
, wn, Tp, %OS, Ts and Tr.

TOPIC : Introduction DATE : PAGE : - 17 -
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Answer: 0.75, 10, 0.475 s, 2.838%, 0.533 s and 0.23 s respectively. Ex 4.8 (Finding Tp, %OS and Ts from pole location) Given the pole plot shown in Figure 4.17, find
, wn, Tp, %OS and Ts.
Figure 4.17 Answer: 0.394, 7.616, 0.449 s, 26% and 1.333 s respectively. Ex 4.7 (Transient response through component design) Given the system shown in Figure 4.18, find J and D to yield 20% overshoot and a settling time of 2 seconds for a step input of torque, T(t).
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Figure 4.18 Answer: J= 0.26 kg-m2 and D= 1.04 N-m-s/rad.
4.7
SYSTEM RESPONSE WITH ADDITIONAL POLES If a system has more than two poles or has zeros, we cannot use the formulae to calculate the performance specifications that we derived. Consider a three-pole system with complex poles and a third pole on the real axis. Assuming that the complex poles are at
wn jwn 1 2 and the real pole is at , the step response of

the system can be determined from partial-fraction expansion. Thus the output transform is
C ( s) =
A B ( s + wn ) + Cwd D + + or in time domain, 2 s s + r ( s + wn ) 2 + wd
C (t ) = Au (t ) + ewn t ( BCosw d t + C sin wd t ) + De r t

The component part of c(t) are shown in Figure 4.19 for three cases of
r .
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Figure 4.19 For Case 1, r is not much larger than wn For Case 2, r is much larger than wn For Case 3, r = . For Case 2 and 3, parameters such as percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time will be generated by the second-order underdamped step response component. Thus, in Case 3, the total response will approach that of a pure secondorder system. For Case 1, the system cannot be represented as a second-order system.
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Thus, if the real pole is five times farther from the dominant poles, we assume that the system is represented by its dominant second-order pair of poles. Ex 4.7 (Transient response through component design) Find the step response of each of the transfer functions shown below.
T1 ( s ) = T2 ( s ) = T3 ( s ) =
Solution
24.542 s 2 + 4 s + 24 .542 24 .542 ( s + 10 )( s 2 + 4 s + 24 .542 ) 24.542 ( s + 3)( s 2 + 4 s + 24.542 )
Using partial-fraction expansion followed by the inverse Laplace transform, the results are:
C1 (t ) = 1 1.09 e 2t cos( 4.532 t 23 .8) C2 (t ) = 1 0.29e 10 t 1.189 e 2t cos( 4.532 t 53.34 )

C3 (t ) = 1 1.14 e 3t 0.707 e 2t cos( 4.532 t + 78 .63 )
These three responses are plotted in Figure 4.20.
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Figure 4.20 Notice that c2(t), with its third pole at 10 and farthest from the dominant poles, is the better approximation of c1(t). C3(t)with a third pole close to the dominant poles, yields the most error. 4.8 SYSTEM RESPONSE WITH ZEROS In Section 4.2, we saw that the zeros of a response affect the residue, or amplitude of a response component but do not affect the nature of the response exponential and damped sinusoid. Starting with two-pole system with poles at (-1+ j2.828), we consecutively add zeros at 3, -5, and 10. The results, normalized to the steady state value are plotted in Figure 4.21. We can see that the closer the zero is to the dominant poles, the greater its effect on the transient response.
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Figure 4.21
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FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRONIK & KEJURUTERAAN KOMPUTER SUBJECT : CONTROL PRINCIPLES BEKG 2323

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRONIK & KEJURUTERAAN KOMPUTER SUBJECT : CONTROL PRINCIPLES

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

response (i.e., the pole at 5 generated e-5t).

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

K1 K2 K3 K4 + + + s ( s + 2) ( s + 4) ( s + 5) Response Forced Natural

Taking inverse transform, we get

A system has a transfer function, G ( s ) =

10( s + 4)( s + 6) . ( s + 1)( s + 7)( s + 8)( s + 10)

B C D E + + + ( s + 1) ( s + 7) ( s + 8) ( s + 10) Natural Response

c(t ) = A + Be t + Ce 7 t + De 8t + Ee 10t Natural Response Forced

If the input is a unit step , where R( s ) =

The Laplace transform of the step response is C(s), where

Taking the inverse transform, the step response is given by,

(Eq 4.3) (Eq 4.4)

c(t ) t =1 / a = 1 e 1 = 1 0.37 = 0.63

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

Now we define three transient response performance specifications. Time Constant

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

2.3 0.1 2.2 = a a a

c1 (t ) = 1 e at = 0.9 1 e at = 0.9 e at = 1 0.9 at = ln(1 0.9) = 2.3 t = 2.3 a

c2 (t ) = 1 e at = 0.1 1 e at = 0.1 e at = 1 0.1 at = ln(1 0.1) = 0.1 t = 0.1 a

ln(1 0.98) 3.91 4 Ts = = a a a

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

1 1 = 7.7 . , therefore a = a 0.13

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

Ex 4.3 A system has a transfer function, G ( s ) =

50 . Find the time s ( s + 50)

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

R( s ) = 1 , followed by a partial-fraction expansion and the inverse s

c(t ) = K1 + K 2 e 7.854t + K 3e 1.146t

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

Underdamped Response, Figure 4.7 (c) For this response,

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

Figure 4.9 : System for Example 4.4

and c(t) is a constant plus an exponentially damped sinusoid.

Undamped Response, Figure 4.7(d) For this response;

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

Critically Damped Response, Figure 4.7(e) For this response,

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

TOPIC : Introduction DATE : = c (t)

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

- we define the damping ratio,

Consider the general system

Assuming an underdamped system, the complex poles have a real part,

, equal to a/2. The magnitude of this value is then the exponential

a Exponentia l decay frequency = = = 2 Natural frequency (rad / sec) wn wn

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

Ex 4.5 Given the transfer function as shown below, find

Solution Compare with the general second-order transfer function,

wn = 36 wn = 6 and 2wn = 4.2 =

Figure 4.12 Answer: a) b) c)

= 1.555 , overdamped response

= 1 , critically damped response

TOPIC : Introduction DATE :

overshoots the steady state, or final value at the peak time.

of the final value to 0.9 of the final value.

Cmax C final C final

and for the unit step used;

The inverse of this equation allows to solve for

Evaluation of Ts For criteria between +2%