LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS IN GENERAL PHYSICS

PHY 213




Electricity and Magnetism

Part III

by

Toby Dittrich
Bob Drosd
Leonid Minkin













Portland Community College
2012
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS



Exp. No Title Page

GENERAL INSTRUCTION FOR LAB REPORT 3

1 MAPPING ELECTRIC FIELDS WITH EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES 5

2 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS (WHEATSTONE BRIDGE) 11

3 INTERNAL RESISTANCE, EMF AND POWER TRANSFER 15

4 HEATTING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 18

5 KIRCHHOFFS AND OHMS LAWS 21

6 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR 25

7 MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH 28

8 THE MAGNETIC FIELD IN A SOLENOID 32

9 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT 36



















3
GENERAL INSTRUCTION FOR LAB REPORT

For every lab completed, each person will be responsible for handing in a lab report. In addition to
all the other things which have been presented to you regarding the development of skills in
measurements, handling errors, drawing graphs, etc., we feel it is important for you to develop skills
in organizing your data, thoughts and ideas and present them in acceptable written form.

The style and format of your reports we leave to you to develop. Keep in mind that a report should
be logically organized; include basic information as to purpose, approach, apparatus, data, analysis
of data and conclusion. In addition to all of this it should be written so that it is easily read and
understood by your lab instructor who will be grading your labs.

Items you will want to consider including in your report are:

Cover sheet:
The first page of the report is to be a title page and shall contain the experiment number, the
experiment title, date that experiment was performed, the submitter's name, and the names of the
submitter's partners.

Purpose:
Object of the experiment. This should be one or two sentences briefly describing the purpose of
experiment and what you are setting out to prove.

Apparatus:
A brief description of apparatus actually used.

Diagram:
A well labeled drawing (sketch) of the apparatus might be helpful to reader to understand.

Theory:
Summarize the basic physics of your experiment. Include equations and other principle things the
reader would need to know in order to understand the experiment.

Experimental procedure:
Describe briefly how you carried out the experiment.

Table for data:
Include all of the data you acquire in the experiment in tabular form. Always watch significant
figures. Correct significant figures should be applied in data tables, calculation tables, and sample
calculations. It saves writing to put the units in the legend on top of the column, e.g. length (cm),
rather than to follow every number with a symbol.


Graphs:
Every graph should have a title, labeled axes with properly chosen scales and units.

4
Conclusion:
Although most experiments are group efforts, the conclusion should be an individual composition on
the part of the submitter. This is your response to the purpose of the lab. Make a quantative estimate
of errors, evaluation of how well the purpose of the experiment was achieved, and conclusion of
what could be improved to provide better results. Compare your results with the accepted values and
comment on the comparison.

Be prepared; study the lab before you come to class. If you have any questions ask your lab
instructor.





































5
EXPERIMENT 1

MAPPING ELECTRIC FIELDS WITH EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES

Objective
To draw lines of equal electrostatic potential and electric field lines for various electrode
configurations

Apparatus
Sheets of conductive paper with various painted-on electrode shapes, DC Power Supply, electrical
leads, probes, digital voltmeter (multimeter) (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1. Apparatus set up

Background
Two points that are at the same potential are called equipotential points. The collection of all points
at the same potential make up an equipotential surface (in three dimensions) or an equipotential line
(in two dimensions). Several properties of potential will be useful to us in this lab. Among them
are:
1. Equipotential lines cannot cross each other.
2. Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to electric field lines.
3. The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface.
The distribution of potential V(x,y,z) allows to calculate an electric field: the magnitude of electric
field E = AV/As. Here AV/As is a change of the potential in the direction of its maximum change.
The electric field points in the direction of decreasing potential. Fig. 2 illustrates this statement
6

Fig. 2. Electric (dash) and equipotential (solid) lines
Under certain circumstances, such as found in this lab, the potential can be measured directly with a
voltmeter. By placing two conductors, which will be held at different potentials, on a sheet of
conducting paper, the potential on the paper between the two conductors can be measured. By
determining several equipotential points, an equipotential line can be constructed. Doing this for
several potentials will generate a set of equipotential lines for the given arrangement of conductors.
If we then apply the second property, that E is everywhere perpendicular to the equipotential lines,
we can deduce the electric field around the conductors.
Equipotential lines can be labeled (in volts) relative to the negative electrode (zero potential).
However, it is convenient to label potential in fraction (percent) relative to potential difference
between two electrodes: in this case potential difference between two electrodes corresponds 100%
and one can find potential at the equipotential line for any potential difference of the two electrodes.
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Lay the paper on a sheet of cardboard and clip two leads to the conducting surfaces. Connect the
leads to the DC outputs of your power supply. (The power supply should be off until you are
ready to begin making measurements!)
3. Clip the lead plugged into the common jack of your multimeter to the lead attached to the
ground or negative jack of the power supply. The other lead from the voltmeter will remain
unattached.
4. Using a sheet of white grid paper supplied to you (electric field mapping grid), sketch the
configuration of the conductors, indicating which conductor is attached to which jack of the
power supply.
7
5. Place the free lead from the voltmeter on the conducting surface that is attached to the positive
jack of the power supply. Turn on the power supply and adjust the voltage on the power supply
until the voltmeter reads 10.0 V. (Do not use the voltmeter built into the power supply. It may
give you a different potential than at the conducting surfaces.)
6. Move the free lead from the voltmeter around on the black paper until you find a point at a
potential of 9.0 V. Indicate that point on your white paper.
7. Find a dozen or so other points with a potential of 9.0 V until you can trace out the 9.0-V
equipotential line. Label this line on your grid paper (in volts and percent).
8. Repeat this for equipotential lines of 2.0 V, 4.0 V, 6.0 V and 8.0 V.
9. If there is a good bit more space between the negative conductor and the 2.0-V line than there
is between the positive conductor and the 9.0-V line, go back and find a 1.0-V equipotential
line.
10. Now use your equipotential lines to sketch in the electric field lines. Remember that the two are
always perpendicular. Use a different color or pattern of lines on your white grid paper to draw
the E field lines.
11. Choose two points at your diagram of electric field distribution and find electric field (E =
AV/As) in these two points for potential difference between two electrodes 10 V and 200 V. For
this you need to define potential difference between two equipotential lines and measure the
distance between them in the direction of maximum change of the potential.
12. Repeat the described procedure for finding equipotential and electric lines for different
electrodes. Choose two points at this diagram of electric field distribution and find electric field
in these two points for potential difference between two electrodes 10 V and 200 V.





8

9








10
ELECTRIC FIELD MAPPING GRID







11
EXPERIMENT 2

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS (WHEATSTONE BRIDGE)

Objective

To become familiar with resistor color codes and instruments that are used to measure resistance. To
find resistivity of some metals.

Apparatus

Slide-wire bridge (Fig. 1, Wheatstone bridge), digital multimeter, galvanometer, one dual resistance
box R
0
, two resistors, a dry cell battery, copper and Ni-Ag wires, connecting wires, portable
Wheatstone bridge, resistors, copper and Ni-Ag wires.


Fig. 1. Physical Layout of the Wheatstone Bridge


Background

Factors affecting the Resistance of Wire (Resistivity) :

The resistance of material depends upon nature of conductor, its shape and size. Resistance, R, of
conductor is directly proportional to length, L, and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section
of conductor A:
A
L
R =
where is the constant of proportionality called the resistivity of the material. Its value is constant
for a given material, independent of shape and size of the conductor.

Color coding of Resistance
Commercial resistances available in market have their magnitude written in the form of color codes.
We associate a color with each digit: 0, 1, . . . . . ., 9

Black - 0, Brown - 1, Red - 2, Orange - 3, Yellow - 4, Green - 5, Blue - 6, Violet - 7, Gray - 8,
White - 9

12
The three colored bands on one side indicate its resistance. The first two bands from one end indicate
the corresponding digits while third bands color indicate powers of ten with which number must be
multiplied to get the resistance value in ohm. In addition to three bands, fourth band gives us
tolerance with silver band implying tolerance of 10% and gold band with tolerance of 5%. No
fourth band indicates resistance of 20%. For example, if four bands are of yellow, red, blue and
gold then resistance will be (42x10
6
) 5%

Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is used to compare an unknown resistance with a known resistance. The
bridge is commonly used in control circuits. For example, a temperature sensor in an oven may have
a resistance that increases with temperature. The control circuit should turn on the oven heater until
the sensor in the oven has reached the desired resistance. The control knob (which may be labeled
with temperature readings) adjusts a variable resistor to which the sensor is compared. The heater is
turned on when the resistance is lower than the comparison value and turned off when it is higher.

A Wheatstone bridge is a network of resistances with a sensitive galvanometer, G (Fig. 2). R
x
is an
unknown resistor, R
0
is the known resistor, and the two resistors R
1
and R
2
have a known ratio R
2
/R
1
.
A galvanometer G measures the voltage difference V
AB
between points A and B. Either the known
resistor R
0
or the ratio R
2
/R
1
is adjusted until the voltage difference V
AB
is zero and no current flows
through G. When V
AB
= 0, the bridge is said to be "balanced".

Fig. 2 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Since V
AB
= 0, the voltage drop from C to A must equal the voltage drop from C to B, V
CA
=V
CB
.
Likewise, we must have V
AD
= V
BD
. So we can write,

R
x
I
1
=R
1
I
2

R
0
I
1
=R
2
I
2

Dividing one equation by the other results in
13
2
1
0
2
1
0
L
L
R
R
R
R R
x
= =
Thus, the unknown resistance R
x
can be computed from the known resistance R
0
and the known ratio
R
2
/R
1=
L
1
/L
2
. Notice that the computed R
x
does not depend on the voltage V
o
; hence, V
o
does not
have to be very stable or well-known. Another advantage of the Wheatstone bridge is that, because it
uses a null measurement, (V
AB
= 0), the galvanometer does not have to be calibrated.
Series and Parallel Resistors. In series circuit the total resistance is the sum of the separate
resistances. In a parallel circuit the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the separate resistances.
Procedure
Part A. Measuring of Resistance. Series and Parallel Connections of Resistors
Two resistors will be used in these investigations.
1. Using color code (CC), determine the resistance of each resistor together with their
respective tolerance.
2. Measure and record the resistance of each resistor using digital multimeter (DMM).
3. Measure the same resistors with the Wheatstone Bridge (WB). If the slider is too near one
end, change the resistance in the box (R
0
) until the slider is near the middle of the wire when
bridge balanced.
4. Connect these two resistors in series and parallel. Use the digital multimeter and Wheatstone
Bridge to measure the resistance of combinations (DMM
exp,
WB
exp
).
5. Calculate the total resistance for connections of two resistors in series (R
s
) and parallel (R
p
).
Use these formulas for connection in series and parallel: R
s
=R
1
+R
2
, 1/R
p
=1/R
1
+1/R
2
. Make
these calculations using data for measuring by DMM and WB. Find the percent discrepancy
between the results of calculations and measuring.
6. Fill up the table provided.
CC DMM
exp
WB
exp
DMM
cal
WB
cal
DMM
Discrepancy
WB
Discrepancy
R
1
()
R
2
()
Connection in
Series ()

Connection in
Parallel ()

Part B. Resistivity of Metals
In this part, the resistivity of copper (Cu) and Ni-Cu alloy will be found. The unknown resistor R
x
is
one of 5 coils of wire mounted on a board and in the boxes. The lengths of the wires, their
composition, and their diameters (in inches) are printed on the board or on the resistor. There are 22
14
and 28 gauge wires (22 gauge wire has a diameter of 0.643mm; 28 gauge wire has a diameter of
0.321mm). Use a multimeter to measure unknown resistor. Knowing R
x
, length of the wire L and its
diameter D allows you to find resistivity:
L
R D
x
4
2
t
=
Accepted values of resistivity for Cu and Ni-Ag alloy are 1.7210
-8
and 3110
-8
m. Find percent
discrepancy between accepted values of resistivity,
acc
, and found from experiment
exp
. Fill the
table provided
R
x
() L (m) D(m)
exp
(m)
acc
(m) %Discrepancy
Cu
Ni-Ag






























15
EXPERIMENT 3

INTERNAL RESISTANCE, EMF AND POWER TRANSFER

Objective
To find internal resistance and EMF of battery and the power transfer to the load.

Apparatus
Decade resistance box, Digital Multimeter (2), dry cell battery, resistor (approximately 20 ), and
connecting wires.

Background
The resistance of an object depends on the material out which the object is made, the length of the
object, and the cross-section area of the object. Batteries are also made of some sort of material and
must have inherent resistance. This resistance is called internal resistance R
i
. The chemical reaction
in the battery produces by-products, which along with the original chemicals, are the cause of this
internal resistance. As the reactions chemical are used up, the resistance inside the battery increases
(new batteries have small internal resistance). This resistance is inside the battery and cannot be
measured directly. If an external resistor, R
e
, were connected across the battery terminals, a current
would flow which is proportional to the electric potential produced by chemical reaction
(electromotive force, E) in the battery and the total resistance of the complete circuit (Fig. 1a),
including the internal resistance of the battery (electromotive force is equal the voltage drop on the
internal and external (V
e
) resistors)

e i e i
V IR R R I E + = + = ) ( (1)

As an internal resistance can be small enough, we will add resistance R
i2
25 to
simplifymeasurements (Fig. 1b). We now call R
i
=R
i2
+R
i1
internal resistance where R
i1
is internal
resistance of the battery.


a b


Fig. 1.A model of the real battery connected to the external resistance (a) and experimental set up (b)

16
The power, P, delivered to the external resistor will change as the external resistance change

2
2
2
) (
e i
e
R R
R E
R I P
+
= = (2)

The maximum power occurs when dP/dR
e
=0. Given the expression for P above, this yields an
equation

0
) (
2
) (
3
2
2
2
=
+

+
e i
e
e i
R R
R E
R R
E


and therefore the maximum power transfer to the external load, R
e
, when R
e
=R
i
. This case is a
simple example of a general happening of great importance in power transfer in circuit theory.

Efficiency is the ratio of power released on the load to the power of battery P
b

E
V
P
P
Eff
e
b
= = (3)
A 50% efficiency is involved during the maximum power transfer when R
e
=R
i
.When R
e
equals R
i
,
half the developed power goes to the external load; the other half of the power heats the electrolyte
in the battery and R
i1
resistor.

Procedure

1. Measure and record R
i2
. Connect the apparatus in the circuit as shown in Fig 1a. Set the
decade resistance box at 5 . Take voltmeter and ammeter reading. Repeat this procedure for
values of Re in the range from 10 to 110 with the increment 5 . If power P does not have
a maximum increase the range of the measurement.
2. For every load calculate power on the load (P=IV
e
) and efficiency (equation (3)). Fill up the
following table

Re () I(A) V
e
(V) P (W) Eff %
5
10


110

3. Plot a graph of V
e
versus I. According to equation (1) it is a linear function
I R E V
i e
=
Find R
i
(R
i
is the slope of this graph) and electromotive force of the battery (E is the y-
intercept).
4. Find an internal resistance of the battery (R
i1
=R
i
-R
i2
).
5. Plot a second graph of P versus R
e
. Use a fit function (equation 2)
17
2
2
) ( x B
x A
y
+
=
to find electromotive force of the battery (A=E) and resistance R
i
(R
i
=B).
Compare these values to the E and R
i
found from linear graph V
e
versus R
e
(paragraph 4).
Find the maximum of the graph of P versus R
e
and record the load, providing maximum of
power transfer.
6. Make a graph of efficiency versus load (equation 3). Choose a fit function as
d x
x
y
+
=
100
and
find d=R
i
(
i e
e
R R
R
Eff
+
= ). Find the load corresponding to 50 % efficiency. Compare this
load to the load providing maximum power transfer.

7. Fill the table provided

Ve vs I (graph 1) P vs Re (graph 2) Eff vs Re (graph 3) Average
E(v)
Ri ()
Ri
1
=(Ri-Ri
2
) ()



























18
EXPERIMENT 4

HEATTING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Objective

To determine the relation between joule and calorie.

Apparatus

Electro calorimeter (immersion heater and calorimeter), DC power supply, voltmeter (digital
multimeter), connecting wires, thermometer (PASCO probe), interface, stopwatch, laboratory
balance, and ice. The circuit diagram and electric calorimeter are in the Fig. 1a,b.


(a) (b)

Fig.1. An electric calorimeter (a) and circuit diagram (b)

Background

The work done, W (or energy expended) per unit charge in moving a charge q from one point to
another in the potential difference or voltage V is,

, IVt qV W = = (1)
where I is a current and t is time.
19

The electrical energy expended is manifested as heat energy and is commonly called joule heat. The
energy expended in an electrical circuit as given by equation (1) has unit of joule (I in Amperes, V in
volts, and t in seconds). The relationship (conversion factor) between joules and heat units in
calories was established by Prescott Joule (1818-1889) from mechanical considerations. The result
was 1 cal = 4.186 J. Experimentally, the amount of electrical joule heat generated in a circuit
element of resistance R is measured by calorimetric methods. If a current is passed through a
resistance (immersion heater) in a calorimeter with water in an arrangement as illustrated in Fig 1,
then by the conservation of energy, the electrical energy expended in the resistance, W, is equal to
the heat (joule heat), Q, gained by system (electrical energy expended equals heat gained). Heat
received by the calorimeter, water, and coil is equal

Q=(m
w
c
w
+m
cal
c
cal+
C
coil
)(T
f
-T
i
) (2)

where ms and cs are the masses and specific heat of the water and calorimeter cup, respectively, T
f

and T
i
are the final and initial temperatures of the system, and C
coil
is the heat capacity of the coil.

Procedure

1. Determine and record the masses of the inner calorimeter cup (without ring).
2. Fill the calorimeter cup about two-third full of cool water (add some ice to the water in
the calorimeter cup. When the ice has melted, measure and record the equipment
temperature T
i
. This should be 10-12 C
o
below room temperature.) The helix of heater
must be completely immersed in water. Determine and record the mass of the calorimeter
cup and water.
3. Place the immersion heater in the calorimeter cup. Make certain that the heating coil is
completely immersed.
4. Turn on power supply and adjust the rheostat until there is a constant current between
2.5-3 A. Then unplug the power supply. This procedure should be done as quickly as
possible to avoid heating the water.
5. Then plug in the power supply and at the same time start the stopwatch. When the
temperature of the water (and the calorimeter system) is 10-12 C
o
above the room
temperature, simultaneously unplug the power supply and stop the timer. Continue
stirring until a maximum temperature is reached and record this temperature, T
f.

6. Compute the electrical energy, W, expended in the coil (in joules) from the electrical and
time readings.
7. Compute the heat energy (in calories) gained by calorimeter system. The calorimeter
cups are made from aluminum (c
cal
=0.215 cal/(g C
o
). The specific heat of the water
c
w
=1.00 cal/(g C
o
) and C
coil
= 8.50 cal/C
o
.
8. Take the ratio of the electrical to heat energy results (W/Q) to find the electrical
equivalent of heat (equations 1,2). This ratio has unit J/cal. Compare this to the value of
the mechanical equivalent of heat by computing the percent error. Determine W/Q ratio
by a statistical method. You will work in groups. We are going to use information from
all class groups. Every group must feel the corresponding column which represents their
result for W/Q ratio (number of groups can be different). Find the mean of W/Q (W/Q
av
)
and standard deviation of W/Q (S
W/Q
)

:
20
n
Q W
Q W
n
k
k
av

=
=
1
) / (
) / (
1
] ) / ( ) / [(
1
2
2
/

=

=
n
Q W Q W
S
n
k
av k
Q W

n is the number of groups (sample size). Fill up the table provided

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 W/Q
av
S
W/Q

W/Q (J/cal)

9. Find the discrepancy between accepted value of W/Q=4.19 J/cal and found
experimentally W/Q
av.

10. Find the confident interval for 95% confident level

(W/Q)
av
2S
W/Q


































21
EXPERIMENT 6

KIRCHHOFFS AND OHMS LAWS

Objective
To verify Kirchhoffs and Ohms Laws

Apparatus

Simpson 373 mA Ammeter, 2 digital multimiters (DMM), three batteries, three 100 resistors and
connecting wires (Part A). 100 resistor, two cables with alligator clips, 6-V light bulb, voltage
sensor (PASCO CI-6503), Science Workshop 750 interface, computer (Part B).

Background
There are two Kirchoff's laws for electrical circuits.
The first is the current or nodal law:
At any point (node) in the circuit, the sum of the currents must equal 0. (current into the node
is positive, current leaving the node is negative)
The second is the mesh loop law:
Around any closed loop in the circuit (called a mesh loop) the sum of the potential
differences must equal zero (the potential difference across a dissipative device, such as a
resistor, is negative if it is in the direction of the current passing through the device; the
potential difference across an energy supply is positive if the current is traveling from the -
terminal to the + terminal.)

For many materials the resistance remains constant over a range of voltage. Such resistors are called
ohmic and they obey Ohms Law
V=IR
For such a material, a graph of voltage versus current is a straight line, the slope of which is the
value of the resistance. If the resistance is non-ohmic a graph voltage versus current is not linear
function.


Procedure

Part A. Kirchhoffs Laws

To illustrate Kirchhoffs two laws, two examples will be given. You will use one Simpson 373
ammeter and two digital multimeters (DMM). The internal resistance of Simpson 373 mA depends
on the scale used (Table 1); internal resistance of ammeter (DMM) is 5 .

22
Scale (mA) Resistance ()
0-50 3
0-25 7.5
0-10 15
0-5 35
0-1 100
Table 1. Internal resistance of Simpson 373 mA


1. Measure the resistance of three resistors (approximately 100 each).
2. Assemble the circuit which is given in Fig. 1. (circuit 1).


Fig. 1. Circuit 1

I
1
-I
2
+I
3
=0
(r
1
+R
1
)I
1
+(r
2
+R
3
)I
2
+0I
3
=E
1

0I
1
+(r
2
+R
3
)I
2
+(r
3
+R
2
)I
3
=E
2

3. Solve this system of linear algebraic equation to find I
1
, I
2
, I
3
. We neglected the internal
resistances of batteries although for the old batteries these resistances can be large enough.
Measure the voltage differences on the batteries terminals for the assembled circuit (these are
E
1
and E
2
) to exclude the error connected with this negligence.
4. Record the currents I
1
, I
2
, I
3
and find percent discrepancy between experimental and
calculated currents. Fill the table provided



23
I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I
3
(mA)
calculation
measurement
% discrepancy


5. Verify the first and second Kirchhoffs Laws:

0
0
3
1
=
=

=
k
k
k
k
V
I


To verify the second Kirchoffs law, measure the voltage drops around any chosen loop. For
example, for the circuit in the Fig. 1 measure the voltages V
12
, V
23
, V
34
V
45
, V
51
and find
their sum.
6. Repeat the procedures described in paragraphs 1-5 for the second circuit (Fig. 2)




Fig.2. Circuit 2.







24
Part B. Ohms Law

For this part of activity you will make graphs of current versus voltage for two different loads
ohmic and non-ohmic. The first graph is linear and the second non-linear. You will use Science
Workshop 750 interface to detect the current and voltage and make the graphs. Use a signal
generator (Science Workshop 750 interface) to produce triangle wave voltage of 0.200 Hz. Set the
amplitude 6.00 V.

1. Assemble the circuit given in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The load (ohmic and non-ohmic) is connected to the signal generator. The voltage sensor
measures the voltage drop across the load.

2. Use 100 resistor as a load
3. On the signal generator window choose to measure the output current
4. Press the START button. After a few second, press the STOP button.
5. Create a graph Voltage versus Current.
6. Find a slope of this linear function. The slope is the resistance of the resistor. Compare this
resistance with the measurement done by DMM.
7. Change the 100 resistor for a small 6 V light bulb and repeat the described procedure. Find
the resistance of the bulb for three different values of current.
8. Repeat the above procedure for high frequency of generator (60 Hz) and low frequency
generator (0.01 Hz). Explain the difference in the graphs of voltage versus current.








25

EXPERIMENT 7

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

Objective
To investigate the properties of an RC circuit. To analyze the charging and discharging of two
capacitors (separately, in series, and in parallel)

Apparatus
Two capacitors:330 F and 470 F (NOTE: The stated value of a capacitor may vary by as much as
30% from the actual value), 2 voltage PASCO sensors, 10 k resistor, digital multimeter (DMM),
PASCO interface 750, computer.

Background

Consider the resistor-capacitor circuit in the figure below

Fig. 1.
If the capacitor is initially uncharged, and the switch is placed in position 1, then current is able to
flow around the outer loop of the circuit, and the capacitor charges up. The rate at which the
charging occurs is not constant, but rather decreases as time passes. If the switch is connected at time
t=0, the voltage across a capacitor in the process of being charging is given by
) e 1 ( V V
/ t
max
t
=
where =RC is a time constant, associated with the charging process, R is resistance, C is
capacitance of capacitor, and V
max
is the maximum voltage across the capacitor when it is fully
charged.

It he capacitor is charged, and the switch is changed to position 2 (Fig. 1), then the circuit branch
containing the battery is effectively removed, and charge is free to flow through the middle branch
of the circuit. Consequently, the capacitor will discharge. The voltage across the capacitor will be
t / t
max
e V V

=

Procedure

In this experiment, you will use Output features of the PASCO interface unit to supply a positive
square-wave voltage to the resistor-capacitor circuit (Fig.2.). This simply means that a constant
voltage is turned on and off at regular time interval. Effectively, the emulates
26
the effect the changing the switch in the circuit in Fig. 1 at regular interval. The voltage

Fig. 2.
sensors will be used to measure the voltage across the capacitors and resistor as a function of time.
Using the appropriate fit function for voltage on the capacitor (inverse exponential function) you will
be able to determine the time constant of the RC circuit. Using the known value of resistor, you can
calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. This calculated value of C can be compared to the stated
value of C for the capacitor.

1. Using DMM measure the resistance of resistor R.
2. Connect the PASCO interface unit to the computer.
3. Assemble the RC circuit (Fig. 2.). Keep in mind that the capacitors have + and polarities.
4. Connect the voltage sensors to the capacitor and resistor.
5. Turn on the interface
6. Turn on the computer
7. Select Open Activity
8. Set the Signal Generator to 1 V positive square wave and frequency 0.010-0.015 Hz
9. To start acquiring data, click Start the start button.
10. Collect voltage on the capacitor versus time data and then click Stop
For charging and discharging the capacitor find 1/ and by choosing inverse exponential
function as a fit function (exponent of the inverse fit function is 1/). Calculate the
capacitance of capacitor.
11. Use Smart Tool to find 0.63Vmax and 0.37Vmax voltage for discharging and charging the
capacitor to find time constant .
12. Repeat procedure described in 9,10 for the second capacitor and for two capacitors connected
in series and in parallel
13. Fill the tables of experimental data


Table 1. Time constants of RC circuits
C
1
C
2
C
1
and C
2
in series C
1
and C
2
in parallel
Method used (s) (s) (s) (s)
Fit function (charging capacitor)
Fit function (discharging capacitor)
Smart Tool (charging capacitor)
Smart Tool (discharging capacitor)
27


Table 2. Capacitance of capacitors C
1
, C
2
and their connection in series and parallel
C
1
C
2
C
1
and C
2
in series C
1
and C
2
in parallel
Units
Fit function (charging a capacitor)
Fit function (discharging a capacitor)
Smart Tool (charging capacitor)
Smart Tool (discharging capacitor)

14. Measure the capacitance of two capacitors using DMM. Find the percent discrepancy
between capacitances found by using Fit Function method (for charging the capacitor), nominal
values, and measuring using DMM.

15. Using data for Fit Function Method(discharging the capacitor) calculate total capacitance
of capacitors connected in series and in parallel:

C
parallel
=C
1
+C
2

C
series
=C
1
C
2
/(C
1
+C
2
)

and compare these capacitances with the experimental data found by the same method .
16. For C
1
capacitor make a graph of output voltage (V
output
) and voltages on the capacitor, V
C1,
and the resistor, V
R,
as a function of time. Arbitrary choose two times (first for charging and
second for discharging capacitor) and using Smart Tool find voltage on the capacitor and
the resistor. Confirm the second Kirchhoffs Law (V
output
=V
C1
+V
R
).











28
EXPERIMENT 8
MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH
OBJECTIVE
To determine the strength of the earth's magnetic field in the lab room by tangent galvanometer and
by Halls sensor.
Apparatus
Tangent galvanometer and dipping needle (Fig. 1), DC Power supply, Vernier caliper, leads,
magnetic compass, magnetic field sensor, rotary motion sensor, WorkShop 750 interface, computer.

Fig. 1. Tangent galvanometer and dipping needle
Background
The Earth's magnetic field resembles that of a huge bar magnet. Navigators have used the Earth's
field for centuries. Compass needles are light bar magnets which align themselves with the Earth's
field when they are free to rotate. The Earth's field varies from place to place and therefore must be
determined experimentally. In general, the magnetic field lines enter the Earth's surface at an angle
and so can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components, as shown in the following figure
(Fig. 2) drawn in a vertical plane. The dip angle (|) can be measured with a compass in such a
vertical plane.
29

Fig. 2. Dip Angle
The instrument used in this experiment is a tangent galvanometer that consists of circular coils of
wire oriented in a vertical plane that produce a horizontal magnetic field, B
c
, at its center of
magnitude (square coils)
D
iN
B
o
c

=
where
0
is the permeability of free space (
0
=410
-7
Tm/A), N is the number of turns of wire, i is
the current in the wires, D is the diameter of the coils. If the coils of the galvanometer are oriented so
that the field due to the coils B
c
is perpendicular to the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic
field, Be
x
, the net field B is the vector sum of the two (Fig. 3)

Fig. 3. Set up for measuring of horizontal component of magnetic field of the earth
30
Because a compass aligns itself with the lines of force of the magnetic field within which it is
placed, a compass can be used to find the angle u between Be
x
and B. If the compass is first aligned
with the magnetic field B
ex
and current is then supplied to the coils, the compass needle will undergo
an angular deflection. This angular deflection is u. The horizontal component of the earth's field can
now be found knowing the field due to the coils and the direction of the net magnetic field relative to
the direction of the earth's field
D Be
Ni
Be
B
x
o
x
c

u = = tan (1)
One can see that tan is a linear function of current.
PASCOs Magnetic Field Sensor is sensitive enough to detect the sensors direction change in the
earths magnetic field.
Procedure
Part A. Determination of the earth magnetic field using tangent galvanometer
1. Set up magnetic compass on the stand inside the center of the multiloop coil. Turn the
multiloop coil (tangent galvanometer) on the table until its plane is parallel to the earths
magnetic field (horizontal component) evident by the direction of the magnetic compass
needle. Tape the corner of the tangent galvanometer on the table so that its direction will not
change during your measurements. Make electric connections as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Throw the reversing switch on one side and adjust the power supply for the current of 0.10
A, take the compass angle reading and note if it is a left or a right deflection. Reverse the
switch and take another reading. Repeat for nine other values of current in the increment of
0.1 A ending with 1.0 A. Find the average of each set of deflections. Fill the following table
I (A) (deg) right deflection (deg) left deflection (deg) av tan
0 0 0 0 0
0.10
0.20

1.0
3. Make a graph tan versus current in the multiloop. Slope of this graph is (Equation 1)
D Be
N
slope
x
o

=
Measure the diameter of the coils. Find the horizontal component of magnetic field.
31
4. Using the dip angle apparatus for your tables location, determine the dip angle
(Fig. 2). Use the horizontal component, Be
x
with the dip angle to determine the earth
magnetic field, Be (Be=Be
x
/cos)
The magnetic field of the earth in this lab room is about 40 T.
Part B. Determination of the earth magnetic field using PASCOs magnetic field sensor
1. Assemble Magnetic Field Sensor (MFS) to the Rotary Motion Sensor (RMS).
2. Connect MFS and RMS to WorkShop 750 interface.
3. Choose the 100x range for MFS
4. Put the MFS in the position of axial direction
5. Rotate RMS 360 degrees in the horizontal plane.
6. Make a graph of horizontal component of magnetic field of the earth versus angular position
of RMS. This is a harmonic function (sinusoidal function). Choose sinusoidal function as a
fit function and find its amplitude. It is Be
x.
Calculate Be=Be
x
/cos.
7. Compare this magnetic field with the earth magnetic field found by using tangent
galvanometer.

















32
EXPERIMENT 9

THE MAGNETIC FIELD IN A SOLENOID

Objective

To determine the magnetic field strength in solenoid using a current balance and the Halls sensor.

Apparatus

Air core solenoid and current balance (Fig. 1), two DC current power supplies, mass balance, thread,
wires, WorkShop 750 interface, magnetic field sensor, and computer.


Fig. 1. Solenoid and current balance

Background

Solenoid is constructed by winding wire in a helical coil around a cylinder. The windings are very
close to each other and usually consist of many layers. When a current is carried by the wire, a
magnetic field is generated by solenoid. If the length of a solenoid is large compared with its
diameter, the magnetic field created inside the solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis. The
magnetic field outside the solenoid is very small and decays quickly with the distance. The
magnitude of the magnetic field in the center of the solenoid is proportional to the number of turns
per unit length of the solenoid, n=N/L, and the magnitude of the current, I

nI B
0
= (1)

where
0
=410
-7
Weber/A m, N number of turns, and L is the length. For solenoids that are not very
long, more accurate formulae should be used

2 2
0
4R L
NI
B
+
=

(2)

where R is the radius of the solenoid. When a wire carrying a current is placed in a uniform magnetic
field a force is exerted on the wire. This force depends on the magnitude of the current, the length of
the wire, d, and on the relative orientation of the wire with regard to the magnitude magnetic field
33

F=IdxB

When the wire is perpendicular to magnetic field the last equation can be written in the form
Id
F
B =

Vectors F, B, and d are perpendicular to each other.

Magnetic field strength can be measured by using current balance and Halls sensor. A Hall device
consists of a piece of semiconductor material which is doped to create a considerable amount of free
charge carriers. The device is placed in a magnetic field, so the direction of electrical current and
magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. A charged particle moving through a magnetic field
experiences a force described by the Lorentz equation: F=qvxB, where F is the force, q is the
charge, v is the velocity, and B is the magnetic field. When the electrons move in the sensor, a
potential difference has developed across the strip, and by measuring this voltage, the strength of the
magnetic field may be determined.
Procedure
The air core solenoid is made of enameled copper wire wound on a phenolic core. The ends of the
wire are brought out to the brass binding posts on the rigid end plates. There are five layers of turns.
Measure and record the length of the loop current perpendicular to the field, d (Fig. 1), the length, L,
and radius, R, of solenoid. Count the number of turns, N, and calculate number of turns per unit
length, n.
1. Calculate the magnetic field in the center of the solenoid for 3A current using equations (1)
and (2).
2. Connect the current loop, solenoid, variable rheostats, and ammeters to the source of current
in two-branch circuit (Fig. 2)
34

Fig. 2. A schematic of the experimental set up

With no current flowing in the apparatus, move the end of the current loop into the center of
the coil and make sure that it can freely oscillate on support brackets attached to the end plate
of the solenoid. If necessary level the current loop placing masking tape underneath if needed
for horizontal balance. Make sure that the loop is in horizontal position before turning the
current on.
3. Measure the length and the mass of the thread and find its linear mass density, (mass per
unit length).
4. With a current 3A establish a magnetic field in the center of the solenoid. Maintain this
current in the solenoid for all the trails. Using the current balance loop pass a current 3.0 A
through it. The end of the beam balance (out of the solenoid) should move upward. If it
moved downward you will have to reverse the direction of the current in either the solenoid
or the loop by switching the wires. When the loop current is turned on the balance is changed
because the magnetic force is exerted on the loop. Note that only the part of the loop, which
is perpendicular to the magnetic field, produces this force. The current flowing through the
two conductive strips parallel to the symmetry axis of the solenoid does not interact with the
magnetic field and can be ignored. The plastic beam should have the length adjusted in such
a way that the end of the beam with the conductive strip is right in the center of the solenoid.
But usually it is not the case.
5. Balance the loop with a long piece of thread. Use scissors or fingernail clippers to shorten the
thread, the amount needed. Measure the length of this thread, l. The torque of the pull of the
earth on the thread (weight of the thread) is equal to the magnitude of the torque of the
magnetic force on the opposite end

BidL
2
=mgL
1
(3)

where m is the mass of the thread (m= l), L
1
and L
2
are lever arms of force of gravity and
magnetic force (Fig. 3 ). Measure L
1
and L
2
.
35

Fig. 3. Current balance in equilibrium (BidL
2
=mgL
1
)

6. Repeat for two more trails with the increment through the loop approximately of 2.0 A, 1.00
A (it is easier to change current than the length of the thread; you do not need to keep
increment of the current change constant, equal 1.0 A). The descending order of current is
preferred to conserve the thread used. The thread is cut shorter for each mass required for
balance. Fill in the table provided

i(A) l x10
-2
(m) mx10
-3
(kg)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0 0 0

7. Make a graph of the mass of the thread versus current in the loop (Do not forget to include
the point for which i=0). It is a linear function. Find the slope of the graph and magnetic field
strength in the solenoid (equation 3)

2
1
dL
gL slope
B
-
=

8. Use a WorkShop interface 750 and Magnetic Field Sensor (which uses Halls effect) to
measure magnetic field of the solenoid. Insert this sensor inside the solenoid and find its
position for the maximum axial magnetic field. Record this magnetic field.
9. Present your calculations and measurements of the magnetic field in the solenoid in the table
form (1 T=10000 Gauss).

B (Gauss) B (Gauss)
Calculations Measurement
Equation 1 Equation 2 Current Balance Halls Sensor







36
EXPERIMENT 10

ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT

Objective

To measure the reactance of a capacitor and inductor over a range of frequencies. To measure a
capacitance of a capacitor and inductance of an inductor. To predict and measure resonance
frequency of RLC circuit.

Apparatus

PASCO AC power supply, two voltage sensors, 47F capacitor, DMM, wire coil inductor,
computer.

Background

The reactance of a capacitor, X
C
, and inductor, X
L
, are functions of frequency f:

1
2
2
C
C
C
L
L
L
V
X
I fC
V
X fL
I
t
t
= =
= =


where C is capacitance of a capacitor, L is inductance of an inductor, V
C
, V
L
, I
C
, I
L
are amplitudes of
voltages and currents on the capacitor and the inductor. For RLC circuit (R, L, and C are connected
in series) (Fig. 1), I
C
=I
L
=I and impedance Z is equal:

2 2
( )
L C
V
Z R X X
I
= = +
where V is amplitude of generator voltage (output voltage), R is the resistance of the circuit.



Fig. 1. RLC circuit

Phase shift between the voltage at RLC circuit and current is

) (
R
X X
tan
C L 1

=

u
37
At the resonance frequency
1
2
f
LC t
= the current is maximum (I=I
max
), impedance is minimum
(Z=Z
min
), the following equations are valid
L C
L C
X X
V V
Z R
=
=
=

and phase shift, u, between current and voltage of the generator equals zero.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up a circuit as shown in the Fig. 2 with the 47F capacitor and inductor connected
to the AC power supply (PASCO interface box). Connect voltage sensors with the
capacitor and inductor.


Fig. 2

2. Set the Signal Generator to 0.1 volt and frequency of 200 Hz
3. In the Signal Generator window, click on measurements and choose output
current
4. Under displays choose scope and select output current
5. You should now have the oscilloscope display on the screen along with the signal
generator window.
6. With the signal generator on, (click auto off first) click start, you should see a
sine wave of the supply current which is going through the circuit.
7. You will have to adjust voltage and time scales on the Scope display
8. Record the peaks of current level (current must be less than 350 mA), voltages on
the capacitor, inductor, and output voltage as the frequency is stepped from 200 Hz to
1200 Hz (100 Hz is a step increment). Use the Smart tool for measurements.








38
9. Use the following table to keep track of the data
f I V
C
V
L
X
C
X
L
Z
u
Hz A V V
O O O
rad
200
300
400


1200

10. Make a plot of X
C
, X
L
, and Z versus f on the same graph.
11. For the graph X
C
versus f choose an inverse function as a fit function (y=a/x) and find
the capacitance of capacitor C
exp
=1/(2ta). Compare this capacitance with the nominal
capacitance 47F and measurement done by DMM.
12. For the graph X
L
versus f choose a proportional function as a fit function (y=ax) and
find the inductance of the inductor L
exp
=a/(2t).
13. For the graph Z versus f choose
5 . 0 2
] ) / ( [ x c bx a y + = as a fit function.
14. Calculate the resonance frequency
exp exp
1
2
cal
f
L C t
=
15. Find the resonance frequency by finding the interception of the graphs X
C
and X
L

versus f (at resonance X
C
= X
L
).
16. Find the resonance frequency by finding the abscissa of the minimum of the
impedance. Find the resistance R=Z
min
. The circuit resistance could be due to several
factors such as wiring resistance, contact resistance, and power supply resistance. The
first two possibilities can be measured with an ohmmeter. (Do not try to measure
the power supply resistance this way, it will damage the instrument.)
17. Make a graph of current versus frequency and find the resonance frequency. For this
graph choose
5 . 0 2
) ) / ( [

+ = x c bx a A y as a fit function.
18. Make a graph of phase shift u versus frequency and find resonance frequency
( )
a
x / c bx
( tan y
1

=

is a fit function).
19. Make a table of the resonance frequencies found in paragraphs 14, 15, 16, 17and 18.
20. Make phaser diagrams for 400Hz frequency. Find V and u from these diagrams and
compare with your experimental data.