URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

The New Underground Planning Map of

the Netherlands: a Feasibility Study of the
Possibilities of the Use of Underground Space

R. A. H. Monnikhof, J. Edelenbos, F. van der Hoeven and

R. A. A. van der Krogt

Abstract --In 1998 a study was conducted in the Netherlands into the possibilities of a more large-scale and
systematic use of the underground in the western part of the country, the so-called ~Randstad". It was
intended to be a more focused sequel on a study conducted on the possible role that use of the underground
coald play for the whole of the Netherlands, the "Strategic Study on the utilization of underground space".
The study examined the possibilities of improving an idealized model of the future spatial development of the
Randstad, that was preferred by the provinces comprising this Randstad, by using more extensively he
underground space. Improvement meant an enlargement of the efficiency of the use of space and maintenance
or enlargement of the spatial quality of the area. Societal, cost, groundwater and policy aspects were
investigated. The study showed some remarkable results. Gains in available space up to 50% in specific areas
seemed possible and, when costs of working and maintenance were taken into account, underground
construction for several facilities was no more expensive than above ground construction, which contradicts
a widely held belief in the Netherlands. © 1999 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction study was conducted. In Section 5, three basic motives for

his paper deals with a study conducted on behalf of going underground are outlined. Section 6 deals with

T the "Randstad Spatial Planning Group ~ (abbrevi-

ated in Dutch ~o RORO), the Centre for Under-
ground Construction and the Ministry of Housing, Spatial
Development and Environmental Control. This study was
intended to show the possibilitiesfor using the under-
ground to achieve a mere spatially efficientand greener
development of the so-called "Randstad', the western part
of the Netherlands. It was a more focused and in-depth
sequel of a study conducted on the possible role that use of
the underground could play for the whole of the Nether-
lands until 2030, the "Strategic Study on the utilization of
underground space" (see Horvat and van der Krogt 1997,
Edelenbos et al. 1998).
Section 2 outlines the inducement to the study, which
lies in the presentation of an overall m a p of all spatial
plans in the Netherlands. Section 3 describes the spatial
model that formed the normative starting point for the
study, followed by a sketch of the topics dealt with in the
study in Section 4, as well as a short description of how the
Present address:Rend A.tt. Monnikhof, Jurrien Edelenbos, and
Frank van derHoeven,ResearchAssistants,FacultyofArchitscture,
DelR UniversityofTechnology,P.O. Box 5043, 2600 G A Delft,The
Netherlands;Rob van der Krogt, Consultant,D H V Environment
and Infrastructure,P.O. Box 1076, 3800 BB Amersfoort, The
Netherlands.
safety, liveabilityand user aspects of going underground,
followed by the effects on spatial efficiencyin Section 7.
The always important cost aspects are dealt with in Sec-
tion 8. The effectsof use of underground space on ground
water, a topicwhich has been neglected in policydelibera-
tions in the Netherlands until now, will be discussed in
Section 9. Section 10 covers the policy recommendations
that were m a d e regarding the role provinces could play in
a better use of the underground in spatial policy making.
Finally, Section 11 presents some key conclusions of the
study.
2. The New Map of the Netherlands and the
"Randstad"
In 1997 a document called the "New Map of the Nether-
lands" (Stichting de Nieuwe Kaart van Nederland 1998)
was published, showing all the spatial plans in the Nether-
lands on one map. It sent shock waves through the spatial
planning and policy community in the Netherlands, be-
m u s e it showed a future country full with new roads,
railroads, urban sprawl etc.--a country that would use up
its scarce green areas at high speed in the coming decades.
In particular, the area referred to as the"Randstad" was
shown to be an area where future spatial claims would
clash vehemently. A significant portion of the (spatial)
problems in the Netherlands are concentrated in this
western part of the country, where the larger cities are
situated (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht).

www.elsevier.com/Iocate/tust
71~nnellin@and Underground Space Fechnology, VoL 14, No. 3, pp. 341-347, 1999
0886.7798/99/$ - see front matter © 1999 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
All righte reserved.
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PII: S0886-7798(99)00049-8
 Although this area covers only 13% of the area of the
Netherlands (5335 ha of a total of 40,575 ha), it houses 36%
of the population (approximately 5,4 million of a total of 15
million). It is the economic heart of the Netherlands and is
densely populated by Dutch standards (a little more than
10 persons per hectare). This has led to a shortage of green
areas, and those that still exist are under continuous
pressure from the growing need for new housing and
infrastructure. Especially famous here is the so-called
"Green Heart", a larger green area in the centre of the
Randstad. Protection of this a r e a a g a i n s t f u r t h e r
urbanisation has been a main topic for consecutive genera-
tions of national and provincial policy makers. In addition,
congestion problems on the existing infrastructure are
considerable, as is the nuisance caused by this infrastruc-
ture in existing urban areas. The plans shown on the New
Map would aggrevate these problems.
Therefore the four provinces comprising the Randstad
(organized in the so-called "Randstad Spatial Planning
Group", abbreviated in Dutch to RORO) decided to initiate
a study to investigate the possibilities of a more large-scale
and systematic use of the underground in the Randstad.
The intention of this study was to show the flaws in the
image which the New Map had shown of the future of the
Figure 1. The Randstad area of The Netherlands is considered the economic
heart of the Netherlands. In addition, it houses the so-called "Green Heart ~
area in its centre. Protection of this area against further urbanisation has
been a main topic for consecutive generations of national and provincial
policy makers.
342 TUNNELLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY
Randstad, and to give it a greener and more "spatially
efficient" turn. Other initiators were the Centre for Under-
ground Construction and the Ministry of Housing, Spatial
Development and Environmental Control.
3. Spatial Scenarios for the Randstad
The study, which started from an idealized model of the
future spatial development of the Randstad that was
preferred by RORO, examined the possibilities ofimprev-
ing this model by a more extensive use of the underground
space. "Improvement" here meant an enlargement of the
efficiency of the use of space and maintenance or enlarge-
ment of the spatial quality of the area.
RORO itself had already in 1995 drawn up five scenarios
to assess the consequences of current policy goals and their
possible alternatives. These scenarios differed in the amount
of government involvement versus determination by the
market in spatial developments, in the value attached to
keeping present nature and landscape intact, in the ap-
preach choosen towards mobility, etc. None of these sce-
narios alone proved to be wholly desirable in its effects.
Therefore, a synthesis of the two '%est" scenarios was made,
which gave a so-called "preference model".
This preference modelis charactsrisod
by a number of very densely built-up
urban areas, around which are several
public transport oriented intermediaire
zones and transition areas between city
and country, and more suburban areas in
the periphery of the Randstad. Within
this preference model, RORO discerned
nine different types ofareas: Central Busi-
ness District, City Environment, Strate-
gic Zone, Pedestrian Pocket, Condensa-
tion Growth Nucleus, Municipal Balcony,
High Quality Business Area, Low Qual-
ity Business Area, Infrastructure Zone.
These were used for part of the assess-
ment in the study.
4. Structure of the Study
The study investigated several as-
pects of a more extensive use of the
underground, as follows:
Researchers developed a classifica-
tion of underground spaces by shape
and function and some profiles of exem-
plary combinations of functions above -
and underground.
• The "societal aspects" of using the
underground were considered, with
a focus on the difference in effects on
users of and people living nearby a
facility of p u t t i n g t h a t facility
aboveground or underground.
• The possible "gain in space" that
could be achieved by more use of the
underground was estimated for sev-
eral different kinds of (urban) envi-
ronments and recommendations
were made for the use that could be
made of that space.
• The costs of underground construc-
tion for different types of facilities
and different kinds of (soil) situa-
tions were dealt with.
• The effects on ground water in the
area were considered and the limit-
ing conditions that these put on the
possibilities for using the under-
ground.
Volume 14, Number 3, 1999
 • Policy measures that provinces could take to help a
more extensive use of the underground come about,
and so improve their spatial planning, were investi-
gated and recommendations made.
To perform the study, an existing qualitativemethodol-
ogy was used (see Monnikhof et al. 1998). To this basic
methodology, several typologieswere added. As for a typol-
ogy of areas, for assessing the effectson safety,liveability,
users and the efficiencyof use of space, the area typologies
of R O R O were used, particallycombined to seven types of
areas (Central Business District,City Environment, Stra-
tegic Zone, Compact Living Area, High Quality Business
Area, Low Quality Business Area, InfrastructureZone). For
the assessment of the ground water effects,a typologie of
areas with differentground water situationswas developed
and used. And, finally,for assessing the cost aspects no
typology of areas was used; this ofcourse makes the assess-
ment valid for only rather abstract,average circumstances.
Safety, liveability~md user aspects were assessed by
comparing the area typologies with the characteristicsof
five differentfunctions,in a qualitativeanalysis.A quanti-
tativeestimate (percentage) ofthe possiblegain in space by
using the underground was achieved by matching the area
types with the same five functions.
With the cost analysis quantitative results were achieved
for average situations for three types of buildings (high
quality commercial and industrial building, low quality
commercial and industrial building, residences), whereas
the qualitative analysis with regard to ground water effects
discerned between lineshaped and blockshaped objects (an
example ofa lineshaped object is a tunnel for infrastructure,
examples of bleckshaped objects are for instance cellars,
storage rooms, or part~3 of underground office space).
5. Why Go Undergn)und?
In the study, three basic motives for going underground
were identified:
1. To strengthen the quality of the living environment.
By constructing certain functions underground, nui-
sance and hazard can be limited. Disturbing effects
such as sound, stench and emissions are isolated and
safety risks for people living or working nearby the
function can be diminished.
2. To achieve more efficient use of space. More building
volume can be realised on the same ground area.
Also, the use of underground space makes combina-
tion (piling) of several functions possible.
3. To strengthen the spatial-functional structure. By
constructing certain facilities underground valuable
areas and functions can be spared. The character of
historal centres or nature areas, for instance, can be
saved by underground construction of infrastructure
and also barriers can be prevented. Furthermore,
underground construction offers possibilities to com-
bine mutually reinforcing functions into a more effec-
tive functional structure (for example, the combina-
tion of retail,storage and parking).
6. Safety, Liveability and User Aspects of Going
Underground
For assessing safety, liveability and user aspects of
going underground, the first and third criteriawere di-
vided in two. Safety was divided into internal safety, the
safety within a facility,and external safety (safety for
people livingor working near a facility).User aspects were
divided into experiental aspects and functional aspects,
meaning aspects like controllability of production pro-
cesses,ease of maintenance, etcetera.With the aid ofthese
criteria,it was possible to analyse whether five different
functions (distribution,industry,knowledge services,park-
Volume 14, Number 3, 1999
ing and road- and rail infrastructure) would be better
placed above ground or below ground in the types of areas
identifiedby R O R O .
Based on this analysis,itwas concluded that an under-
ground execution ofthe function distribution(transportand
storage of goods) seemed most promising in most areas,
whereas putting knowledge services underground seemed
not to offer m u c h promise. For the other three functions,
conclusions differed considerably between the different
types of area, with citycentres and other cityareas offering
most promise for putting functions underground. A conclu-
sion with regard to these three functions was that when
they would be put underground, carefulattention for inter-
nal safety and experiental aspects would be needed.
7. Spatial Efficiency Aspects of Going
Underground
Use of the underground space can lead to, as mentioned
in Section 5, a higher spatial effiency. Three situations
were identified:
1. Proportional gain in space. A proportional gain in
space will mainly be the case in an environment
where there are no special quality demands (with
regards to green areas, open space etcetera), so that
the space directly above the underground construc-
tion can be used for other buildings.
2. More than proportional gain in space. In some situa-
tions, functions that are brought underground nor-
really cause considerable disturbance in their envi-
ronment, e.g., highways or storage facilities for dan-
gerous substances. Normally, either there would be
no building in large noisy zones and/or there would be
safety zones around these functions. Constructing the
function underground therefore not only releases the
space that such a function would take in itself, but
also (a part of) the space of those disturbance zones. A
more than proportional gain in space could also be
realised when using the underground space allows
new types of building and parcelling out.
3. Less than proportional gain in space, on behalf of
spatial quality. In certain cases the use of the under-
ground can be aimed mainly at achieving more spatial
quality. The space above ground thus released is then
not wholly used for building again, but is left (par-
tially) free, to create, for example, more green, light
and space in an area that is densely built up.
Starting from the possibilities for using the under-
ground for the different functions and the three forms of
gaining space described above, an estimate was made of
the maximum possible gain in space per type of area, when
leaving the quality of the inner and outer space still at an
acceptable level. Most of the time, the use of underground
space was seen as complementary, meaning t h a t not the
whole of a building or facility should be put underground,
but part of it. Because of the large uncertainties the
possible gain in space was expressed in a percentage range.
This leads to estimates of possible gains in space ranging
from 5-15% for city environments, to up to 100% for
infrastructure areas.
8. Cost Aspects of Going Underground
For assessing the costs of underground construction in
the Randstad, three types of construction were considered:
• High-quality commercial and industrial building,
characterised by representativeness, expensive fronts,
good isolation and a solid construction. Examples are
offices, hospitals and cinemas.
• Low-quality commercial and industrial building,
characterised by a light construction, simple materi-
TUNNELLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY343
 als and low isolation. Examples include production
halls and storage buildings.
• Residences.
The costs were calculated for hypothetical average situ-
ations, based on distinctive numbers and experience. In
reality, of course, the concrete situation with its specific
local circumstances has a large impact on the actual costs.
The costs of buildings are determined by construction
costs, the costs of land and exploitation costs. This last
category is made up of costs for maintenance and use of
energy. They are made during the whole duration of life of
a building, in contrast to the construction costs and costs of
land that have to be covered directly at construction. There-
fore, use was made of a net present value calculation to be
able to include exploitation costs in the cost comparison.
Starting points were a duration of life of 50 years and a real
interest of 5%.
Table 1 provides an overview of the relative difference
in costs between construction costs,costs of acquiring land
and exploitation costs (net present value) of a building
constructed above ground in comparison to a building
partially underground. For each type of building, the
starting point was the m a x i m u m of use ofthe underground
that under "average" circumstances would stillbe realistic
(presented as the percentage of the building constructed
underground).
The table shows that underground construction has
consequences for costs.In allcases, higher investments are
needed for construction, but these can be (partially) recov-
ered by savings on the costs of land and exploitation costs.
Less surface is needed for the same amount of building,
and less maintenance is needed for outer walls and roofs.
Also, the use of energy for heating and cooling is lower (but
the use of energy for lighting is higher). Underground
construction can also be favourable for security and other
costs, but these were not included in the calculations.
On the basis of the calculations of construction costs,
costs of land and exploitation costs, Table 2 gives a com-
parative overview of the total costs. When one takes the
integral cost into account not only construction costs but
also the costs of using a building and of the area that it
covers, Table 2 yields the following results:
• The price of land is a relatively minor part of the
integral costs.
• Low quality commercial and industrial building is
structurally more expensive when built underground
• Partially underground residences and high quality
company buildings are eventually not or hardly more
expensive than comparable above-ground structures.
Research was not done on the cost of building
infrastructure underground. It is well known that on
average, building infrastructure underground in the
N e t h e r l a n d s is m a n y t i m e s more expensive t h a n
constructing it above ground. Cost considerations therefore
will never be an argument for constructing infrastructure

Table 1. Comparative overview of construction costs, land costs and exploitation costs (relatiw per square meter).

Percentsge Construction Costs Land Costs Exploitation Costs

Type of Building UndeP
ground Above Below Above Below Above Below
ground ground ground ground ground ground
High-quality
commercial and
Industrial building:

• City centre, low" 33% 100 113 100 67 100 86

• City centre, high ~ 17% 100 107 100 83 100 93

• Outskirts, low" 20% 100 110 100 64 100 91

• Outskirts, highb 20% 100 110 100 60 100 91

Low-quality
commercial end
Industrial building:

• 1 storey 50% 100 170 100 50 100 81

underground

• 2 s~reys 67% 100 193 100 33 100 74

unde~round

Residences:

• Low-rise 25% 100 113 100 75 100 94

• High-rise 13% 100 112 100 87 100 97

' refers to predominantly Iow-dse buildings

b refers to predominantly high-rise buildings

344 TUNNELLINGAND UNDERGROUNDSPACE TECHNOLOGY Volume 14, Number 3, 1999

Table 2. Comparative overview o f total costs (relative, p e r square meter).

Total Costa (construction

Share of construction costa, land costa and
costs, land costa and
axploitation costa in total costa (%)
Percentage exploltaUon costa)
Type of Building Under-
ground Above ground Below ground
Below
Above ground
ground
co la ex co la ex

High-quality
commercial and
Industrial building:

• City centre, low" 33% 61 8 31 68 6 26 100 101

• City centre, high b 17% 64 5 31 68 3 29 100 101

• Outskirts, low" 20% 54 14 32 61 9 30 100 98

• Outskirts, high b 20% 57 10 33 64 6 30 100 99

Low-quality
commercial and
Industrlal building:

• 1 storey 50% 48 24 28 70 11 19 100 116

underground

• 2 storeys 67% 48 24 28 76 7 17 100 122

unde~round

Resldences:

• Low-dse 25% 37 25 38 44 19 37 100 96

• High-dse 13% 43 14 43 48 10 42 100 101

= refers to predominantly low-rise buildings

b refersto predominantly high-rise buildings

underground in the Netherlands (although newer methods
of (micro-)tunneling miight bring down this cost difference
between aboveground and underground construction of
infrastructure).
9. Groundwater Aspects of Going Underground
Because building structures underground can have large
and lasting effects on groundwater, these effects were
taken into consideration. Groundwater has a number of
essential functions, related to:
• Ecology. Groundwater determines the water balance
in the soil on which the natural environment depends
strongly. Quality and quantity of groundwater per-
form an important role in this.
• Public water supply. Ttwo-thirds of the groundwater.
in the Netherlands is used for drinking water and
industrial uses. ~.["nerefore a high quality of ground
water is necessary.
• Feeding o f agricultural crops. For every type of crop,
there is an optimal ground water level. Changes in
the ground w a t e r level can lead to losses in yield.
• Recreation. Changes in the water m a r k influence
vegetation and access to recreational areas and the
possibilities for using recreational waters.
• B u i l d i n g a n d infrastructure. For buildings on wooden
pile foundations and for roads, dikes and networks of
pipes, a more or less constant level of groundwater is
desirable to avoid damage through subsidence.
To preserve these essential functions, it is recommended
that the original ground water situation be left intact as
much as possible. However, some smaller or larger changes
in the ground water situation will always occur if an
underground structure is built. For a general understand-
ing of these effects the following ground water aspects are
important:
• Infiltration: vertical downward flow of ground water,
for example the entry of rainwater from the surface
into the soil.
• Upward seepage (welD: vertical upward flow of ground
water.
• Groundwater system: a (more or less) closed circuit
of ground water flows within a defined area where
(rain)water infiltrates, flows horizontally and wells
upward again.
Underground construction will not cause too m a n y
problems for the groundwater situation if the conditions
mentioned in Table 3 are taken care of.

Volume 14, Number 3, 1999 TUNNSLLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY345

10. Provincial Steering Models for Stimulating the
Use of Underground Space
Since the study was initiated by, among others, the
provinces comprising the Randstad, a request had been to
indicate how these provinces could help a better use of the
underground space come about. In this regard, five pos-
sible roles were discerned in the study:
1. Normsetting role. In this role, the province could make
the granting of permits dependent on the question of
whether an underground option had been seriously
considered. Further, the province has the legal possi-
bility to assign several areas a special status with
regard to soil protection. In these areas, the province
could set more specific rules with regard to the use of
the soil. Finally, when the province is the designated
authority for a project for which an environmental
impact assessment is deemed necessary, it could stipu-
late that in this assessment, use of the underground
space is to be explicitly considered.
2. Norm testing role. In this role, provinces could make
their approval of municipal spatial plans dependent
on the question of whether it also has a "three-
dimensional" aspect, meaning that the use of the
underground is also covered by it.
3. Informing and advising role. In addition to using
their legal powers, provinces could also use the "softer"
means of informing municipalities and companies
about all the possibilities there are for use of the
underground, when carrying out their plans. For this,
of course, the provinces themselves need to keep in
touch of the latest developments in the field.
More specifically, a province could draw up guide-
lines or a basic model for underground use in the
provincial spatial plan, to support municipalities
with the filling in of the underground part of the
municipal spatial plan.
In addition to performing an advising role, provinces
could also actively educate local administrators and
consult with them about the possibilities of under-
ground construction.
4. Stimulating role. Provinces could "show the way" by
paying attention to the use of the underground in
their own spatial plans and other policy plans. Fur-
ther, provinces could make available funding for
executing exemplary projects. And, finally, in this
role provinces could contribute financially to the
extra costs of innovative underground solutions.
5. Initiating role. W h e n a province is the iniater,or one
ofthe initiators,of a project,itcould bring the possible
underground construction of (parts of) the project
under atttention on its own.
11. Conclusions
The study showed some remarkable results. For one
thing, gains in available space up to 50% in specific areas of
the Randstad seemed possible (even one 100% for infra-
structure areas). For another, when costs of energy and
maintenance were taken into account, underground con-
struction for offices, hospitals and parts of houses was no
more expensive than above-ground construction, which
contradicts a widely held belief in the Netherlands. Espe-
cially for commercial services, underground construction
seems a viable option. Finally, once again the high potential
of putting the distribution function underground was con-

Table 3. Conditions set by groundwater considerations for using the underground.

Urban area None, the natural ground water situation is on average already seriously
disturbed

Infiltration area Preferably in large groundwater systems, possibly in small systems

(dependent on the relationship between the size of the system and the
size of the disturbance)

Areas independent of upward seepage • Preferably in large groundwater systems, possibly in small systems
• Lineshaped constructions (infrastructure) preferably in the aquitar
• In aquifers: either parallel to the direction of the ground water flow or
blocking no more than 50% of the height of the aquifer.

Areas dependent of upward seepage
• Not in small groundwatersystems, unless when there is only a limited
depth necessary for construction
• Lineshaped constructions preferably in the aquitar
• Lineshaped elements in aquifers: either parallel to the direction of the
ground water flow or blocking no more than 50% of the height of the
aquifer

Drinking water areas No underground construction

346 TUNNELLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY Volume 14, Number 3, 1999

Table 4. An example of a possible basic model for an underground spatial plan.
0-3
3-15
Below 15
All depths
firmed (compare H o r v a t et al. 1997 a n d Edelenbos et al.
1998)
The s t u d y w a s "inserted" into t h e policy process. Since
policy-making in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s is a slow process, no r e a l
decisions on a more extensive use of t h e u n d e r g r o u n d have
been t a k e n , b u t extensive f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h into for i n s t a n c e
t h e p a r t u n d e r g r o u n d goods t r a n s p o r t could p l a y is being
conducted.
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