MODULE I VECTOR ALGEBRA, VECTOR CALCULUS, COORDINATE SYSTEMS, VECTOR FIELDS

Syllabus Module I Vector analysis: Vector algebra, Coordinate systems and transformations-Cartesia n, cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Constant coordinate surfaces. Vector c alculus-Differential length, area and volume. Line, surface and volume integrals . Del operator. Gradient of a scalar, Divergence of a vector, Divergence theorem , Curl of a vector. Stocks theorem, Laplacian of a scalar. Classification of vect or fields. Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

References 1. 2. Text Books: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford Unive rsity Press Jordan and Balmain, Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems, Pea rson Education PHI Ltd. References: Kraus Fleisch, Electromagnetics with applica tions, McGraw Hill William.H.Hayt, Engineering Electromagnetics, Tata McGraw Hil l N.Narayana Rao, Elements of Engineering Electromagnetics, Pearson Education PH I Ltd. D.Ganesh Rao, Engineering Electromagnetics, Sanguine Technical Publishers . Joseph.A.Edminister, Electromagnetics, Schaum series-McGraw Hill 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Scalars and vectors A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. Time Distance Temperature Speed A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Force Displacement Velocity Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Unit vector A vector A has both magnitude and direction. Magnitude of A = A = A A unit vector along A is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity and whose direction is along vector A . It is denoted by a A aA A A = = A A A = AaA Vector A is completely specified in terms of its magnitude A and direction a A Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Vectors represented in rectangular coordinate systems Any vector in space can be uniquely expressed in terms of x, y and z coordinates using a rectangular coordinate system. Z Az A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z az ax Ax X A Ay ay Y Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Vectors A Ax , Ay a

represented in rectangular coordinate systems = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z , Az Components of A in the direction of x, y , z x , a y , a z Unit vectors specifying the direction of x, y , z axes

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Position vector of a point in space A point P in Cartesian coordinate system may be expressed as its x,y,z coordinat es. The position vector of a point P is the directed distance from the origin O to the point P. A point P (3,4,5) has the position vector rp = 3a x + 4a y + 5a z Z Az P rp = OP = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z Ay az ax Ax X Y ay Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Vector addition and subtraction If A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z and B = B x a x + B y a y + Bz a z

C = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) a x + ( Ay + B y ) a y + ( Az + Bz ) a z D = A B = ( Ax Bx ) a x + ( Ay B y ) a y + ( Az Bz ) a z

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Distance vector Distance vector is the displacement from one point to another. If two points A ( Ax,Ay,Az) and B (Bx,By,Bz) are given, the distance vector from A to B is given b y rAB = ( Bx Ax ) a x + ( B y Ay ) a y + ( Bz Az ) a z

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Unit vector in the direction of given vector Let A be a vector in space given by A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z A unit vector in the direction of A is given by aA = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2

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Example 1 If A = 10a x 4a y + 6a z and B = 2a x + a y find (i ) Component of A along a y (ii ) Magnitude of 3A B (iii ) A unit vector along A + 2 B

Answer : (ii ) 3A B = ( 30a x 12a y + 18a z ) ( 2a x + a y ) = 28a x 13a y + 1 3A B = 282 + 132 + 182 = 35.74 Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008 (i ) 4

Example 1 (iii ) A + 2 B = 14a x 2a y + 6a z A unit vector c along A + 2 B = = 14a x 2a y + 6a z 142 + 2 2 + 62 A + 2B A + 2B c = 0.9113a x 0.1302a y + 0.3906a z

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Vector multiplication dot product Scalar product or dot product: It is defined as the product of magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. AB is the smaller angle between them Properties: A B = AB cos AB (i ) Commutative Property: A B = B A (ii ) When two vectors are perpendicular the angle between them is =90 cos90 = 0 A B = AB cos90 = 0 If the dot product of two vectors are zero, they are perpendicular. Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Vector multiplication dot product (iii ) Since a x , a y , a z are mutually perpendicular ax a y = a y az = 0 (iv ) When two vectors are parallel the angle between them is either 0 or 180 A B = AB cos0 = AB or A B = AB cos180 = AB ( v ) The s uare of a vector is the s uare of its magnitude. A A = AA cos0 = A2 A2 = A2 Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Vector multiplication dot product ( vi ) Scalar product is e ual to the sum of products of their corresponding com ponents.

If A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z and B = B x a x + B y a y + Bz a z A. x + Ay a y + Az a z ) ( Bx a x + B y a y + Bz a z ) = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz

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Vector Product or cross product Vector Product or cross product: Vector product of two vectors A and B is denote d as A B and is defined as A B = A B sin AB an Where an is a unit vector perpendicular to A and B such that A, B and an forms a right handed system. Geometrically the cross product can be defined as a vector whose magnitude is e ual to the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B and whose direction is in the direction of advance of a right handed screw as A is turned in to B through the smaller angle.

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Vector Product or cross product A B AB sin B an A AB sin

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Vector Product or cross product Properties:

( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) )

(i ) Anti commutative : A B = B A (ii ) Distributive : A B + C = A B + A C (iii ) Not Associative : A B v ) Vector product of two parallel vectors is zero. A B = A B sin AB an = A B sin 0an = 0 ( v ) A A = A A sin 0an = 0 Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

C A

Vector Product or cross product Properties: ( vi ) a x a x = a y a y = a z a z = 0 ( vii ) a x a y = 1.1.sin 90 a z = a z and a y az = ax az ax = a y a y a x = a z az a y = a x a x a z = a y Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Vector Product or cross product Properties: ay ax az a y ax az az az ay ax a x ay

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Vector Product or cross product ( viii ) If A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z and B = B x a x + B y a y + Bz a z

ay Ay By az Az Bz

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ax A

B = Ax Bx

July 2008

Projection of a vector on another vector Scalar component of A along B is called projection of A on B and is given by AB = A cos AB = A aB cos AB = A aB A AB aB A cos AB

B Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC

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Projection of a vector on another vector Vector component of A along B is the scalar component multiplied by a unit vecto r along B AB = AB aB = A aB aB ( )

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Scalar triple product Given three vectors A, B and C the scalar triple product is defined as A B C = B C A = C A B and is represented as A B C ( ) ( ) ( ) Geometrically the scalar triple product is e ual to the volume of a parallelepip ed having A, B and C as sides Properties: (i )

( ) ( ) ( )

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A B C = B C A = C A B i.e. A B

C = B C

A = C A

Scalar triple product (ii) A change in the cyclic order of vectors changes the sign of scalar triple p roduct. A B C = B A C (iii ) a x + C y a Ax A B C Compiled by:

If A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z and B = B x a x + B y a y + Bz a z C y + Cz az = Bx Cx Ay By Cy Az Bz Cz MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Vector triple product For any three vectors A, B, C A B C = B AC C A B bac cab rule ( ) ( ) ( )

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Cylindrical Coordinate Systems Any point in space is considered to be at the intersection of three mutually per pendicular surfaces: A circular cylinder (=constant) A ve tical plane (=constant) A ho izontal plane (z =constant) Any point in space is ep esented by th ee coo dinates P(,,z) denotes the adius of an imagina y cylinde passing th ough P, o the adial dis tance f om z axis to the point P. denotes azimuthal angle, measu ed f om x axis to a ve tical inte secting plane passing th ough P. z denotes distance f om xy-p lane to a ho izontal inte secting plane passing th ough P. It is the same as in ectangula coo dinate system. CEC S5 EC - July 2008

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Cylind ical Coo dinate Systems Z z=constant =constant z P(,,z) Y Ranges : 0 < 0 < 2 =constant X

< z < Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Cylindrical Coordinate Systems P(3,45,8) Z =3 z=8 P(3,45,8) Y =45

X Compiled by: MKP fo

CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Cylind ical Coo dinate Systems Z a z a z a z a a a Y

X Compiled by: MKP fo

CEC S5 EC - July 2008

 a , a , a z A = A a + A a + Az a z The magnitude of the vecto is given by A =

A 2 + A 2 + A z 2 Compiled by: MKP fo

CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Cylind ical Coo dinate Systems A vecto in cylind ical coo dinate system may be pe pendicula unit vecto s a , a , a z fo m a c ew when otated f om a to a moves towa ons along , and z axes. Using these unit vecto

specified using th ee mutually ight handed system because an RH s ds a z These unit vecto s specify di ecti s any vecto A may be exp essed as

Cylind ical Coo dinate Systems

a a = a a = a z a z = 1 a a = a a z = a z a = Compiled by: MKP fo CEC S5 EC - July 2008

 = x2 + y2 = tan 1 z=z y x P(,,z) o (x,y,z) z y x x = cos y = sin z=z Y x = cos y = sin X

a z a a Compiled by: MKP fo

CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Relationship between cylind ical and ectangula z Z

coo dinate systems

 a a ax a a cos a a sin X a x = a cos a sin Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Relationship between cylind ical and ectangula Y

coo dinate systems

 a a ay a sin a a cos X a y = a cos + a sin Compiled by: MKP fo CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Relationshi Y

between cylindrical and rectangular coordinate systems

 ay a ax X a = a x cos + a y sin Compiled by: MKP fo CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Relationship between cylind ical and ectangula Y

coo dinate systems

 a a x ay a ax X a = a y cos a x sin Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Relationship between cylind ical and ectangula Y

coo dinate systems

Relationshi between cylindrical and rectangular coordinate systems a x = a cos a sin a y = a cos + a sin equations (2) az = az a = a x cos + a y sin a = a y cos a x sin az = az equations (3) Compiled by: MKP fo CEC S5 EC - July 2008

T ansfo mation of vecto s between cylind ical and ectangula coo dinate systems Substituting the equations (2) in the gene al equation fo a vecto in ectangul a coo dinates,

A = Ax ( a cos a sin ) + Ay ( a cos + a sin ) + Az a z A = ( Ax Ax sin + Ay cos ) a + Az a z A = Ax cos + Ay sin A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z A = Ax sin + Ay cos Az = Az equations (4) Compiled by: MKP fo CEC S5 EC - July 2008

T ansfo mation of vecto s between cylind ical and ectangula coo dinate systems Substituting the equations (3) in the gene al equation fo a vecto in cylind ic al coo dinates,

A = A ( a x cos + a y sin ) + A ( a x sin + a y cos ) + Az a z A = x + ( A sin + A cos ) a y + Az a z A = A a x + A a y + Az a z Ax = A cos A sin Ay = A sin + A cos Az = Az equations (5) Compiled by: MKP fo CEC S5 EC - July 2008

T ansfo mation of vecto s between cylind ical and ectangula coo dinate systems T ansfo mation of a vecto exp essed in ectangula coo dinates (Ax.Ay,Az) to cy lind ical coo dinates (A.A,Az) can be achieved using equations (4). The set of equ ations (4) can be exp essed in mat ix fo m as

A cos sin 0 Ax A = sin cos 0 A y 0 1 Az Az

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 Ax cos sin 0 A A = sin cos 0 A y 0 1 Az Az

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Transformation of Transformation of gula coo dinates ations (5) can be

vectors between cylindrical and rectangular coordinate systems a vector expressed in cylindrical coordinates (A.A,Az) to ectan (Ax.Ay,Az) can be achieved using equations (5). The set of equ exp essed in mat ix fo m as

Example 2 Convert the following points expressed in cylindrical coordinates to rectangular coordinate system. (i) P(2,5/6,3) x = cos (ii) Q(4,4/3, 1) y = sin z=z (i ) x = cos = 2cos 5 = 1.732 6 5 y = sin = 2sin =1 6 P(2, (ii ) P(4, 5 ,3) P( 1.732,1,3) 6 4 , 1) P( 2, 3.464, 1) 3 Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Exam le 1 Convert the following oint ex ressed in rectangular coordinate system to cylind rical coordinates and sketch the location of the oint. P(x=3,y=4,z=5) Z = x2 + y2 = x 2 + y 2 = 32 + 42 = 5 = tan 1 y 4 = tan 1 = 53.1 x 3 =5 = tan 1 z=z y x P(3, 4,5) P(5, 53.1 ,5)

z=5 P(5,53.1,5) Y X =53.1 Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC

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 A cos sin 0 Ax A = sin cos 0 A y 0 1 Az A cos sin 0 4 = sin cos 0 2 0 1 4 0 A = 4cos 2sin At the oint P(2,3,5) A = 4cos56.3 2sin 56.3 A = 4sin 2cos Az = 4 = tan 1 y 3 = tan 1 = 56.3 x 2 A = 4sin 56.3 2cos56.3 Az = 4

= 0.556a 4.44a 4a z Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

= ( 4cos56.3 2sin 56.3) a + ( 4sin 56.3 2cos56.3) a 4a z

Exam le 3 Convert the vector dinates.

= 4a x 2a y 4a z located at A(2,3,5) in to cylindrical coor

Example 4 Exp ess the vecto coo dinates. xy 2 za x + x 2 yza y + xyz 2a z in cylind ical x = cos y = sin

A cos sin 0 Ax A = sin cos 0 A y 0 1 Az Az 2 A cos sin 0 xy z A = sin cos 0 x 2 yz 0 1 x

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Example 4 (Contd) A = xy 2 z cos + x 2 yz sin A = xy 2 z sin + x 2 yz cos Az = xyz 2 Put x = cos y = sin A = 3 z cos2 sin 2 + 3 z sin 2 cos2 = 2 3 z cos2 sin 2 A = 3 z cos 3 sin Az = 2 z 2 sin cos Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Sphe ical coo dinate system Any point in space is ep esented as the inte section o th ee su aces: A sphe e o adius om the o igin ( =constant) A cone cente ed a ound the z a xis (=constant) A ve tical plane (=constant) Any point in sphe ical coo dinate system is conside ed to be at the inte section o the above th ee planes. Z =constant X Y

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Sphe ical coo dinate system Z Z

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=constant X

=constant X July 2008

Sphe ical coo dinate system Z P( , , )

0 < < 2 Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC

Ranges : 0 X

Y < 0

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S herical coordinate system Z ar ar a a a a Y r Ranges : 0 r < 0 X

0 < < 2 Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC

July 2008

S herical coordinate system Three unit vectors of the s herical coordinate system are shown in the figure. U nit vector ar lies along the radially outward direction to the s herical surface . It lies on the cone =constant and the lane =constant The unit vector a is normal to the conical surface and lies in =constant lane and is tangential to the s he rical surface. Unit vector a is the same as in cylindrical coordinate system. It is normal to =constant lane and is tangential to both the cone and the s here. T he unit vectors are mutually er endicular and forms a right handed set. An RH s crew when rotated from ar to a will move it towards a direction.

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S herical coordinate system A vector A in s herical coordinate system may be ex ressed as A = Ar ar + A a + A a a , a , a a e unit vecto s along , , di ections Magnitude o the vecto is given by A = A 2 + A 2 + A 2 The unit vecto s a a = a a = a a = 1 a a = a a = a a = 0 a , a , a a e mutually o thogonal. Thus

a a = a a a = a a Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

a = a

, , in te ms o x, y , z = x2 + y2 + z2 = tan 1 x2 + y2 z T ans o mation o va iables Z

= tan 1 y x

x x = cos y = sin X Compiled by: MKP

z = y Y

cos

o CEC S5 EC

P(x,y,z) o (,,z) o ( ,,) z

July 2008

x, y , z in te ms o

sin , , x = sin cos y = sin sin z = cos

T ans o mation o va iables = x2 + y2 + z2

= tan 1 x2 + y2 z

= tan 1 y x

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z =

cos

o CEC S5 EC

x =

sin cos y =

sin sin

July 2008

T ans o mation o vecto s 90

a a z

a 90 x y = sin

y Y az ay x = cos ax

X Compiled by: MKP

z =

cos

o CEC S5 EC

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a y = a

Z =

sin sin sin + a cos sin + a cos a z = a cos a sin

a x = a

sin cos + a cos cos a sin

T ans o mation o vecto s 90

z a

a a a

a a y Y az ay x y = sin x = cos ax

X Compiled by: MKP

z =

cos

o CEC S5 EC

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a y = a

Z =

sin sin sin + a cos sin + a cos a z = a cos a sin

a x = a

sin cos + a cos cos a sin

T ans o mation o vecto s The unit vecto s a x , a y , a z a e to be exp essed in te ms o unit vecto s in sphe ical coo dinates a , a , a a x consists o the p ojections o a , a , a o he x axis. In o de to ind this p ojection, i st ind the p ojection on the xy plane and then on to the e ui ed unit vecto s. a x = sin cos a + cos cos a a a y = sin sin a + cos sin a + cos a equation (1) a z = cos a sin a

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T ans o mation o vecto s 90

a = a x sin + a y cos a a z

a 90 x y = sin

y Y az ax ay x = cos

X Compiled by: MKP

z =

Z =

sin

cos

= a x cos sin + a y sin sin + a z cos a = a x cos cos + a y

o CEC S5 EC

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T ans o mation o vecto s 90

a = a x cos cos + a y sin cos a z sin a = a x sin + a y cos z a

a a a ax

a y Y az ay x y = sin x = cos ax

X Compiled by: MKP

z =

Z =

sin

cos

= a x cos sin + a y sin sin + a z cos

o CEC S5 EC

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 a = sin a x + cos a y

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T ans o mation o vecto s The unit vecto s a , a , a a e to be exp essed gula coo dinates a x , a y , a z a consists o a z on the axis. In o de to ind this p ojection, i n the =constant plane and then on to the e ui ed unit + sin sin a y + cos a z a = cos cos a equation (2)

in te ms o unit vecto s in ec the p ojections o a x , a y , st ind the p ojection o vecto s. a = sin cos a x x + cos sin a y sin a z

 A = Ax a x + Ay a y + Az a z A = Ax ( sin cos a + cos cos a sin a ) + Ay ( sin sin a + cos sin a + cos a )

+ Az ( cos a sin a ) A = ( Ax sin cos + Ay sin sin + Az cos ) a + ( Ax cos cos + Ay cos sin a Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008 + ( Ax sin + Ay cos ) a

T ans o mation o vecto s Substituting e (1) in the gene al e uation o a vecto in ectangula s,

coo dinate

T ans o mation o vecto s A = Ax sin cos + Ay sin sin + Az cos A = Ax cos cos + Ay cos sin Az sin n + Ay cos This can be ep esented in mat ix o m as

Ar sin cos sin sin cos Ax A = cos cos cos sin sin A Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Transformation of vectors Substituting e (2) in the general e uation of a vector in spherical coordinates, A = Ar ar + A a + A a A = A ( sin cos a x + sin sin a y + cos a z cos a y ) + A ( cos cos a x + cos sin a y sin a z ) A = ( A sin cos + A cos cos sin A ) a x + ( A sin sin + A cos sin + A cos ) a y + ( A cos A sin ) a z

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 Ax sin cos cos cos sin Ar A = sin sin cos sin cos A y Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

T ans o mation o vecto s Ax = A sin cos + A cos cos sin A Ay = A in This can be ep esented in mat ix o m as

sin sin + A cos sin + A cos

Example 1 Given the point P( 2,6,3)and vector A = ya x + ( x + z )a y express P and A in C artesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Solution : At point P( x = 2, y = 6, z = 3) = x 2 + y 2 = 4 + 36 = 6.32 6 y = tan 1 = tan 1 = 108.43 2 x z= z=3 r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 + 36 + 9 = 7 = tan 1 x2 + y2 40 1 = tan = 64.62 z 3 Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Exam le 1 (Contd) P ( 2,6,3) = P (6.32,108.43,3) = P (7,64.62 ,108.43 ) A cos A = sin Az 0 sin cos 0 0 Ax 0 Ay A cos A = sin Az 0 sin cos 0 0 y 0 x + z 1 0 But x = cos , y = sin . Substituting , A cos A = sin Az 0 sin cos 0 0 sin 0 A = { cos sin + ( cos + z ) sin }a + { sin 2 + ( cos + z ) cos } a Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Example 1 (Contd) At P, =6.32, =108.43 , z=3 cos = 0.316 Substituting , sin = 0.9487 A = 0.9487a 6.008a In the sphe ical system, Ar sin cos sin sin cos Ax A = cos cos cos sin sin A Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Example 1 (Contd) Ar sin cos sin sin cos y A = cos cos cos sin sin x + z

But x = r sin cos , y = sin sin , z = cos . Substituting , sin sin Ar sin cos sin sin cos A = cos cos cos sin sin

+{ sin cos sin cos + (sin cos + cos )cos sin}a +{ sin sin2 + (sin cos + cos )cos} a

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A = {r sin 2 cos sin + (sin cos + cos )sin sin } a

Example 1 (Contd) At P, =7, =108.43 , =64.62 cos = 0.316 cos = 0.4286 sin = 0.9487 sin = 0.903 Substituting , A = 0.8571a 0.4066a 6.008a

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in

Solution : Ax sin cos cos cos sin Ar A = sin sin cos sin cos A y Bx sin cos cos cos sin 10 / r B = sin sin cos sin cos r co Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

Ca tesian coo dinates.

ind B ( 3,4,0)

10 B = a

+ c os a + a

Example 2 Exp ess the vecto

Example 2 (Contd) Bx sin cos cos cos sin 10 / r B = sin sin cos sin cos r co

1 x2 + y2 z = tan 1 y x

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10 Bx = sin cos + sin2 cos sin 10 Bz = cos cos sin = x + y + z = tan 2 2 2

10 By = sin sin +

cos2 sin + cos

Example 2 (Contd) sin =

z x2 + y2 + z2 sin = y = y x2 + y2 cos = x = x x2 + y2 10 x 2 + + y2 x2 + y 2 10 x 2 + + y2 x2 2 ) ( Compiled y 2 x2 + y2 + z2 x z2 x y Bx = 2 + 2 x + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 x + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 10x xz 2 y = 2 + x + y2 + z2 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )( x 2 + y 2 ) x 2 y 2 x2 + y2 + z2 y z2 y y By = 2 + 2 x + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 x + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 10 y yz 2 x = 2 + + x + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )( x 2 + y

= x2 + y2 x2 + y2 + z2 cos = z = by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Example 2 (Contd) z x2 + y2 10 z Bz = 2 2 2 x +y +z x2 + y2 + z2 and B = Bx a x + B y a y + Bz a z At ( 3,4,0) x = 3, y = 4, z = 0 30 4 B x = + 0 = 2 25 5 40 3 By = +0 = 1 25 5 By = 0 Substituting , B = 2a x + a y B = 2 a x + a y

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July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces I we keep one o the coo dinate va iables constant and allow the othe two to v a y, constant coo dinate su aces a e gene ated in ectangula , cylind ical and sphe ical coo dinate systems. In the Ca tesian system, i we keep x constant and allow y and z to va y, an in inite plane x=constant is gene ated. Thus we can h ave in inite planes X=constant Y=constant Z=constant These su aces a e pe pendicula to x, y and z axes espectively. Inte section o two planes is a line. x=constant, y=constant is the line RPQ pa allel to z axi s. Inte section o th ee planes is a point. x=constant, y=constant, z=constant i s the point P(x,y,z). Any point P may be de ined as the inte section o th ee o thogonal planes. Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces Z x=constant Y z=constant X

y=constant Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces Z x=constant Q P Y R z=constant X

y=constant Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces O thogonal su aces in cylind ical coo dinate system can be gene ated as =constant =constant z=constant =constant is a ci cula cylinde , =constant is a semi in inite plane with its edge along z axis, z=constant is an in inite plane as in the ectangula system. The inte section o two su aces z=constant, =constant is the ci cle QPR o adius T he inte section o su aces z=constant, =constant is a semi in inite line. The in te section o th ee su aces p oduces a point. =constant, =constant, z=constant is the point P(,,z) Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces Z =constant z=constant

Y =constant X

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o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces Z =constant z=constant p

Y X

=constant Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces O thogonal su aces in sphe ical coo dinate system can be gene ated as =constant =constant =constant

=constant is a sphe e with its cent e at the o igin, =constant is a ci cula co ne with z axis as its axis and o igin at the ve tex, =constant is a semi in init e plane as in the cylind ical system. The inte section o two su aces =constan t, =constant is a semi ci cle passing th ough Q an P The inte section o th ee s u aces p oduces a point. =constant, =constant, =constant is the point P( ,, ) Any point P may be de ined as the inte section o these o thogonal planes Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Constant coo dinate su aces Z =constant =constant

=constant

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o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

dy Q S B dz R D C dx z az ax x ay y Y igu e(1)

X Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential elements in ectangula z Z A P

coo dinate systems

Di e ential length, a ea and volume in Ca tesian coo dinates Di e ential displacement is given by dl = dxa x + dya y + dza z Di e ential no mal a ea is given by dS = dydza x = dxdza y Di e ential volume is given by = dzdya z dv = dxdydz dl and dS a e vecto s whe e as dv is a scala .

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July 2008

Di e ential length, a ea and volume in Ca tesian coo dinates I we move om P to Q, dl = dya y I we move om Q to S, dl = dya + dza y z I w e move om D to Q, dl = dxa + dya + dza x y z In gene al the di e ential su ace a ea is de ined as dS = dsa n whe e dS is the a ea o the su ace element and a n is a unit vecto no mal to the su ace dS. The di e ent su aces in igu e(1) is desc ibed as ABCD dS = dydza x PQRS dS = dydza x BCRQ dS = dydza y ADSP dS = dydza y ABQP dS = dxdya z DCRS dS = dxdya z Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

dy dx dz dz ay dy az ax dx Y

X Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential no mal a eas in z Z

ectangula coo dinate systems

Di e ential elements in cylind ical coo dinate systems Y

X Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential elements in cylind ical coo dinate systems Z A d S D P B dz R Q d C Y az X a

a Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential no mal a eas in cylind ical coo dinate systems Di e ential displacement is given by dl = d a + d a + dza z Di e ential no mal a ea is given by dS = d dza = d dza Di e ential volume is given by = dd az dv = d d dz

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July 2008

Di e ential no mal a eas in cylind ical coo dinate systems z Z d dz dz a az d a d d Y

X Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential elements in sphe ical coo dinate systems Z sin d

d Y

X Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential elements in sphe ical coo dinate systems Z d

d Y

X Compiled by: MKP

d sin d

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential no mal a eas in sphe ical coo dinate systems Z sin d d

sin d

a d a d Y

X Compiled by: MKP

a d

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Di e ential no mal a eas in sphe ical coo dinate systems Di e ential displacement is given by dl = d a + d a + sin d a Di e ential no mal a ea is given by

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dv =

2 sin d d d July 2008

dS = 2 sin d d a Di e ential volume is given by

sin d d a = d d a

Example 1 o the object shown below calculate: (i) The distance BC (ii) The distance CD ( iii) The su ace a ea ABCD (iv) The su ace a ea ABO (v) The su ace a ea AO D D (5,0,10) (vi) The volume ABDC O (0,0,10)

C(0,5,10) B(0,5,0) O(0,0,0) A(5,0,0)

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July 2008

Example 1 Solution: The object has cylind ical symmet y hence it is convenient to solve the p oblem using cylind ical coo dinates. o this i st we have to conve t all the points to cylind ical coo dinates. A(5,0,0) A(5,0 ,0) B (0,5,0) B 5, ,0 2 C (0,5,10) C 5, ,10 2 D ( 5,0 ,10 ) (0,0,10)

C 5, ,10 2 D (5,0,10) D ( 5,0 ,10 ) O(0,0,0) B 5, ,0 2 A(5,0 ,0)

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July 2008

Exam le 1(Contd.) (i ) Along BC , dl = dz; hence (ii ) Along CD, dl = d , = 5. Hence CD = /2 0 BC = dl = dz = 10 0 10 d = 5 0 = 2.5 /2 10 /2 (iii ) or ABCD, dS = d dz; = 5. Hence A ea ABCD = dS = A ea ABO = dS = =0 z =0 d dz = 5 /2 0 d dz = 25 0 5 10 (iv ) or ABO, dS = d d ; z = 0. Hence /2 =0 =0 5 d d = /2 0 d d = 6.25 0

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July 2008

Exam le 1(Contd.) ( v ) or AO D, dS = d dz; = 0. Hence A ea AO D = dS = 5 =0 z =0 10 d dz = 50 ( vi ) o volume ABDC O, dv = d dzd . Hence Volume ABDC O = dv = 5 0 5 =0 =0 /2 /2 10 z =0 dzd d = d 0 d dz = 62.5 z =0 10

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July 2008

Exam le 2 The object given below is art of a s herical shell described as 3 r 5 60 90 45 60 Calculate (i) The distance DH (ii) The distance G (iii) The su ace a ea AEHD (iv) The su ace a ea ABDC (v) The volume o the object E A B H G D C

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July 2008

 dl = 12 60 = 45 3 sin 90 d = 3 sin 90 60 45 d

= 0.785

dl = = 60 5d = 5 6 = 2 .6 1 7

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(ii ) Along G G =

= 3

dl = d ;

= 5, = 60 , 60 to90 90

Example 2 Solution : (i ) Along DH dl = DH =

sin d ;

= 3, = 90

July 2008

Area AEHD = dS = = 9 60 60 = 45 = 60 90 90 9 sin d d = 45 d = 60 sin d 90

12 [ cos ]60 = 1.178

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= 9

July 2008

Exam le 2 (Contd) (iii ) On AEHD dS = r 2 sin d d ; 60 to 90 , 45 to 60

= 3

Exam le 2 (Contd) (iv ) On ABCD dS = rd dr ; = 45 60 to 90 , r 3 to 5 Area ABCD = dS = 90 60 5 r =3 5 5 90 = 60

r 4 = 4.186 = = 3 6 2 3 2

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= d d 3

d d

July 2008

Exam le 2 (Contd) ( v ) On Volume ABCDE GH dv = r 2 sin drd d 3 to 5, 60 to 90 , 45 to 60

Volume = dv = 5 2 3 5 r = 3 = 60 = 45 90 60 2 sin d d d 60 45 d sin d d

90 r 90 60 = [ cos ]60 [ ]45 3 3 49 = = 4.276 36 3 Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008 5

= 60

Line integrals Line integral is defined as any integral that is to be evaluated along a line. A line indicates a ath along a curve in s ace. b a A d l ep esents a line integ al whe e each element o length d l on the cu ve is multiplied acco ding to sca la dot p oduct ule by the local value o A and then these p oducts a e summed to get the value o the integ al. Let A be a vecto ield in space and ab a cu v e om point a to point b. Let the cu ve ab is subdivided in to in initesimally small vecto elements dl 1 , dl 2 , dl 3 ,........, dl Let the dot p oducts A1 . d l 1 , A 2 . d l 2 , A 3 . d l 3 , ........, A . d l a e taken whe e A1 , A2 , A3 ,........, A a e the value o the vecto ield at the junction points o the vecto elements dl 1 , dl 2 , dl 3 ,........, dl b Then the sum o the se p oducts A d l along the enti e length o the a cu ve is known as the lin e integ al o A along the cu ve ab.

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July 2008

Line integ als Z A A3 A2 A1

dl 4 dl 2 dl 3 A a dl 1 Y X b a A dl = a b

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A d l

b dl

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Line integ als a A

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dl

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Line integ als As an example i ep esents the o ce acting on a moving pa ticle along a cu v e ab, then the line integ al o ove the path desc ibed by the pa ticle ep es ents the wo k done by the o ce in moving the pa ticle om a to b. The line int eg al a ound a closed cu ve is called closed line integ al a A dl b

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July 2008

Su ace integ als Conside a vecto ield A continuous in a egion o space containing a smooth su ace S. The su ace integ al o A th ough S can be de ined as =

s A dS A Surface S an dS

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2008

Surface integrals Consider a small incremental surface area on the surface S denoted b dS. Let a n be a unit normal to the surface dS. The magnitude of flux crossing the unit su rface normall is given b A cos dS = A andS = A dSan = A dS Where dS denote the vector area having magnitude e ual to dS and whose direction is in the direction of the unit normal. d S = d Sa n The total flux crossing th e surface is obtained b integrating A d S over the surface of interest. = s A dS

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2008

Surface integrals For a closed surface defining a volume the surface integral becomes closed surfa ce integral and is denoted b = S A dS It represents the net outward flow of flux from surface S

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2008

Volume integrals Let V be a volume bounded b the surface S. Let ( x, , z ) to n elements of vo lumes dV1 , dV2 , dV3 ,........, dVn In each part let us choose an arbitrar poi nt ( xi , i , zi ) be a function of position defined over V. If the volume V is subdivided in Then the limit of the sum

i as n and dVi 0 is v dv

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( x , i i i

, z )dV

2008

called the volume integral of

( x,

, z ) over V and is denoted b

Scalar and vector fields Let R be a region of space at each point of which a scalar

R is

R is called a

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o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Let R be a

egion o space at each point o which a vecto v = v(x, y, z) is

= (x,y,z) is given, then is called a scala point unction and called a scala ield. Examples: Tempe atu e dist ibution in a medium Dist ibution o atmosphe ic p essu e in space. given, then v is called a vecto point unction and scala ield. Examples: The velocity o a moving luid at any instant G avitational o c e in a egion.

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July 2008

g adient o a scala V The dive gence o Laplacian o a scala V

a vecto .A The cu l o

a vecto

The on ng The The

= ax + a y + az x y z vecto di e ential ope ato is not a vecto in itsel , but when it ope ates a scala unction the esult is a vecto . This ope ation is use ul in de ini A 2

DEL Ope ato The del ope ato is the vecto esian coo dinates

di e ential ope ato

and is denoted by . In Ca t

DEL Ope ato in cylind ical coo dinates The exp ession o del ope ato in othe coo dinate systems can be obtained usin g the t ans o mation e uations de ived ea lie . = x +y 2 2 x = cos = cos x = sin + y y tan = x y = sin sin equation (1) cos Substituting in = ax + a y + az x y z sin cos a x + sin a y + a z (2) = cos + Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

DEL O erator in cylindrical coordinates cos sin = ( cosax + sina y ) + ax + a y + z az + z az (4) a

1 = a + a + a z (5) z 1 = a + a + az Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008 a

DEL Ope ato in sphe ical coo dinates The exp ession o del ope ato in othe coo dinate systems can be obtained usin g the t ans o mation e uations de ived ea lie . x = sin cos = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = tan 1 y x y = sin sin 2 2 x +y z = cos = tan 1 z cos cos sin cos sin cos = sin sin + + e uation (1) y sin x + a y + az Substituting in = a x y z

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CEC S5 EC - July 2008

DEL Ope ato in sphe ical coo dinates cos cos sin = sin cos + ax r r

cos sin cos sin + sin sin + + + cos r r az = ( sin cos a x + sin sin a y + cos a z ) + cos cos cos sin sin sin cos ax + az + + ay

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July 2008

DEL O erator in s herical coordinates = ( sin cos a x + sin sin a y + cos a z ) 1 1 x + cos sin sin a z ) + + ( cos cos a ( sin a x + cos a y )

a =

1 1 a + a + a Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

sin July 2008

a 1 1

+ + a a a (5) =

1 1 a + a + a

V3 V2 = V1 + V V1 Y V P 1 dl X G P 1 A Level Su ace V

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o CEC S5 EC

G adient o a scala Z

ield

July 2008

G adient o a scala ield The g adient o a scala ield V is a vecto that ep esents the magnitude and d i ection o the maximum space ate o inc ease o V. Let V be a scala ield and let V1,V2 and V3 be contou s on which V is constant. Conside the di e ence in the ield dV between points P1 and P2 dV = V V V dz dx + dy + x y z

Then dV = G dl

= G cos dl Compiled b : MKP for CEC S5 EC - Jul

2008

V V V = ax + ay + a z ( dxa x + d a + az = G y z x

+ dza z ) z x V

Gradient of a scalar field dV Then = G cos dl dV is maximum when = 0 i.e., when dl is in the direction of G dl dV dl =G MAX Magnitude of G is e ual to the maximum space rate of change of V Direction of G is along the maximum space rate of change of V G is defined as the gradient of V and is denoted b grad V grad V =V= V V V ax + ay + az x y z Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

G adient o a scala ield o cylind ical coo dinates, V 1 V V g ad V =V= a + a + az z

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July 2008

o sphe ical coo dinates, V 1 V 1 V g ad V =V= a

+ a + a

sin

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o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

(V + U ) = V + U 2 n n 1

(VU ) = V U + U V V U V V U

G adient o a scala

ield Impo tant Relations U = U (V )

G adient o a scala ield Impo tant Points 1. Magnitude o V is e ual to the maximum space ate o change o V 2. Di ection o V is along the maximum space ate o change o V 3. V at any point is pe pendic ula to the constant V su ace that passes

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July 2008

It is called the di ectional de ivative o ange o V in the di ection o a

V along a It indicates the ate o

th ough that point. 4. I A = V , V is called the scala potential o A 5. The p ojection o di ection o a given unit vecto a is V a

V in the ch

Example 1 ind g ad when = 3x 2 y y 3 z 2 ind the di ectional de ivative in the di ection o 3a x + 4a y + 12a z at (2, 1,0) Solution :

ax + ay + az x y z (3x 2 y y 3 z 2 ) (3x 2 y y 3 z 2 ) (3x 2 y y 3 az x y z g ad = = ( 6 xy ) ax + 3x 2 3 y 2 z 2 a y + 2 y 3 z az g ad = ( ) ( ) At (2, 1,0) = ( 12 ) ax + (12 ) a y Di ectional de ivative a = ( 12ax + 12a y ) = ( 12ax + 12a y )( 0.23ax + 0.31a y + 0.92az ( 3a x + 4a y + 12az ) = 0.96 ) 9 + 16 + 144

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July 2008

Example 2 ind g ad V when V = 10 sin 2 cos Solution : V 1 V 1 V g ad V =V= a + a + a sin V = 10sin 2 cos a + 10sin 2 cos a 10sin sin a

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July 2008

 divA = A = lim v 0 A S S

a closed su ace S

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July 2008

v A dS is the net out low o

lux o

a vecto

ield A

om

Dive gence o a vecto The dive gence o a vecto uantity A at a given point P is the outwa d lux pe unit volume ove a closed inc emental su ace as the volume sh inks about P. S

Dive gence o a vecto in Ca tesian coo dinates Z dy dx P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) dz 1

2 Y

X Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Dive gence o a vecto in Ca tesian coo dinates To evaluate the dive gence o a vecto ield A at point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) i st const uct a di e ential volume a ound point P

A is obtained as + TOP A dS = ( RONT

+ BACK + LE T + RIGHT + BOTTOM ) Ax about P is P A th ee dimensional Taylo s se ies expansion o Ax Ax ( x, y , z ) = Ax ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ( x x0 ) x Ax + ( y y0 ) y P Ax + ( z z0 ) z P

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+ highe

o de te ms o CEC S5 EC July 2008

The closed su ace integ al o

Dive gence o a vecto in Ca tesian coo dinates o the ont side x = x0 + dx , A = Ax a x , dS = dydza x 2

or the back side x = x0

dx , A = Ax ( a x ) , dS = dydz ( a x ) 2 dx Ax BACK A S = Ax ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 x P dydz + higher order terms Ax RONT A S + BACK A S = x y z x + higher or er terms P

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July 2008

dx Ax RONT A

S = Ax ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + 2 x P dydz + higher order terms

Divergence of a vector in Cartesian coor inates Similarly LEFT

RIGHT A S = x y z Ay y P + higher or er terms TOP A S + BOTTOM

+ higher or er te rm s P Ax S A S = x y z x Az + x y z + x y z y P z P Ay + higher or er terms P

lim S

A S v Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Ax Ay Az S A S = x + y + z v + highe Substituting in v 0

Az A

S +

S = x y z z

o de te ms P

Dive gence o a vecto in Ca tesian coo dinates Ax Ay Az + + S A dS = lim x y z lim v 0 v 0 v v P v Ax Ay Az = + + x y z P

Dive gence o A at P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) in Ca tesian coo dinates is Ax Ay Az A = + + x y z

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July 2008

Since highe

o de te ms vanish as v 0

Divergence of a vector in other coordinates In cylindrical coordinates 1 1 A Az A = ( A ) + + z In s herical coordinates 1 2 1 1 A A = 2 ( r Ar ) + ( A sin ) + r r r sin r sin

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July 2008

y x vy z F1 P ( x, y , z ) v y + y F2 Y

X Compile by: MKP for CEC S5 EC

Divergence of a vector Z

Physical significance

July 2008

Divergence of a vector Physical significance Consi er the motion of a flui having velocity V = v x a x + v y a y + v z a z a t a point P(x,y,z). Consi er a small parallelepipe with e ges x , y an z paral lel to the axes enclosing the point P. The mass of flui entering through the fa ce F1 per unit time is given by velocity x area v y x z The mass of flui flowing out through face F2 is v y + y x z By Taylors theorem (neglecting higher or er terms ) v y + y = v y + v y y v y v y + y x z = v y + y x z y Com iled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008 y

Divergence of a vector Physical significance The net ecrease in the mass of flui flowing across these two faces is v y v y v y + y y x z v y x z = y x y z Similarly by considering the other two faces we get the total decrease in the ma ss of fluid inside the arallele i ed er unit time v x v y vz + + Rate of loss of fluid er unit volume is x y z The above uantity is defined as the divergence of fluid velocity at the oint P and is denoted by div V or V Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008 v x v y vz x + y + z x y z

Divergence of a vector Physical significance EXAMPLES Divergence of the velocity of water in a container after the outlet has o ened is zero because water is an incom ressible fluid. Volume of water enteri ng and leaving different regions of the closed surface is e ual. When the valve on a steam boiler is o ened there is a net outward flow of steam for each elemen tal volume. In this case the divergence has a ositive value. It indicates a sou rce of vector uantity at that oint. When an evacuated glass bulb is broken the re is a sudden inrush of air and there is a net inward flow of air for each elem ental volume. In this case the divergence has a negative value. It indicates a s ink of that vector uantity.

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July 2008

ZERO DIVERGENCE

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Divergence of a vector

Physical significance

July 2008

POSITIVE DIVERGENCE NEGATIVE DIVERGENCE SOURCE SINK

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Divergence of a vector

Physical significance

July 2008

Exam les Determine the divergence (i ) P = x 2 yza x + P = 2 ( x yz ) + y Py Pz P P = P = 2 xyz + x

(ii ) Q = sin a + 2 za + z cos a z 1 1 Q = ( 2 sin ) + ( 2 z ) + z ( z cos ) Q = 2sin + cos 1 Q 1 Q Q = ( Q ) + + zz

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of the vector fields xza z ( 0 ) + z ( xz ) x x + + x y z

July 2008

 2 r sin ) + 1 T r sin

1 1 1 r sin 2 cos ) + cos ) T = 2 ( cos ) + ( ( r r r sin r si sin T = 2 cos cos

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July 2008

Exam les 1 (iii ) T = 2 cos ar + r sin cos a + cos a 2

1 1 T = ( r T ) + r sin

Gausss Dive gence theo em The integ al o the no mal component o any vecto ield ove a closed su ace i s e ual to the integ al o the dive gence o this vecto ield th oughout the vo lume enclosed by the closed su ace. The total outwa d lux o a vecto ield A th ough the closed su ace S is the same as the volume integ al o the dive genc e o A S A dS = AdV V Volume integ als a e easie to evaluate than su ace integ als. Using dive gence theo em we can conve t su ace integ al to a volume integ al and then easily ev aluate it.

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July 2008

Dive gence theo em P oo Ax Ay Az A = + + x y z V A dV = Ax Ay Az dxdydz + + V x y z

Ay Ax Az dxdydz + dxdydz + dxdydz A dV = V V x V y V z Ay Ax A dxdydz + = V x y z Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Dive gence theo em Ax x dx = Ax Ay y dy = Ay Az z dz = Az V A dV = Ax dydz + Ay dxdz + Az dxdy dxdy = dS y dydz = dS x dxdz = dS z = A dS V A dV = Ax dS x + Ay dS y + Az dS z S A dS = A dV V S A dS = A dV V Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Dive gence theo em Explanation Z Closed su ace S V Y

X Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

Dive gence theo em Explanation Let the volume V bounded by the su ace S is subdivided in to a numbe o elemen ta y volumes V The lux dive ging om each such cell ente s o conve ges on the adjacent cells unless the cell contains a po tion o the oute su ace. As a es ult the dive gence o the lux density th oughout the volume leads to the same esult as dete mining the net lux c ossing the enclosing su ace.

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July 2008

Example 1 T

S Y X B

Compiled b : MKP for CEC S5 EC - Jul

2008

Determine the flux of D = 2 cos 2 a + zsin a ove , = 4 Z Ve i y dive gence theo em .

the su ace o

the cylinde 0

Example 1 If is the flux through the given surface = T + B + S For T , z = 1, dS = d d a z T = D dS = B = D dS = 4 =0 =0 2 2cos 2 a + zsin a ) d d a z = 0 ( o B , z = 0, dS = d d ( a z ) 4 =0 =0 2 2cos 2 a + zsin a ) d d ( a z ) = 0 ( o S , = 4, dS = d dza S = D dS = 1 z =0 =0 2 2cos 2 a + zsin a ) d dza ( Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Example 1 S = z =0 1 2 =0 64 cos 2 d dz 2 64 2 = 64 cos d = = 0 1 + cos2 d =0 2 2 = 32 2 =0 1d = 64 A lying divergence theorem S D S = D dV V

1 1 D = ( D ) + D + z Dz = 1 1 z sin 3 cos 2 ) + ( Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Example 1 D = 3 cos 2 + 4 1 z cos 1

1 2 V D dV = =0 =0 z =0 3 cos + z cos d d dz 4 3 2 1 3 2 = 2 4z 2 cos d = 64 z cos + =0 2 0 2 2 =0 z =0 ( 64 cos + 4 z cos )d dz 1 2 1 = 2 =0 ( 64 cos + 2 cos ) d 2

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July 2008

Example 1 = 2 =0 64 cos d + 2 2 =0 2 cos d 64 2 = =0 (1 + cos 2 ) d 2 = 32 2 =0 2 d + 2 =0 cos 2d = 32 =0 d = 64

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July 2008

Exam le 2 Verify divergence theorem for the flux of D = x a x + xya y + yza z for the volu me of cube with 1unit for each side. The cube is situated in the first octant of the coordinate system with one corner on the origin. Z 2 1 E A

D B C Y

1 H G 1 X

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July 2008

Exam le 2 D = x 2 a x + xya y + yza z S D S = D dV V S D dS = ( RONT

+ 1 BACK + LE T + RIGHT + TOP + BOTTOM ) and x = 1 RONT

D dS = 1 y =0 z =0 x 2a x + xya y + yza z ) dydza x ( = BACK

1 1 0 0 dydz = 1 and x = 0 D dS = 1 y =0 z =0 1 x 2a x + xya y + yza z ) dydz ( a x ) ( = 0

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July 2008

Example 2 LE T D dS = 1 z =0 x =0 (x a 1 2 x + xya y + yza z ) dxdz ( a y ) and y = 0 = 0 RIGHT D dS = 1 z =0 x =0 (x a 1 2 x + xya y + yza z ) dxdza y 1 1 and y = 1 1 = xdxdz = 0 0 2 TOP D dS = 1 y =0 x =0 1 x 2 a x + xya y + yza z ) dxdya z ( = 1 1 0 0

and z = 1 ydxdy =

1 2 Compiled by: MKP

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July 2008

Example 2 BOTTOM D dS = 1 y =0 x =0 (x a 1 2 x + xya y + yza z ) dxdy ( a z ) and z = 0 = 0 S D dS = 1 + 1 1 + = 2 2 2 D x D y D z D = + + x y z 2 = ( x ) + ( xy ) + ( yz ) = 3 x + y x y z = 2 V DdV = S V 1 0 (3x + y )dxdydz 0 0 1 1 D dS = D dV Thus dive gence theo em is ve i ied . Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Cu l o a vecto The cu l o a vecto A is an axial o otational vecto whose magnitude is the m aximum ci culation (closed line integ al) o A pe unit a ea as the a ea tends t o ze o and whose di ection is the no mal di ection o the a ea when the a ea is o iented so as to make the ci culation maximum. The ci culation o a vecto iel d A a ound a closed path L is the integ al A dL L

A l L an S M AX

Where the area S is bounded by the cu ve L an is the unit vecto ace S and is dete mined by ight hand ule. Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Cu l A =

A = lim S 0

no mal to the su

Cu l o a vecto Conside the di e ential a ea in the yz plane. X d dz c Y a dy

b Compiled by: MKP

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July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Closed line integ al o vecto A a ound abcd is obtained as below: l A dl = ( ab + bc + cd + da

Ay ( x, y, z ) = Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ( x x0 ) Ay x Az x Ay y Az y P + ( z z0 ) Ay z P Az ( x, y, z ) = Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ( x x0 ) + ( y y0 ) P + ( z z0 ) P Az z P Along ab dl = dya y and z = z0 dz 2

dz Ay ab A dl = Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 z dy Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

) A dl + ( y y0 ) P

(1)

(a) P

Curl of a vector Along bc dl = dza z and y = y0 +

dy 2

dy Az da A dl = Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 y dz Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC July 2008

dz Ay cd A dl = Ay ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + 2 z dy dy Along da dl = dza z and y = y0 2

dy Az A dl = Az ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + dz Along cd dl = dya y and z = z0 + dz 2

(b) bc 2 y P

(c) P

(d) P

Curl of a vector Substituting e uations a, b, c and d in (1) Ay Az l A dl = y dydz z dydz Az Ay = S z y l

A A = z y z y S 0 lim l A dl S Az Ay = y z A A = z y z y By definition the above e uation re resents curl of vector about x axis ( curl A ) ( x = A ) x

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July 2008

l S

Cu l o a vecto y and z components o the cu l o A can simila ly obtained . ( cu l A (

) ( = A ) ) ( ) The esultant cu l will be the sum o component cu ls about x, y,z axes A A A A A A A = z y ax + x z a y + y x az z ax A= x Ax ay y Ay az z Az Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

A A = x z y y x z A A curl A =

A = y x z z y x

Cu l o a vecto in othe coo dinates The exp ession o cu l in cylind ical and sphe ical coo dinates a e a A= A a A= A a A a A az z Az sin a sin A Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

( )

The cu l o the g adient o a scala ield vanishes. Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

The dive gence o A = 0

the cu l o

a vecto

ield vanishes

V = 0

( ) ( A B ) = A ( B ) B ( A) A+ B = A+ B

Cu l o a vecto Some p ope ties The cu l o a vecto ield is anothe vecto The cu l o a scala ield does not exist

ield (VA) = V A + V A

a b d c Y

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o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Z

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o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Z

a b d c Y

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o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Z

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o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Z

Cu l o a vecto Physical inte p etation Z X Y

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July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Physical inte p etation Z Y X Rotation o the paddle wheel along x,y and z axes

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July 2008

Cu l o a vecto Physical inte p etation Cu l Di ection

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July 2008

 (i ) P = x 2 yza x + xza z

Solution : (i ) P = x 2 yza x + xza z ax P = x Px ay y Py az z Pz Pz Py Px Pz Py Px =

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July 2008

(ii ) Q = sin a + 2 za + z cos a z (iii ) T = 1 cos a + sin cos a + cos a 2

Example 1 Dete mine the cu l o the

ollowing vecto

ields

 = ( 0 0 ) ax + ( x 2 y z ) a y + ( 0 x 2 z ) az = ( x 2 y z ) a y ( x 2 z ) az (ii ) Q = sin a + 2 za + z cos a z

a Q

az z Qz Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

Q = Q

July 2008

Exam le 1 P P P P P P

P = z y ax + x z a y + y x az z

 z 1 2 = sin z a + ( 0 0 ) a + ( 3 2 z cos ) az = ( z sin + ) a + ( 3 z cos ) a 1 3 z (iii ) T =

sin T Compiled by: MKP

T = T

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

1 cos a +

Example 1 1 Q z Q

Q = z Q Q z + a z Q 1 +

sin cos a + cos a 2

sin a

Example 1 T = 1 1 1 1 T (rT ) a + ( rT ) Tr a (T sin ) = 1 1 1 cos (cos sin ) (r sin cos ) ar + (r cos ) a

= 1 1 1 sin ( cos2 + r sin sin ) a + ( 0 cos ) a + 2 sin cos + 2 a r cos2 cos a = + sin ar r r sin

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1 + 2cos + 3 a

July 2008

1 cos + ( r 2 sin cos ) 2 a

r r

 L A dl = ( A) dS S Closed path L dS dl Su ace S

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July 2008

Stokes theorem Stokes theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a closed ath L is e ual to the surface integral of the curl of A over the o en surface S bounded by L rovided that A and A a e continuous on S

Stokes theo em

I the k th cell has su ace a ea Sk and is bounded by the path L L A dl = A dl = k Lk k Lk A dl S k

S k Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

The su ace S is subdivided in to a la ge numbe o

cells.

Stokes theo em The e is cancellation on eve y inte io path. So the sum o line integ als a oun d Lks is the same as the line integ als a ound the bounding cu ve L. Taking the l imit o the above e uation

Lk A dl S lim0 S k S k k k By definition the uantity inside the b the k th cell As Sk 0 the summation becomes integ ation ove the whole su ace. L A dl = ( A).dS which is stoke s theo em S

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July 2008

Example 1 Y

5 2 S S b 30 c 60 0 2 5

Y Compiled by: MKP

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July 2008

I cos a + sin a , evaluate A dl a ound the path shown below. Ve i y Stoke o em d a

Example 1 L b + A dl = a c b + d c + a d A dl Along ab = 2 dl = d a b a A dl = 30 = 60 sin d = [ 2 cos ]60 = 30 ( 3 1 ) Along bc = 30 dl = d a c b A dl = 5 =2 cos d

 Along cd = 5 dl = d a 21 3 = cos 30 = 2 2 4 2 5 d c A dl = 60 = 30 sin d = [ 5 cos ]30 60 5 = 2 ( 3 1 )

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July 2008

Example 1 Along da = 60 dl = d a a d A dl = 2 =5 cos d 21 = cos 60 = 2 5 4 2 2 L A dl = ( 21 3 5 + 3 1 + 4 2 ) ( 21 3 1 4 ) L A dl = 4.941 Using stoke's theorem L A dl = ( A).dS S

A 1 + ( A ) a z a

dS = d d a z Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

1 Az A A A + z

A= a z z

 S ( A).dS = 60 =30 60 5 =2 1 (1 + ) sin d d az 5 = =30 sin d 60 =2 (1 + )d 2 5 S = [ cos ]30 + = 4.941 2 2 ( A).dS = 4.941 = A dl L Stoke s Theo em is thus ve i ied Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008

Example 1 1

A = ( 0 0 ) a + ( 0 0 ) a + (1 + ) sin a z 1 = (1 + ) sin a z

Laplacian o a scala The Laplacian o a scala ield V , w itten as 2V is the dive gence o the g adient o V . It is anothe scala ield In Ca tesian coo dinates,Laplacian V= V = 2V V V V = ax + a y + az ax + ay + az y z x y z 2V 2V 2V 2 V= 2 + 2 + 2 x y z A scala ield V is said to be ha monic in a given egion i its Laplacian vanishes in that egion. 2 V=0 Laplace s Equation Compiled by: MKP for CEC S5 EC - July 2008

Laplacian of a scalar in other coordinates In cylindrical coordinates, 1 V 2 V= 1 2V 2V + 2 2 + z 2 In s herical coordinates,

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July 2008

1 2 V 1 V 1 2V 2 V= 2 r + 2 sin + 2 2 r sin 2

La lacian of a vector La lacian of a vector A denoted as 2 A is de ined as

( ) ( )

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2 A = A

July 2008

Example 1 ind the Laplacian o the scala ield given below. V = e z sin 2 x cosh y 2V 2V 2V V= 2 + 2 + 2 x y z 2

2 z 2 z 2 z = 2 ( e sin 2 x cosh y ) + 2 ( e sin 2 x cosh y ) + 2 ( e sin 2 x cosh y ) x y z = (2e z cos 2 x cosh y ) + ( e z sin 2 x sinh y ) + ( e z sin 2 x cosh = 4e z sin 2 x cosh y + e z sin 2 x cosh y + e z sin 2 x cosh y = 2e z sin 2 x cosh y

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July 2008

 1 2V 2V + 2 2 + z 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 = ( z cos 2 ) + 2 2 ( z cos 2 ) + 2 ( 2 z cos 2 ) z 1 1 2 = ( 2 z cos 2 ) + 2 ( 2 2 z sin 2 ) =4 z cos 2 4 z cos 2 = 0

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Example 2 ind the Laplacian o the scala 1 V V= 2

ield given below. V = 2 z cos 2

July 2008

I A=0 A dV = V S A dS = 0 S

must also leave it. E x a m p le s : 1. Incomp essible luids 2. M agnetic ields The ield o cu l o any is pu ely solenoidal because = 0 Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC July 2008 ( )

A dS = 0 implies that the lux lines o

A ente ing a closed su ace

Classi ication o vecto ields A vecto ield is said to be solenoidal o

dive genceless i

A=0

L A dl = 0 L

chosen path. o this eason an i otational ield is also known as conse vative ield E x a m p le s : 1. Elect ostatic ield 2. G avitational ield

( )

V = 0 Compiled by: MKP

o CEC S5 EC

July 2008

The ield o g adient V

any V is pu ely i otational because

A dl = 0 implies that the line integ al o A is independent o

( S

A=0 A) dS =

the

Classi ication o vecto ields A vecto ield is said to be i otational o

potential

ield i

A=0

 A = 0 A = 0 Solenoidal, I otational A 0 A = 0 Non solenoidal, I otational Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

Classi ication o

vecto

ields

July 2008

 A = 0 A 0 Solenoidal, Rotational A 0 A 0 Non solenoidal, Rotational Compiled by: MKP o CEC S5 EC

Classi ication o

vecto

ields

July 2008