School of Civil Engineering Faculty of Engineering

CIVE3705 Investigative Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MEng in Civil and Structural Engineering

Construction Business Management: Construction Approaches to Engineering by Ben Fadida

May 2012

Abstract
The UK construction industry loses billions of pounds every year due to fatal fall accidents. In this report health and safety codes of practice were investigated to determine the possible factors that affect the frequency of such accidents on construction sites. The study had found that health and safety codes of practice, guidelines and awareness campaigns related to work at height predominantly targeted duty holders. Through examining the relationship between the accident data researched and the health and safety content of the various training regimes, a strong correlation was found which reflected the degree to which training methods effectively reduce the proportion of fatal fall accidents in the construction industry.

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Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements..................................................................................... v List of figures/graphs/tables ........................................................................vi

1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. Overall aim and objectives of the project ..................................................... 1 Limitations of the study ................................................................................ 2 Method ........................................................................................................ 2 Structure of the report .................................................................................. 3

2. Health and Safety .................................................................................... 4

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. The Health and Safety Executive ................................................................. 4 The role of the HSE ................................................................................... 5 The Health and Safety Work etc Act 1974 ................................................... 5 Construction Design Management Regulations .......................................... 6 Work at Height Regulations 2005 ................................................................ 7 Summary ..................................................................................................... 8

3. Working at Height ........................................................................................... 9 3.1. Types of Work at Height .............................................................................. 9

3.1.1. Falls through fragile materials ...................................................................... 9 3.1.2. Falls from roof work ................................................................................... 10 3.1.3. Falls from scaffolding ................................................................................. 11 3.1.4. Falls from ladders ...................................................................................... 11 3.2. Methods used by the HSE to promote work at height health and safety .... 12

3.2.1. Guidance ................................................................................................... 12 3.2.2. Campaigns ................................................................................................ 13 3.2.3. Initiatives ................................................................................................... 15 3.2.4. Further Resources ..................................................................................... 15 3.3. Summary ................................................................................................... 16

4. The Worker ............................................................................................ 18

4.1. General Training ........................................................................................ 18 4.1.1. The Health and Safety Test...................................................................... 19 4.1.2. The Health, Safety and Environment Test ................................................ 19 4.1.3. Site Safety Plus........................................................................................ 21 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. Builders and Labourers.............................................................................. 22 Roofer ....................................................................................................... 23 Painter and Decorator................................................................................ 25

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4.5. 4.6.

Scaffolder .................................................................................................. 28 Summary ................................................................................................... 30

5. Review of the accident data ................................................................... 34

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. The causes of fatal accidents due to falls from height ................................ 34 Fatal accidents by falls through fragile materials Occupation .................. 34 Fatal accidents by falls from ladders Occupation .................................... 35 Fatal accidents by falls through edges and openings Occupation ........... 36 Fatal accidents by falls from scaffolding Occupation ............................... 36 A comparison of the fatal falls of different occupations and the health and safety content of training courses ............................................................. 37

6. Discussion of literature and data............................................................ 38

6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. Findings of chapter 2 Health and Safety ................................................. 38 Findings of chapter 3 (part I) Working at Height ...................................... 38 Findings of chapter 3 (part II) Working at Height ..................................... 39 Findings of chapter 4 The Worker ........................................................... 40 Findings of chapter 5 Review of the accident data .................................. 41 Discussion of findings ................................................................................ 41

7. Conclusions ........................................................................................... 43
7.1. Recommendations for further study ........................................................... 43

8. Bibliography ........................................................................................... 44

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Acknowledgements
There are many people without whom this project could not have happened: I would like to thank my housemate Josh for contributing his common sense to help construct part of my project as well as Moshe for not complaining about the loud noise from my room whilst putting together this report and finally to Mr Kay for being my official proof reader. Lastly I would like to thank Dr Moodley for taking the time to answer many of the questions I bombarded him with throughout the project, whether on the phone, in the office or half way up the steps in the Civil Engineering building.

List of figures/graphs/tables.
Table 4.1. ....................................................................................................................... 32 Chart 5.1. ........................................................................................................................ 34 Chart 5.2. ........................................................................................................................ 34 Chart 5.3. ....................................................................................................................... 35 Chart 5.4. ........................................................................................................................ 36 Chart 5.5. ....................................................................................................................... 36 Chart 5.6. ........................................................................................................................ 37

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1. Introduction
The construction industry loses billions of pounds every year due to accidents that take place on site. Accidents in the construction industry consist of the largest proportion of accidents across all industries in the UK, including the manufacturing, agriculture, service, water supply/waste management, extractive/gas and electricity supply industries (HSE 2012). The applications of health and safety regulations through codes of practice have helped to lower the rate of accidents on construction sites which in turn have reduced the financial consequences construction companies have to deal with when accidents do occur on site. The construction industry divides accidents into three major categories: Over-3day accidents, major accidents and fatal accidents (HSE undated). Fatal accidents are the least common; however when they occur construction companies can be heavily affected by financial hardships. Fatal accidents on construction sites may not only result in a business facing monetary penalties; the workforce can also be seriously affected by the loss of a co-worker, as well as project managers who may be affected by a construction delay, as a result of investigations being carried out, following the death of a worker. Having a higher accident rate will also affect a companys reputation and thus its ability to tender future contracts. Therefore it is very much in the interest of construction companies to uphold health and safety regulations and have a well-trained workforce in order to reduce the number of accidents on site. Accidents due to falls from height are by far the most common type of accident on construction sites, accounting for 50% of all construction related accidents which far exceeds any other single category of accident (HSE 2012). Since most accidents in the construction industry are from falls at height, this project will try to understand why working at height is the most common type of accident and to research the degree to which employees receive training on codes of practice for their vocation in the workplace.

1.1.

Overall aim and objectives of the project

To investigate health and safety codes of practice for work at height and to determine possible factors that affect the frequency of fatal fall accidents. In order to reach a conclusion this report will pursue the following objectives: To investigate to whom the codes of practice in the regulations and acts apply;

To understand to whom HSE key messages and guidance for particular work at height apply; To understand to whom HSE campaigns and initiatives are directed; and To investigate the health and safety content incorporated into various workers training courses.

1.2.

Limitations of the study

The study was limited in that the investigation did not take into account other factors to which the literature gathered could have been compared. The main constraint for this was the time available to complete the report. The report analysed UK standards of Health and Safety, other regulations outside of the UK were not taken into account; The data included only accident information pertaining to the construction industry; The training regimes of a selected number of construction trades were investigated which meant those of other construction trades involved in work at height were excluded, such as the training regimes of carpenters or electricians; The investigation of the training regimes in chapter 5 reflected only the structure and content of the NVQ qualification and not that of other equivalent diploma qualifications that are widely known, such as City and Guilds; and The data was collected from a secondary source.

1.3.

Method

Literature for the report was collected from a variety of sources. The information contained in the regulations investigated in chapter 2 of the report were gathered from the National Archives. The majority of the information regarding campaigns and initiatives contained in chapter 3 came from publications and articles published by the Health and Safety Executive. Literature regarding health and safety guidelines and key issues involving different types of work at height were collected from the HSE website. Information regarding the content of training regimes and qualifications for different workers were extracted from the NextStep careers website and Edexcel downloadable files available from the Edexcel website. The accident data was collected from an assorted analysis of fatal accidents in construction, known as the Construction Intelligence Report.

1.4.

Structure of the report

Chapter 1 - Introduction to the report. Chapter 2 Overview of applicable health and safety acts and regulations. Chapter 3 Discussion of work at height, access equipment and education. Chapter 4 Examination of training regimes. Chapter 5 Presentation of accident data. Chapter 6 Discussion of literature and data. Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations to the industry.

Note: Throughout the report the term Code/s of Practice is frequently used to refer to the set of guidelines contained in the regulations, which are being referred to (in the text) - to be followed by members of the construction trade or occupation.

2. Health and Safety

The UK is known to have one of the most comprehensive and strict health and safety policies in Europe, yet relative to other European nations whose health and safety laws are not as developed there appears to be an insignificant difference between the rate of accidents occurring in the construction industry. To understand why this is the case in the UK the regulations imposed on workers in the workplace must be critically reviewed and analysed. Thus, the objectives of this chapter will be to examine the following areas of health and safety: To understand the role of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE); To briefly understand the duties of employers and employees contained in the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974; To understand the responsibilities of duty holders as well as workers in Construction Design Management Regulations; and To investigate the laws in the Work at Height Regulations and understand to whom they apply.

2.1.

The Health and Safety Executive

Prior to the merging of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) with the Health and Safety Commission (HSC) to form a single organisation under the name of the HSE in 2008, health and safety regulations in the UK had undergone many changes. The establishment of the HSE dates back to 1833 when health and safety regulations were first introduced into the work place under the provisions of the Factories Act. Later during the 1800s the Mining and Quarry Inspectorate was formed along with the Agriculture Act and Nuclear Installations Act which both took shape prior to 1974. In 1974 the Flixborough Chemical Plant explosion was an incentive to pass Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974. Initially it was described by critics as a bold and far reaching piece of legislation. However as the need to have health and safety regulations across other industries became recognised, the regulations began to take shape in many new areas of industry. Later that year The Health and Safety Commission (HSC) was established the purpose of which was to meet the demands of the industry and propose new regulations and conduct research. Thus in 1975, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) was formed (HSE undated).

2.2.

The role of the HSE

The Health and Safety Commission and its operating arm the Health and Safety Executive have...modernized the structure of Health and Safety law since the date of their establishment to the present day (HSE 2012 pg.2). Today, the Health and Safety Executive is the body that is responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement of workplace health, safety and welfare (Wikipedia 2012). The aim of the HSE is to protect the health, safety and welfare of employees, and to safeguard others, principally the public, who may be exposed to risks from work activity. (HSE 2012 pg.2) Changes in technology, risks to industries and public concern are among the issues that can prompt the HSE to take action to enhance existing arrangements. The HSE will usually act by updating guidance, amending regulations and/or improving training. The HSEs Subject Advisory Committee is responsible for implementing advice, training and guidelines through a code of practice, to ensure industries comply with the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 (HSE 2003).

2.3.

The Health and Safety Work etc. Act 1974

The Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 is the primary piece of legislation that covers Health and Safety matters in the workplace. It sets out the general principles for health and safety in the workplace for both employers and employees. Key sections of the Act are sections 2 and 3 which describe the duties that employers have towards their employees and also members of the public. Employers must ensure the health safety and welfare of their employees as well as those not in their employment whom may be exposed to risks to their health and safety, so far as is reasonable practicable. This duty extends to the provision of plant and systems at work. It is also necessary for employers to ensure employees receive the correct information, instruction, training and supervision to ensure their health and safety at work. (The National Archives 1974 chapters 2 & 3) The duties that employees have towards themselves and others are described in section 7 of the Act. It is the responsibility of employees to take reasonable care for their own health and safety at work and of others who may be affected by their actions. Employees must also co-operate with their employers, so far as is necessary to enable

their employer to comply with his/her duties as outlined in Health and Safety Law. (The National Archives 1974 chapter 7) The term so far as is reasonable practicable is frequently used in the Act. It recognises that an employer does not have to take measures to avoid a risk if time, physical difficulty and cost are significantly disproportionate to the risk. However when these factors do not impact a particular job such health and safety measures are required to be taken. (HSE undated) Health and Safety law requires good management and common sense. Management practices vary across industries; in the construction industry it is Construction Design Management (CDM) Regulations which assess the risks on a construction site and apply reasonable measures to mitigate these risks.

2.4.

Construction Design Management (CDM) Regulations

CDM regulations identify the risks on a project and set out specific actions to control them, whilst also giving managers the freedom to make decisions on site. The regulations are designed to bring about a greater awareness of the health and safety issues and a more efficient and structured approach to health and safety management. Since 1994, amendments have been made to the original regulations which were then first put into practice. The construction industry, having been historically one of the most dangerous industries in terms of its safety record, has a growing concern to reduce the number of accidents through safer management. The 2002 and 2007 amendments to the original regulations have improved the legislative framework of health and safety in construction. (HSE 2007) Managers or those in control of site-work hold a responsibility, no matter the type or size of the site, to ensure that health and safety working conditions are met. The CDM regulations place legal duties on clients, designers, contractors; who are known as duty holders. Duties under the CDM regulations are concerned with checking the site is safe to work on prior to commencement of work, conducting appropriate hazard identification and risk assessment and planning and organising the proposed work. Clients are required to manage the arrangements for welfare facilities on-site, provide information to designers and contractors as well as check the competence and resources of all appointees. Designers must work to eliminate the hazards and risks

during design and provide the contractor with information regarding the remaining risks. The contractors duty is to plan, manage and monitor his/her own work and that of his/her workers, check the competence of employees, train employees and provide safety information to his/her employees. Additional duties for notifiable projects are outlined in part 3 of the CDM regulations. Duties are placed on the client to appoint a CDM co-ordinator and principal contractor. The CDM co-ordinators role is to co-ordinate health and safety aspects of design work and co-operating with others involved in the project. The principal contractors main obligations are to prepare, develop and implement site rules and ensure all employees undergo site inductions. Workers also have obligations to check their own competence, report obvious risks and to co-ordinate their own work so as to ensure the health and safety of construction workers and others who may be affected by their work. (HSE 2007) Since the introduction of CDM regulations the construction industry has seen vast improvements in reducing the number of accidents on site. Despite amendments to the regulations, falls from height still remain the number one cause for fatal accidents on site and are proportionally equal to all other fall accident categories combined.

2.5.

Work at Height Regulations 2005

At the turn of the Millennium, as the HSE began to expand into more specific areas of industry, falls from height were still the largest cause of fatal accidents in construction. In 2005 the work at height regulations came into practice to reduce this figure. The regulations were then amended in 2007 to include other categories of workers who operate at height. Although the work at height regulations give advice and guidance to workers operating at height, duties are actually placed upon employers and those controlling the work of others operating at height (HSE 2005). By the overriding principle it is the employer that must do all that is reasonably practicable to prevent anyone falling on site. (Turner Access 2005) Management planning under severe weather conditions are defined in section 4 of the regulations, whereby responsibilities are imposed upon duty holders to ensure that all work at height is planned and organised, suitable work equipment is used and risks are assessed. Duty holders must take into account the weather conditions that could potentially affect falls from height, especially through fragile surfaces or of falling objects

as stated in sections 9-11 of the regulations (The National Archives 2005 chapters 4, 911). Section 5 of the regulations state employers and managers must check the competence of workers operating at height. Incompetent workers who operate at height are at the greatest risk from falling and therefore it is an extremely important aspect of the Work at Height regulations. Duty holders must also ensure workers using equipment to operate at height are adequately trained, for example, it is very common for steel erectors to use mobile elevated work platforms (MEWP) in performing certain functions, thus the contractor must ensure those operating such machinery are qualified to do so. (The National Archives 2005 chapter 5) Since falls from height are the most common accident category, the regulations strongly recommend avoiding work at height where possible, to eliminate the possibility of an accident from occurring. Where it is not practicable to do so, it is the duty holders responsibility, usually the site manager, to take measures necessary to reduce the height and thus minimise the consequences of a fall should one occur. Thus, the site manager should only direct workers to operate at height when it is absolutely necessary to do so. (HSE 2005 pg.22)

2.6.

Summary

Construction Design Management regulations and Work at Height regulations 2005 place the majority of responsibility upon duty holders such as employers, managers and contractors. Although employee duties can be found in the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, in the construction industry it can be seen that responsibility is assumed and emphasised for those in control of work rather, than those actually carrying out the work on site. It appears as though there is a disconnect between the regulations as a set of laws and the these laws and procedures actually reaching the worker on site. In my opinion this disconnection needs to be investigated further to understand in greater depth what exactly is being done by the Health and Safety Executive to bring across the message of Health and Safety law to the employee who is carrying out the operations on site.

3. Working at Height
To understand how the Health and Safety Executive implement the code of practice for complying with health and safety law for work at height, it is important to understand what the most common causes for fatal accidents are due to falls at height. Thus this chapter will look at: The requirements in order to prevent fall accidents for different types of fall from height; Raising awareness and educating the key messages of health and safety issues for operating at height.

3.1.

Types of Work at Height

It is commonplace for work at height to be in the nature of certain occupations in the construction industry. Working at height is the most dangerous area of operation and accounts for around half of all accidents which occur on site. The most common type of fall from height accidents are due to falls through fragile materials, falls from roof-work, falls from scaffolding or falls from ladders. (HSE 2007)

3.1.1. Falls through fragile materials Before any work at height takes place the law requires employers and contractors to assess all work at height, planning and organising work so that it may be carried out safely. Employees as well as duty holders must be aware of the precautions needed and understand the risks as well as the measures needed to take in order to prevent falls at height from occurring. The key issues to be addressed are conducting risk assessment, understanding the precautions and making clear method statements. (HSE 1999) Fatal accidents due to falls through fragile materials account for 22% of all fatal fall accidents which take place on construction sites. Falls through fragile materials commonly involve falls through fibre cement sheets, roof lights, liner panels, metal sheets, glass or chipboard. Employers as well as employees and all other persons involved in work at height are required to treat falls through fragile materials as a priority hazard. When work nearby fragile surfaces cannot be avoided and no other solution is practically possible, duty holders including employers and contractors, by law must make workers aware of the precautions to take in order to control the risks. Regardless of the duration or

nature of the work, precautions such as the use of fall arrest systems, guard rails or stagings must be advised to workers where work is being carried out nearby fragile surfaces. The HSE advise a simple four step plan in dealing with dangerous operations. Avoidance, control, communication and co-operation. Avoidance - Employers and contractors are advised to plan and organise work to prevent workers operating near fragile surfaces. Control When work near fragile surfaces is unavoidable, it should be managed by setting up guard rails, fall restraint systems and safety nets. Communication Duty holders must ensure warning notices are displayed prior to access to fragile surfaces. Co-operation Contractors and clients should liaise closely to agree the arrangements for managing the work on or nearby fragile surfaces. (HSE 2005)

3.1.2. Falls from roof work All roof work is highly dangerous. One in five deaths in construction involves roof work operations. The main cause of death and injury in roof work operations are due to falls from edges and openings. In order to limit the number of accidents, strict precautions are needed to control roof work regardless of whether specialist work or maintenance repairs are being carried out. Health and Safety law states that all roof work must be planned and organised so that it is carried out safely and that those carrying out the work are trained, competent and instructed in the precautions required. Method statements are commonly used by employers and contractors and those carrying out the work on site as a means of managing the risks by prescribing the safety measures that need to be taken. It is essential the most suitable equipment is used and that those involved in roof work are given accurate and relevant information, instruction, training and supervision on site. The HSE propose three key issues for clients and contractors to consider prior to making the arrangements for work on site: Safe access to roofs, securing roof edges and openings and avoiding fragile surfaces where possible. Safe access to roofs Access to a roof as well as the progression of work on a roof must be taken into account when preparing plans of any roof work. The safest methods of access to roof work are; general access scaffolds, stair towers, fixed or mobile scaffold towers, mobile access equipment, ladders and roof access hatches. Securing roof edges It is essential roof edges are secured to limit the high rate of accidents on both commercial and domestic projects where falls are most common. Workers must ensure double rail guard and toe board edge protection are fitted around the perimeter of flat roof edges and that scaffolding is

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constructed around the edges of sloping roofs. Avoiding fragile surfaces Fragile roofs are in particularly hazardous and therefore need to be secured using barriers or covers labelled with a warning. (HSE 1992)

3.1.3. Falls from scaffolding A high proportion of fatal accidents on construction sites occur due to falls from scaffolding. Accidents from scaffolding occur predominantly due to dangerous methods of erection, dismantling and defects in the erected scaffold, therefore those supervising work must apply rigorous scaffold inspection methods. The law requires that scaffolding is inspected by a competent person before its use and every 7 days until it is removed. Scaffolding must also be inspected when exposed to severe weather conditions which could affect or alter the structure. CISRS regulations require that toe boards, double guard rails, bracing and access ladders are used in preventing falls from scaffolding as well as endorsing other methods such as the use of scafftags to ensure scaffolding has been inspected before its use. Scaffolding must be designed and erected to a standard configuration to ensure it has suitable strength and stability. Harness inspection undergoes three levels of inspection: pre-check, detailed and interim checks. Employees are required to check for defects in protective equipment and bring any faults to the attention of the employer. The four key safety issues associated with scaffolding include: Erection and dismantling, stability, precautions and inspection. Employees whose occupations involve erecting and dismantling scaffolding must be competent and have received the correct level of training for the type of work they are involved in. Employers must provide appropriate levels of supervision taking into account the work and the level of training of the scaffolders constructing the configuration. For example trainee scaffolders must be directly supervised by a competent person when working on site. It is required that every scaffold gang contains an appropriately qualified scaffolder for the configuration and complexity of the scaffold being built, in order to oversee work and ensure that it is constructed safely. This may be a qualified advanced scaffolder or even a design engineer, provided they possess the necessary industry experience, have received training and are familiar with different scaffolding arrangements. (HSE 2005)

3.1.4. Falls from ladders

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Falls from ladders account for over 25% of all fall accidents from height. With an average of 12 workers dying every year and over 1200 falls resulting in major injuries, this category of accident has amongst the highest fatality rate of accidents that occur due to falls from height. The HSE state that ladders must only be used as a last resort when other means of access are not possible. Many accidents involving ladders occur on site when other more suitable and safer equipment could be used to perform the same job. Ladders, therefore, can only be used to access work at height when used for low risk, short duration work. It is the responsibility of duty holders to check workers operating at height are fit to use ladders and the duty of employees and contractors to report any issues that may affect the health and safety of workers. Three key safety issues are identified concerning the use of ladders: Condition, positioning and use. Condition Ladders must be of the correct type, have sufficient strength for what they are being used for and be regularly inspected. Positioning Ladders must be placed firmly on the ground, be properly secured and set to the length and angle required in order to perform their function correctly. Use Those using ladders must be competent to do so and adhere to the rules of safe ladder use. (HSE 2005)

3.2.

Methods used by the HSE to promote work at height health and safety

One of the popular methods by which the HSE raise awareness and educate workers operating at height on construction sites about the dangers and precautions required to take, happens through publicising information. The HSE publish guidance, run campaigns and provide resources on a variety of subjects to employers, clients, contractors and employees in order to minimise fall accidents on site.

3.2.1. Guidance Guidance provided can be specific to the issues of health and safety concerning a particular industry and its purpose is to give technical advice and control work on site by helping those involved understand, interpret correctly and comply with the law of the Health and Safety at Work Act. In preventing accidents from falls at height the HSE provide guidance to duty holders. Duty holders are advised to follow the risk assessments for all work at height

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activities and ensure all work at height is planned, organised and carried out by competent workers. They are also required to follow the hierarchy for managing risks from work at height, by taking steps to avoid, prevent and reduce risks by choosing the right work equipment and selecting collective methods to prevent falls, over methods which may only mitigate the consequences of a fall. (HSE 2005) In 2007 topic inspection packs were distributed to enable duty holders to understand the criteria inspectors expected to be met on site during their visits. The HSE and local authorities approved of the topic inspection packs as it was thought that the procedures it outlined for managing work at height would help duty holders implement practices of safe management on construction sites. Information regarding the most suitable access equipment in working at height was also detailed so that when inspectors visited the construction site the correct arrangements for access equipment would be in place. (HSE 2007) A survey found that in 2004-2005 over 85 fall accidents from height were reported to have occurred in the education sector which included five deaths in the years 2001-2007 (HSE 2004). Most of the accidents were caused by low falls that were categorised below 2m. Thus it was commissioned by the HSE that falls at height in the education sector were a priority hazard and specific education sector guidance was made available for duty holders. The priority programme focuses on taking action to improve health and safety in the workplace, in particularly in maintenance and repair work, so that methods for assessing common risks and hazards to people working at height are managed correctly. (HSE 1999)

3.2.2. Campaigns In 2005 the HSE launched the Fit Out Campaign. This involved construction division inspectors carrying out targeted national inspections on randomly selected construction projects in the UK. The purpose of the campaign was to inspect issues concerning low level work at height and general decent practice on site. A total of over 1,350 contractors were visited, 10% of which were issued prohibition notices for work at height, 3% improvement notices for work at height, 1% prohibition notices for good order on site and less than 1% received improvement notices for good order on site. The results of the inspection for work at height had shown that many contractors were still failing to meet the legal requirements to manage work on site safely, however practice of good order and control measures were shown to have been present on the large majority of contractors

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visited by inspectors. The campaign was overall viewed as having been beneficial to the construction industry as it identified many of the areas in which safety management could be improved on construction sites of different types and sizes. (HSE 2005) In 2006 the HSE ran the Height Aware Campaign. The campaign raised awareness of the risks of working at height through co-ordinated publicity, media, targeted inspections, educational and promotional events (HSE 2006 pg.3). The aim of the campaign was to bring about behavioural changes in workers and duty holders and also influence the attitudes of clients in selecting competent contractors. The campaign took place on a national scale delivering support to all geographical regions across the UK. An evaluation of the Height Aware campaign indicated an overall positive reaction among both employers and workers. The campaign seemed to influence employers and workers in different ways. The key message had a greater impact among workers although a larger proportion of employers (10%) than workers (6%) were shown to have taken action as a result of the campaign. (HSE 2007) In 2008 the Shattered Lives Campaign was first launched by the HSE to raise awareness of the issues concerning workplace slips, trips and falls and provide information on applicable safety measures in order to accidents from occurring. The campaign was initiated as a response to the high rate and economic cost of injuries attributed to slips, trips and falls in the work place. The initial success of the Shattered Lives campaign brought about its re-launch in 2010. The revised campaign produced an improved website providing users with access to statistics, studies, and an array of new resources such as information posters, toolbox talks, leaflets, hazard spotting checklists and guided information designed to instruct employers and employees as to how best avoid slips trips and falls in the workplace. (HSE 2008 pg.1) With over 11,000 injuries in the workplace every year, slips and trips are the biggest cause of fall from height accidents. The cost to the UK economy has been estimated in the region of 800 million every year and that to employers at 500 million a year as a result of these incidents (HSE 2004). Thus the Watch Your Step campaign was developed to inform employers and employees of the danger to their health and business. The message behind the campaign targets employers, and aims to encourage employers to instil a sense of the importance of reducing slips and trips in the workplace through to workers. Methods such as the online toolkit and case-studies are used to encourage and educate employers, employees and the public about the significance of falls due to slips and trips. During on site visits, safety representatives of the campaign provide support to

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managers and contractors to encourage and involve the workforce through talks, competitions and quizzes. (HSE undated)

3.2.3. Initiatives The inspection initiative was proposed to reduce the number of accidents from falls and trips in the construction industry to help meet the governments 2010 accident target. The initiative continued and developed further the efforts of the Fit Out campaign and Watch Your Step campaign through targeting sites of high risk and assessing good orderly conduct on site. In 2011 the construction inspection initiative found that 1 in 6 sites and 1 in 5 contractors were operating below the acceptable standard, compared with 1 in 3 sites and 1 in 4 contractors in 2007. Thus a vast improvement to construction health and safety had been demonstrated through the success of the initiative. (HSE 2007) (HSE 2010) From 2005 the training undertaken by HSE and Local Authority Inspectors became openly available to all health and safety professionals, employers and workers with an interest in understanding more about the regulations for working at height. Since the launch of this initiative employers and workers have been able to access presentations via the HSE website and increase their awareness of the dangers associated with working at height. (HSE 2004) The ladder exchange initiative was introduced to the construction industry in 2007 to reduce the number of accidents involving falls from ladders. The initiative meets this objective by offering an easy approach to businesses whereby damaged, broken or bent ladders can be replaced and traded in for a brand new set of safe ladders. Due to the successful collaboration of businesses and partners delivering the programme, the HSE withdrew its direct involvement in 2011 and transferred ownership of the initiative to the ladder exchange (LE). (HSE 2011)

3.2.4. Further Resources In recent years interactive online toolkits have increasingly been used by the HSE to convey key messages to those involved in work at height. Developments utilising this resource include the Shattered Lives and Watch Your Step campaigns. Their success has brought about an increase in the growth of online resources which are being used to educate key facts about safe practice in the construction industry. The WAIT, Work at

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height Access equipment Information Toolkit, was launched to help managers and supervisors who do not operate regularly at height select the most suitable access equipment to perform a particular job. Identifying the right equipment to perform a job requirement is also beneficial to businesses in that it can assist employers and contractors pass site inspections when visited by HSE representatives. (Construction Skills 2012) Other organisations such as WAHSA, The Work at Height Safety Association, whom work closely with the HSE, publish leaflets containing information and guidelines on correctly using specialised work at height equipment such as fall arrest systems. Their literature cover issues on when and how to use personal protective equipment correctly in accordance with the PPE regulations 1992, and have been made easy and simple to follow so as to encourage a greater awareness of the safety procedures on site. (WAHSA 2005)

3.3.

Summary

This chapter originally began by looking at the most common practices of work at height that account for the high number of fall accidents in the UK construction industry. Through the investigation of the common categories of falls at height and the code of practice for preventing accidents from occurring, it was discovered that the majority of responsibilities were placed upon employers and contractors managing work on site. This was strongly found to be the case concerning work involving the use of ladders, work on roofs or on fragile surfaces. However, interestingly when this involved work from scaffolding, it was found that the majority of duties and responsibilities were placed upon the employees themselves and workers supervising the work of others, in contrast to other types of work previously mentioned whereby the duties were upon employers and contractors. The nature of work and hierarchy of the scaffolding business is highly different from that of other skilled trades that frequently work at height such as roofing, painting or decorating, and even run through a different organisation, the CISRS as opposed to 'Construction Skills'. Employers and contractors manage and supervise work on construction sites however they are never directly involved in the construction work itself. Their responsibilities mainly consist of ensuring workers on site have the correct training, access equipment and are made aware of the method statements/risk assessments. Whereas those managing scaffold work on site are usually themselves scaffolders in supervisory positions, and in situations where this is not the case the regulations state that non scaffolders who manage and supervise scaffold work on site must have passed a scaffolders supervisor training course.

16

The Health and Safety Executive and other affiliations they work in participation with, to improve the health and safety standards for work at height, have used publicity and the media to educate workers and employers of the Work at Height Regulations through the use of campaigns, initiatives and guidance. The methods which have been adopted in promoting health and safety on site, including the Watch Your Step campaign, HSE guidance, Height Aware campaign and the WAIT Toolkit, strengthened the findings of the previous chapter where it was found that the vast majority of regulations targeted duty holders.

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4. The Worker
In former chapters of the report it was found that many of the regulations and codes of practice proposed in the Work at Height Act 1974, CDM regulations and Work at Height Regulations; were directed and imposed upon duty holders rather than the workers. This finding was strengthened in Chapter 3, which looked at specific types of work at height. For all types of work at height, except scaffolding, it was found that the HSE imposed the majority of responsibilities and requirements upon the duty holders who manage the work of others. Whereas in the scaffolding trade, contrastingly, HSE impose health and safety responsibilities upon the workers themselves carrying out work and supervising scaffolding construction. To understand from an individuals perspective, whether the candidate is familiarised with the requirements in the codes of practice that must be adhered to in carrying out safe practice on site, the training regimes of the trades that most commonly work at height will be investigated in this chapter. Training is the first step that is undertaken by an individual in working towards becoming a skilled operative. Thus the material, resources and education one receives early on in their career largely impacts how an individuals work is carried out on site. Understanding whether and to what degree training regimes implement the workers on site will help to understand in greater terms to whom these laws are being directed. Thus it will be possible to understand in depth, the relationship between the individual and corporate.

4.1.

General Training

In the UK, by law it is not necessary to have qualifications in order to work on a construction site. However many employers ask those applying for employment whether they hold the most basic card attainable - the CSCS (Construction Skills Certification Scheme) site operatives card. Although it is not a prerequisite for working in the construction industry, some employers do prefer their workers to hold a CSCS card as it is evidence of one having acquired a basic understanding of onsite health and safety. In order to attain a CSCS card, prior to April 2012 one would have had needed to pass a Health and Safety test at an assessment centre. Since April 2012, the Construction Skills Certification Scheme expanded its syllabus to also take account of the environment, thus it was renamed the Health, Safety and Environment test (Construction Skills 2012). The same test is used to apply for a CSCS card.

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Employees operating on site, such as labourers, builders, roofers, painters and decorators are not required by law to hold a CSCS card to work in their occupation on site. Generally, in order to progress in a construction career further training must be completed which is only possible through initially passing the Construction Skills Health, Safety and Environment test. Workers entering their trade through an apprenticeship scheme work towards attaining an NVQ qualification, and in doing so are required to apply for a CSCS card. Sometimes the CSCS card being applied for is a skilled workers card rather than the card at the most basic level. To enter the scaffolding trade a different procedure is used; it is not possible to work on site either as a scaffolders labourer or trainee scaffolder without having attained some form of qualification to do so. Successive subsections will go into greater depth and detail regarding the procedures that are required to become qualified to work in each of the trades which most commonly operate at height.

4.1.1. The Health and Safety Test The Health and Safety test is a computer based test consisting of 40 multiple choice questions which must be answered in a time period of 45 minutes. The objective of the examination is to test the candidates knowledge on a variety of health and safety topics to prepare one for the safety issues that would be encountered in the workplace. In order to pass the test 37 out of 40 questions must be answered correctly (Downunder 2008). Once a candidate has passed the test it is possible to apply through Construction Skills for a site operatives CSCS card. The CSCS card is valid for a five year period and requires resitting the test in order to renew the cards expiration period. (Construction Skills 2011)

4.1.2. The Health, Safety and Environment Test In April 2012 the Health, Safety and Environment test replaced the Health and Safety test. Due to the rapid rate at which construction methods are changing, the introduction of new regulations and a crack-down in recent years on environmental issues; CITB Construction Skills decided to revamp the existing test so that it meets present needs and requirements that reflect the current issues being faced in the construction industry. The primary goal of the test is to raise the standards of the construction industry by introducing an awareness of health, safety and environmental issues prior to working on site. The structure of the test has significantly been enhanced, now containing 50 multiple

19

choice questions where 12 of the 50 are behavioural case study questions which are designed to improve the behaviour of the individual on a construction site, and the remaining 28 are knowledge questions designed to ensure ones understanding of health, safety and environmental issues. The knowledge style questions introduce additional content as well as changing the structure of the question selection for the test. (Construction Skills 2012) There are four types of test that are available, including the operative, specialist, supervisor and manager test, designed to meet the health and safety issues concerning various positions or specialist occupations on site. The specialist test for example is applicable for covering specialist areas such as work at height, demolition work, tunnelling etc (Construction Skills 2011). The tests for specialist work at height are designed to test workers regularly operating at height on their knowledge of safe practice, however the generic Health, Safety and Environment mock examination does not contain a single question on the subject topic of work at height. Although the content of the examination highly emphasizes the candidates understanding of definitions of terms such as Weils disease and the interpretation of safety signs or types of fire extinguisher that should be used to put out certain fires, the level of contribution of the Health, Safety and Environment test to work at height safety relative to its accident rate is appalling.(CSCS Mock test 2012) As compared with the former Health and Safety Test the new test has been made to take with as much ease to the candidate as possible. The new test can be taken at fixed test centres, independent internet test centres operated through a college or at a corporate testing unit. These are available at over 150 locations throughout the UK. In addition to this, mobile testing is currently under development to become available in the near future. The test has been made with as much ease as possible so that candidates whom are computer illiterate are able to take the test. There are also tutorial practices available prior to commencing the test and assistance is available at hand, during the test, for candidates experiencing difficulties. Contrary to the old test which could be taken with voice overs in a limited number of languages, which included: English, Welsh, Polish, & Hindi; the current test can be pre-booked with voice overs in over 10 languages; and if the candidate does not speak any of the languages in which voice overs are available, an interpreter can be requested. (Construction Skills 2012) CITB Construction Skills have developed a free online film and a range of revision materials including question and answer books, publications and DVDs to help prepare candidates for the test. The free film called Setting Out is available online to

20

candidates taking the test and gives an overview of the topic areas which must be understood prior to commencing the examination. (Construction Skills 2012)

4.1.3. Site Safety Plus The Construction Skills Site Safety Plus scheme is a training programme which is designed to provide individuals who wish to improve and develop their awareness of health and safety in the construction industry with a comprehensive range of skills to progress in their profession. The scheme offers four types of course which are designed for operatives, supervisors and managers (Construction Skills 2011). The one day Health and Safety Awareness course is offered to construction operatives and is designed to improve knowledge of how health and safety impacts daily work on a construction site. The course is delivered through a combination of case studies, classroom discussions, group work, individual and group presentations and is assessed through a multiple choice examination at the end of the course. The course is strongly recommended for operatives wishing to refresh their understanding of health and safety on site and also to candidates who are preparing to take the CSCS Health, Safety and Environment test (Construction Skills 2012). The two day Supervisor Safety Training course is designed to provide candidates with an introduction to the health, safety, welfare and environmental issues concerning supervisory work activities and responsibilities. Assessment of the course takes place through individual exercises, group exercises and a multiple choice test (Construction Skills 2012). The five day Site Management Training scheme is offered to candidates entering managerial positions. The scheme offers a highly interactive course which is designed to make the candidate aware of the regulations contained within the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and covers issues which managers are most commonly engaged in, such as risk assessment and method statements. For those who already work in managerial positions, a two day refresher course must be completed every five years in order to renew ones Site Management Training certificate (Construction Skills 2012). The ABC (Achieving Behavioural Change) course was introduced in 2007 to primarily help supervisors and managers understand how behaviour, communication and worker engagement can reduce the number of accidents on site. The course emphasizes an understanding of basic legal requirements to duty holders and employees as well as the cost benefits of good safety practice on site. (Seaham safety services ltd. undated) The Health, Safety and Environment test as well as the Site Safety Plus scheme are methods by which the green site operatives CSCS card can be attained,

21

however fully skilled workers would usually complete training and work towards attaining the blue skilled operatives CSCS card. In the following four subsections of this chapter, the training regimes of five occupations with the highest fatal accident rate from falls at height will be critically analysed.

4.2.

Builders and Labourers

A construction operative, also known as a labourer, typically works alongside other skilled workers carrying out duties such as ground work, concreting and constructing formwork. A builders job overlaps with that of a labourer however there is a greater emphasis on revamp work, requiring more specialist skills such as paving, tiling etc. Employees are required to often work at height and operate hand held power tools as well as machine operated tools on site. In commencing a career as either a builder or labourer there are no fixed qualifications that must be attained in order to work on site. It may be advantageous to have GCSE qualifications in subjects like maths and English for one seeking contractual work, however having attained previous site experience is considered to be of greater importance to employers in selecting workers. Nevertheless neither education nor experience are a pre-requisite in becoming qualified as a builder or labourer. A more common method of entry into this career for school leavers in the UK is through an apprenticeship scheme. An apprenticeship enables trainees to attain work experience with a building company whilst on a low wage and studying towards an NVQ qualification at a local college. This method of entry is not as popular for non-school leaver candidates commencing a career as a builder or construction worker, simply because the wage of an apprentice is not particularly high and a better wage could be earned through directly working on site whilst gaining work experience. Thus it can be more beneficial for such workers to use On-Site Assessment Training (OSAT) or take the Experienced Worker Practical Assessment (EWPA) as a method of attaining an NVQ qualification and CSCS card. (National Careers Service 2012) Apprentices on day release in college will usually work towards a level 2 NVQ in Construction Operations. The NVQ qualification can help enhance a career by improving the reputation and enabling an individual to be eligible for a CSCS card. Once one has attained a site operatives CSCS card, commencing their career at the lowest level, it is possible move forward by applying for a more advanced CSCS card; which has the benefit of landing a better job or receiving a promotion.

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The level 2 NVQ in Construction Operations is designed to enable individuals involved in general construction work recognise the knowledge, skills and competence that are required in the workplace. The course consists of 138 credits, and contains a 2 credit unit, 3 credit unit and 10 credit unit concerning matters of health and safety. The 2 credit unit on conforming to general health, safety and welfare in the workplace, focuses on the candidate complying with workplace legislation requirements, recognising hazards and reporting them in accordance with organisational procedures, complying with organisational policies and complying with and supporting all organisational security arrangements. The 3 credit unit on conforming to productive working practices in the workplace focuses on communicating with others to establish productive working practices, following organisational procedures, maintaining records in accordance to organisational procedures and good working relationships when conforming to productive working practices. The 10 credit unit on establishing work area protection and safety in the workplace focuses on the candidate interpreting information relating to the work and resources, complying with legislation and office guidance and maintaining safe working practices. The second part of the unit is concerned with selecting the required quantity and quality of resources for the method of work, minimising the risk of damage to the work and surrounding area, completing the work within the allocated time and complying with the given contact information when establishing work area protection and safety. Units of the Construction Operations NVQ pertaining to health and safety cover approximately 10% of the level 2 NVQ. Other courses, accessible through external training providers or colleges of further education, contain a significantly lower content of health and safety material. Such courses are designed to enhance the operatives skills, however do not normally lead to an industry recognised qualification. (Edexcel 2012)

4.3.

Painters and Decorators

Painters and decorators work on a variety of domestic or industrial projects ranging from interior decoration to applying heavy duty finishes to large structures such as bridges. The nature of the job means that painters and decorators work at height frequently. When working indoors painters and decorators use trestles, hop ups or scaffold towers to reach the high parts of a building, whereas when working outdoors structures such as scaffolding are used to access work at height. In order to start out ones career as a painter and decorator there are no fixed requirements or qualifications that are necessary to have attained prior to commencing

23

work on site. Much like the career of a builder or labourer, a painter and decorator is not required by law to have a CSCS site operatives card, although it may help one in gaining employment in the construction industry. Alike most trades in the construction business; employers, contractors and foremen, whom are in charge of managing work on site will have a preference, when hiring workers, to employ those who possess previous site experience. Commencing ones profession through an apprenticeship scheme is the most common route that is taken in a painter or decorators career. An apprenticeship involves on the job training with day or periodic release from a training centre or college. The employment of apprentices are usually subject to GCSE scores, whereby subjects including maths and English are preferable to have studied prior to entry, however a BTEC introductory certificate or a diploma in construction can certainly advance one onto an apprenticeship scheme (National Careers Service 2012). Initiating ones career through an apprenticeship scheme can be largely beneficial to the individual as it encourages the achievement of more advanced qualifications. Once working towards an NVQ qualification it is in the interest of the individual to strive to attain further credentials that will enhance ones recognition. This can open up to the apprentice many more opportunities that improve career prospects, whereby working towards a more advanced NVQ qualification will enable the individual to apply for a more advanced CSCS card. Where an apprenticeship is not a viable option, employers may offer individuals on-site training working alongside a more experienced worker as a labourer or, painter and decorators mate. The Construction Skills level 1 & 2 NVQ diploma in Decorative Finishing and Industrial Painting Occupations is the most basic course which can assist one in developing the skills required in a career as a painter or decorator. The qualification is taught throughout most colleges in the UK and can be taken by individuals as a part time or full time course. The course combines developing theoretical knowledge in the classroom with practical skills in the workshop. Level 1 & 2 NVQ diploma in Decorative Finishing and Industrial Painting Occupations consist of 39 credits in total, whereby 7 of which deal with understanding the relevant health and safety issues involved in working on site. The course contains two units on carrying out safe working practices in the construction workplace, forming 18% of the total course content. By the end of the course individuals are expected to know and be able to apply the health and safety regulations, identify hazards and know how to report accidents and follow emergency procedures on site. In addition to this individuals will know how to handle materials and equipment,

24

operate in a hygienic construction environment, use PPE correctly and understand the fire procedures and safety signs on site. (Edexcel 2012) The Construction Skills NVQ level 3 & 4 build on from the units taught at level 1 and 2 in addition to developing specialists skills through additional modules offered. Completion of NVQ level 3 enables the individual the opportunity to progress further onto a foundation degree. The level 4 NVQ qualification is the most advanced qualification of those offered to painters and decorators, and is designed for the worker who wishes to progress to a level of management, subsequently enabling the worker to apply for a Managers CSCS card. (Bridgend College 2011) Many of the construction industrys older and more experienced workers do not hold any modern qualifications that were developed between the last 20-30 years. At the time these workers first began their careers the structure of the industry had undergone changes whereby over time, attaining qualifications became a measure by which ones level of competence and skill could be assessed. Contrastingly the industry did not operate as such prior to their introduction of the NVQ qualification in 1986 (Business balls 2010). Thus, for an experienced worker to gain a qualification in the present day, where an apprenticeship is a non suitable option, On-Site Assessment and Training (OSAT) or the Experienced Worker Practical Assessment (EWPA) schemes are commonly used which enable the worker to apply for the red, experienced worker's CSCS card. (National Careers Service 2012) There are many alternative organisations such as Superskills, offering training courses in painting and decorating. Many of these private organisations pride themselves for providing a speedy and easy process which can help the individual attain a qualification as simply as possible. These companies advertise their courses as a quick and convenient way to become a qualified painter or decorator. In contrast to the industry recognised 36 week long NVQ course, the Superskills five day intensive painting and decorating course is designed to take the complete novice to the point of becoming a competent painter or decorator in a short space of time. (Superskills 2011)

4.4.

Roofer

A roofers work can typically range from fitting a roof for a domestic home to re-slating the roof of a building. The nature of this vocation means that roofers predominantly work at height in their occupation. A lot of the work undertaken by roofers involves restoring existing roofs by replacing broken tiles, slates or roof timbers. Finding work as an entry-

25

level roofing labourer is a common way into this career, as it gives the worker the on-site experience employers often ask for. Once working the employer may be willing to give further training in roofing techniques; however an apprenticeship is usually a more popular route that is taken which also has the benefit of the potential roofer attaining an NVQ qualification as well as a CSCS card. Like painters and decorators a roofer is unlikely to find employment without a relevant qualification, as employers want to ensure their employees are skilled workers and competent when working at height. An NVQ training scheme offers the individual the opportunity to attain on site practical work experience and earn a qualification. It is preferred among both employers and trainees for its flexibility as it allows the learner to work and study simultaneously. The NVQ qualification in roofing occupations is not limited only to apprentices as it may also be undertaken by self employed workers who do not usually commence their employment through a training scheme with a company. For more experienced self employed workers On-Site Assessment and Training (OSAT) or Experienced Worker Practical Assessment (EWPA) is a more applicable method by which an NVQ may be attained. To get on to an apprenticeship, the hiring company usually require potential roofers to have GCSEs (grades A-C) in subjects like maths, English and design technology or an equivalent qualification such as a BTEC Certificate or Diploma in Construction (National Careers Service 2012). The level 2 NVQ Diploma in Roofing Occupations is aimed to provide the individual with a broad knowledge, understanding and set of skills to become a roofer. The course is taught over 30 weeks and assessment is based on the individual demonstrating their knowledge through the completion of course work and practical synoptic assignments. The course consists of 186 credits which are spread over 17 different units. Two of the course units educate the candidate about conforming to general health, safety and welfare in the workplace and conforming to productive working practices. A third unit deals with moving, handling and storing resources in the workplace safely. In total these units comprise 5% of the total weight of the course. The unit concerned with conforming to general health, safety and welfare in the workplace requires candidates to comply with all workplace health safety and welfare legislation requirements, recognise hazards in the workplace and work responsibly and comply with organisational policies and security arrangements. The 3 credit unit titled Conforming to productive working practices in the workplace is designed to educate the individual how to communicate with others to establish productive working practices, follow organisational procedures to plan the sequence of work, maintain relevant records

26

in accordance with the organisational procedures and maintain good working relationships when conforming to productive working practices. (Edexcel 2012) Assessment of the level 2 NVQ in Roofing Occupations has been made with as much ease and convenience as possible for the worker to complete. Those who do not complete the course via an apprenticeship scheme are at risk of missing out on wages when already in employment and therefore the entire assessment process can be completed on site in less than a week. Once the candidate has passed the assessment it is possible to apply for the blue skilled workers CSCS card. The process of assessment for the level 3 NVQ in Roofing Occupations can take up to 3 weeks as there are a greater number of units to be assessed on. Completion of the course enables the worker to enter a supervisory position by applying for a supervisors CSCS card. The level 3 course incorporates a greater number of units that are concerned with health and safety on site than at level 2 (National Careers Service 2012). These additional units include Developing and Maintaining Good Occupational Working Relationships in the Workplace, confirming the occupational method of work in the workplace and confirming work activities and resources for an occupation work area in the workplace. (Edexcel 2012) In addition to passing the NVQ assessment, candidates must also have completed and passed the 'Construction Skills Supervisors Health, Safety and Environment test' before applying for the gold supervisors CSCS card. The supervisors card has an expiry period of 5 years unless renewed in that time by re-completing the 'Health, Safety and Environment test'. Recently the 'Construction Skills Certification Scheme' introduced the profiled route of entry for applicants applying for the gold supervisors CSCS card. Applications made via this process require an employer or contract manager to gather and submit evidence demonstrating the workers level of competence to become a supervisor, and also a reviewer to assess the information submitted. In addition to this applicants are required to have had previous site experience and to have passed the 'Supervisors Health, Safety and Environment test'. (CSCS 2012) Many private organisations such as Construction Training Services or Access Training offer alternative training courses which do not lead to an NVQ qualification but rather educate an individual specific roofing skills. Such courses are more appealing to candidates as they are designed for the quick and practical learner and welcome workers with any level of experience and background. A drawback of completing a qualification with a private organisation is that unlike the NVQ course these qualifications do not usually lead to an industry recognised qualification or to the worker attaining a CSCS card

27

at the completion of the course. Attendance of privatised courses is increasingly becoming more popular as they provide an alternative method for one to develop their career. (Construction training services 2008) (Access training 2012)

4.5.

Scaffolder

Scaffolders assemble and dismantle scaffolding structures to enable workers to access higher levels of a building, to enable construction or revamp work to take place at height on a construction site. The body that is responsible for maintaining the content of training regimes in the UK is the CISRS (Construction Industry Scaffolders Record Scheme). This scheme endorsed by 'Construction Skills' is an independent body which certifies that safety standards are met throughout scaffolding training, by ensuring that a potential scaffolders preparation to work on site complies with the codes of practice as outlined in the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 and Work at Height Regulations. (CISRS 2011) Like the Construction Skills Certification Scheme (CSCS) that operates using a card system, the construction industry scaffolders record scheme (CISRS) likewise provides different coloured cards for the different levels in the scaffolding industry. There are five ranks available, each offering a separate industry recognised qualification: scaffolders labourer, trainee scaffolder, basic skilled scaffolder, advanced scaffolder and supervisor. In commencing a career as a scaffolder one may either initially work as a scaffolders labourer, start out as a trainee, requiring the individual to have an understanding of maths, English and Science, or commence an apprenticeship and work towards becoming qualified as a basic scaffolder. In starting out work as a scaffolders labourer, one would usually be involved in labouring duties such as moving materials and keeping the work area organised and tidy to enable the worker to appreciate good practices before advancing into the technicalities of developing more complicated skills. One can attain a labourers CISRS card through completion of the CISRS Labourers Application or Employer Endorsement Form as well as passing the 'Construction Skills Health, Safety and Environment test'. In order for the operative to carry out any scaffolding work on site the candidate must hold a CISRS scaffolders trainee card. The CISRS trainee scaffolders card is suitable for operatives wishing to obtain a basic scaffolders card. Trainee cards have an expiry period of 18 months and it is

28

expected of the trainee to have completed part 1 of the CISRS training course in that time. The card can then be renewed to enable the individual to complete part 2 of the CISRS training course and progress further. By the end of the first part of the course candidates understand how to safely erect, alter, dismantle, and inspect various types of scaffolding, correctly select scaffold materials for their serviceability, as well as being able to interpret and apply the regulations and codes of practice to their work. Part 2 of the course instructs candidates how to assemble and dismantle more complicated types of scaffolding arrangements and how to install protective systems on scaffold structures. The candidates initial training combines on site work experience with offsite training conducted with an approved CISRS training provider. For the more experienced workforce, where the 10 day training course is less suitable to the level of skill and knowledge of the candidate, 'assessed route of entry' is a more applicable course which replaces the initial training course. (National Careers Service 2012) In addition to the CISRS training course, in order for a trainee scaffolder to progress to the level of a basic scaffolder the Health, Safety and Environment test must be passed as well as completing an NVQ in Accessing Operations and Rigging. The NVQ qualification enables candidates to demonstrate their competence through assessment of their knowledge and skills in the workplace. The course contains 12 units (153 credits) whereby 6 of which (67 credits) relate to health and safety in the workplace. Thus 44% of the course involves the scaffolder learning about the health and safety issues that need to be managed when assembling or dismantling structures on site. The course consists of the following units relating to health and safety: Conforming to general health, safety and welfare in the workplace, conforming to productive working practices, equipping scaffolds with safeguards and environmental protection in the workplace, establishing work area protection and safety in the workplace, inspecting scaffold/rigging systems and utilising fall protection systems. (Edexcel 2012) Assessment of the level 2 NVQ is performed by as Assessor judging a candidates portfolio of evidence as to whether his/her performance meets the criteria that can prove adequate competency to work on site. Completion of the 'Accessing Operations and Rigging' level 2 NVQ, CISRS training course and 'Health, Safety and Environment test' means that an individual can apply for a basic scaffolders card and lead or work as part of a scaffold gang. The card has a five year expiry period and can be renewed by reexamination of the 'Construction Skills Health, Safety and Environment test'. Scaffolders involved in the construction and dismantling of scaffold structures of a more complex nature are required to interpret scaffold drawings and understand the

29

procedures for producing accurate risk assessments and method statements. The advanced scaffolding card enables this, giving the candidate a greater responsibility on site when it comes to leading a scaffold gang and dealing with skilled workers of other trades, managers or supervisors. Prior to applying for the advanced scaffolding card, basic skilled scaffolders are required to have completed the level 3 NVQ qualification in 'Access and Rigging Operations', complete an advanced scaffolding course at an approved training centre and hold a valid 'Health, Safety and Environmental test' certificate. Alike the level 2 NVQ qualification, assessment of the level 3 NVQ is conducted through gathering evidential information supporting the candidates competence to carry out advanced tasks on site. The CISRS advanced scaffolders card has a five year expiration period whereby it can renewed through re-assessment of the 'Construction Skills Health, Safety and Environment test'. To supervise work activities on site, candidates are required to have completed the five day CISRS supervisory course as well as have passed the 'Construction Skills Health, Safety and Environment test'. The supervisory course is not exclusive to workers operating in the scaffolding business, however it is also available and aimed at individuals of non scaffolding backgrounds, such as general site foremen, contract supervisors or project managers to complete, so as to elevate the level of health and safety on site. The supervisory course contains units concerning the legal overview of health and safety law, employment law; as well as a thorough analysis of British/European standards, NASC (National Access and Scaffolding Confederation) safety and technical guidance. (National Careers Service 2012)

4.6.

Summary

In this chapter the training regimes of the five types of worker who most commonly operate at height were investigated. These included a builder, labourer, roofer, scaffolder, painter and decorator. Bar scaffolding, it was found that compulsory qualifications were not required in order to work in these occupations on site; however it is preferable for workers in these professions to have completed the 'Health, Safety and Environment test' and attained a site operatives CSCS card to help gain employment on site. In contrast, there is a more rigid structure to become employed in the scaffolding trade. Scaffolder's training is monitored by the CISRS, who work independently to Construction Skills, the organisation whom are responsible for monitoring the training of four of the five trades previously mentioned.

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The 'Health, Safety and Environment test', a generic examination for the majority of trades in the construction industry, has recently undergone improvements which have reshaped the structure and content of the test to meet the current challenges of the construction industry. These improvements have made the test more accessible to workers of all backgrounds, including foreign workers and individuals with learning difficulties. It is currently possible to take the test in a range of different languages to meet the difficulties foreign workers may experience in overcoming the language barrier. Although the industry strives to meet the needs of the current changes that are taking place, inevitably if the test is being made possible to take in a multitude of languages, the worker will most likely not understand the meaning of important site safety notices, safety signs or verbal instructions, which are critical to site safety. Therefore workers with a poor level of English may complete the 'Health, Safety and Environment test', however will not be able to implement its content on a practically. The Health, Safety and Environment mock test, used by candidates in preparation for the real test, exposes a critical detail regarding its content on work at height. Seeing as work at height is responsible for the vast majority of accidents on site, one would think that it would contain a share of questions on the associated dangers, however in speculation of the test questions, a single question from a selection of former examination questions on work at height health and safety could not be found. There are four different 'Health, Safety and Environment tests available for workers of different rank. The site operatives 'Health, Safety and Environment test' is the test that is commonly taken by workers starting out their careers in the five trades investigated in this chapter, whereas the site specialists Work at Height - 'Health, Safety and Environment test' is only available to workers of advanced levels in these occupations. Young individuals on site are at a disadvantage in that they're awareness of health and safety is significantly less than that of advanced workers, thus exposing less experienced workers to a greater accident risk. To reduce the accident rate due to falls from height it would surely make more sense that basic site operatives are given the same level of education of health and safety on site that advanced workers receive. This also can be demonstrated in the training of particular trades. For example, the level 2 NVQ in Roofing Occupations, compared to the level 3 course - incorporates additional units concerning health and safety in the workplace. Alike the site specialist 'Health, Safety and Environment test' which is applicable to advanced workers, the level 3 NVQ applies to more experienced roofers; thus depriving workers of lower rank of awareness of key health and safety issues for working at height.

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Table 4.1 below summarises and compares the career entry requirements and health and safety content of the training courses for the five trades investigated in this chapter:

Occupation Builder/Labourer

Career Entry Requirements GCSEs not required.

Health and safety content of training courses Construction Operations 10%

Painter and Decorator

GCSE grades A-E in maths and English required.

Painting and Decorating

18%

Roofer

GCSE grades A-C in design and technology, maths and English required.

Roofing Occupations

5%

Scaffolder

To apply for a labourers CISRS card GCSEs not required. To apply for a trainee scaffolders CISRS card GCSE grades A-C in English required. To apply through an apprenticeship for a basic scaffolders CISRS card candidates must achieve higher grades.

Accessing Operations and Rigging

44%

Table 4.1

Of the five trades investigated, the scaffolding trade has the most comprehensive structure. To become a qualified scaffolder, workers of all background are required to enrol on the CISRS training scheme. Within the scaffolding trade it is compulsory to complete both parts 1 and 2 of the training course, in addition to an NVQ qualification and have passed the Health, Safety and Environment test in order to work on site. The training course can usually take up to 18 months in total to complete, to sufficiently prepare scaffolders. Scaffolders learn how to incorporate the code of practice for work at height regulations, set up arrangements for constructing complicated scaffolding structures and securely installing fall protection systems. Scaffolders taking the advanced training course must also undergo rigorous training whereby participants learn how to perform jobs such as how to produce risk assessments, method statements and interpret scaffolding drawings - much the same as the job of an employer or contractor would do when managing the work of other construction workers. Also, in comparison to other

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trades whereby advanced health and safety information is only taught to workers involved in specialist work at height, there is no new health and safety information on the advanced training course that is not already taught on the training course to become a basic scaffolder. Supervisors of scaffold works can also be of other trades besides scaffolding, which is an advantage to the construction industry at large as it encourages other trades to undertake a more, health and safety wise, rigorous supervisory course whereby participants must be aware of various British and European standards as well as the National Access and Scaffolding Safety and technical guidance. This is highly beneficial to the construction industry, as it introduces to workers of various non-scaffolding backgrounds, the benefits of applying more stringent laws and regulations for working at height. The fact that codes of practice for working on site in accordance with health and safety law does not translate to the practical work, workers are involved in, has been demonstrated in former chapters of the report, however more specifically in this chapter, it has been shown that the training of the trades investigated do not inclusively implement the health and safety codes of practice into their training regimes, except in the scaffolding trade. In the next chapter we will see whether the accident data matches the findings of this chapter and whether the findings in the report account the data, and ultimately explain why the proportion of fatal accidents from work at height is disproportionately high in comparison to other types of fall from height.

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5. Review of the accident data The displayed data was collected from the Construction Intelligence Report. The Construction Intelligence Report is an analysis of construction injury and ill health intelligence which gives an account of fatal accidents in the construction industry over a twelve year period from April 1997 to March 2009 (HSE 2009 pg.1). This chapter displays the relative proportion of a range of different construction workers involved in each type of fatal fall accident.

5.1.

The causes of fatal accidents due to falls from height. Chart 5.2

Chart 5.1 displays the different categories of falls from height in the construction workplace. The proportions shown are distributed fairly equally between different types of accident.

5.2.

Fatal accidents by falls through fragile materials - Occupation Chart 5.2

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Chart 5.2 shows that roofers have the highest proportion of fatal accidents. A high number of fatalities to roofers would be expected as their work involves working near fragile materials such as in the installation of lightweight fibreglass roofs. The combined proportion of builders and labourers add up to 21%, half the number of cases involving roofers.

5.3.

Fatal accidents by falls from ladders - Occupation

Chart 5.3

Whilst painters and decorators have moderately high accident numbers overall,
they have a disproportionately high share (around a quarter) of the fatal fall category involving ladders (HSE 2009 pg.45). Further analysis of the reasons behind which accidents involving ladders had occurred, found that over a third of fatal falls from ladders were attributed to a lack of tying/securing the ladders (HSE 2009 pg.46). In comparison, the accumulated proportion of construction workers, labourers and builders was 32%.

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5.4.

Fatal accidents by falls through edges and openings Occupation

Chart 5.4 Roofers have the highest number of fatal fall accidents in this category, 20%, whereas the accident rate of scaffolders is only 4%. This is a surprising finding seeing as it would be expected that the scaffolding trade would have a similar share of fatal fall accidents to that of roofers, as it is in the nature of a scaffolders trade to work near edges and openings where falls are imminent. Construction workers labourers and builders total a combined percentage of 32%, which is greater than other occupation of this fall from height category.

5.5.

Fatal accidents by falls from scaffolding - Occupation

Chart 5.5 The majority of fatal fall accidents in chart 5.5 do not involve scaffolders, but other trades who use scaffold work platforms to access their work at height. Nevertheless scaffolders have the highest proportion of fatal fall accidents in this category. Construction

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workers, labourers and builders make up 29% whereas contrastingly, painters and decorators only 6% of fatal falls from scaffolding. This comes as a startling finding since much of their work involves utilising scaffold platforms to access high areas on the exterior of buildings for jobs such as painting window frames or steelwork.

5.6.

A comparison of the fatal falls of different occupations and the health and safety content of training courses. Chart 5.6

A comparison of the fatal falls of different occupations and the health and safety content of various training courses.
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Labourer/Builder Painter and Decorator Roofer Scaffolder

Combined Total of fatal fall accidents

Content of health and safety on training course

Chart 5.6

Chart 5.6 compares the total number of fatal falls and health and safety content contained within training courses for the occupations listed.

The blue bar is a representation of the sum of fatal fall accidents for all types of falls from height, which were obtained from the proportion of fatalities in charts 5.2 5.5. The red bar represents the proportion of health and safety content of the main training courses in each of the 4 categories of occupation listed on the x-axis of the chart. These percentages were obtained from table 4.1.

This data will be drawn upon in the subsequent chapter as a basis for discussing the relationship between the literature researched in previous chapters, and the fatal accident rate of falls from height within different construction trades.

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6. Discussion of literature and data

6.1.

Findings of chapter 2 Health and Safety

The goal of chapter 2 was to determine the outcome of the first objective identified in the introduction, which was to investigate to whom the codes of practice as stated in the regulations and acts applied. Thus the report began with an investigation of codes of practice pertaining to regulations regarding work at height in the construction industry. This chapter had concluded that the majority of laws for safe practice in the workplace were tailored to those managing the work of others rather than employees carrying out construction work on site. Through investigating the code of practice contained within the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, it becomes apparent that there are relevant sections for both employers and employees, however the majority of laws in sections 2 and 3 were concerned with the duties of employers rather than those of employees. As the name suggests, Construction Design Management regulations are applicable to those in positions of management. CDM regulations form the main framework of workplace health, safety and welfare across the construction industry. Legal binding duties, outlined in sections 2 and 3 of the regulations, were found to be imposed upon designers (provisions 15 & 18), contractors (provisions 13 & 19), clients (provisions 8 10 & 15 - 17), CDM co-ordinators (provision 20) and principal contractors (provisions 22 - 24). However specific duties to be upheld by workers could not be found throughout these regulations. The work at height regulations 2005 are structured in a slightly different way to the aforementioned regulations, whereby the focus is on ensuring that specific standards for access equipment and protective systems are in place. Duty requirements are defined, however these principally address duty holders such as managers/contractors/employers whereas fewer of the requirements address workers. Therefore overall it was found that within the codes of practice of the regulations investigated in this chapter the majority of duties/laws were imposed upon employers rather than employees.

6.2.

Findings of chapter 3 (part I) Working at Height

The goal of this chapter was to determine the outcome of the second objective identified in chapter 1, which was to understand to whom HSE key messages and guidance for particular work at height were applicable. In chapter 3 falls from height were categorised according to the types of work at height which employees are most commonly involved in. The HSE

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organised a four step plan to manage work near fragile surfaces which advised duty holders how to manage the work of employees on site so as to reduce the risk of accidents occurring. However, HSE also suggested employees and employers alike thoroughly understand the precautions, risk assessments and method statements for work near fragile surfaces. Guidelines for roof work were found to be directed at employers and contractors, whereby the responsibility to ensure employees understood information, instruction and training were upon duty holders and were not imposed upon workers. Key health and safety concerns of roof work were directed at clients and contractors also, rather than roofers carrying out the work. Similarly, it was found that the responsibility to check the competency of workers using ladders was imposed upon duty holders rather than the user of the ladder. However HSE also placed an obligation upon all persons involved in work at height to report issues involving ladders that may affect the health and safety of its users. In contrast to the above, HSE guidelines for scaffold inspection were found to be imposed upon workers, scaffold gang leaders and supervisors of the scaffolding trade. Scaffold supervisors could be either workers carrying out the construction on site or general contractors with a CISRS supervisors card. For types of work at height which take place near fragile surfaces, edges and openings or in roofing, it was found that guidelines for meeting the requirements of the code of practice outlined in the various regulations investigated in chapter 2 were predominantly directed at employers and contractors, known as duty holders. However, in the scaffolding trade it was discovered that key guidelines were delivered directly to employees and supervisors operating on site.

6.3.

Findings of chapter 3 (part II) Working at Height

The second goal of this chapter was to discover the outcome of the third objective identified in the introduction of the report, which was to understand to whom HSE campaigns and initiatives were directed. HSE adopt a hierarchy system for managing risks of working at height whereby workers on the lowest level receive guidance and information from their employers. Campaigns and initiatives were also found to be directed to duty holders. An evaluation study of the Height Aware campaign was found to have a greater overall impact upon employers rather than on employees. Similarly, the Watch Your Step campaign and WAIT online toolkit, address duty holders such as managers and contractors rather than employees. Thus it was found in chapter 3 that the publicity and promotion of various campaigns and initiatives to increase the awareness of workplace health and safety targeted employers, contractors and those who manage the work of others on site much more than it had targeted employees/workers.

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6.4.

Findings of chapter 4 The Worker

The goal of this chapter was to determine the outcome of the final objective identified in the report, which was to investigate the health and safety content incorporated into the various training courses. The training regimes of five construction occupations which most commonly involve work at height were investigated in chapter 4 to quantify the proportion of the health and safety content contained within units of the training course. It was found that units on health and safety codes of practice comprised 44% of the Access Rigging Operations course, undertaken by scaffolders; 18% of the Painting and Decorating course; 10% of the Construction Operations course, undertaken by builders/labourers and 5% of the Roofing Occupations course. It was found that the Health, Safety and Awareness test contained a lack of application of the precautions, risks and dangers that workers operating at height are required to know for working on site. Whereas assessment of the specialist work at height Health, Safety and Awareness test, applicable to advanced workers, contained comprehensive health and safety content relevant to work at height. Therefore the entry level health and safety examination to attain a CSCS site operatives card or CISRS labourer/trainee/basic scaffolders card (which only partially form the requirements to apply for one of the aforementioned CISRS cards) was found to be unrelated to the main issues and concerns of health and safety awareness for work at height. The recent improvements made to the previously known Health and Safety test have increased the range of languages in which the test is now available, which negatively impacts the safety of workers on site as communication is reduced since foreign workers would be required to understand less of the English language. The most common route of entry for all the construction occupations investigated was by completion of an apprenticeship; however for workers who do not immediately transfer from school/college to the workplace, on the job training and entry by attaining a site operatives CSCS card was the second most popular route of entry. The scaffolding occupation, in contrast to the other occupations investigated, contained a well structured chain of command from entry level to more advanced positions on site. The CISRS training scheme was found to be far more rigid in terms of the necessary training courses, tests and qualifications which were required to have been obtained before advancing from one level to the next in the scaffolding industry. My view is that with a more strict system in place, there is a greater awareness of the attitudes of individuals toward workplace procedures.

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6.5.

Findings of chapter 5 Review of the accident data

Given the figures for the proportion of health and safety content which training courses contain, which were established in chapter 4, along with the accident data collected from the Construction Intelligence Report, an analysis of the relationship of the two variables was explored. By observation of the data, a general trend was found, whereby a greater content of health and safety had shown a smaller number of accidents; whereas when the content of the training contained fewer units on health and safety, the number of fatal fall accidents were greater. Chart 6.1 showed that the labourer/builder and roofer training courses contained relatively little health and safety awareness and exhibited a significantly higher number of fatal fall accidents. In comparison the painting and decorating and scaffolder training courses had a greater content of health and safety and had a significantly lower number of fatal fall accidents. Although the correlation of health and safety content of training courses and the number of accidents on site by no means displays a highly consistent trend, the correlation does reflect the degree to which training methods effectively reduce the proportion of fatal fall accidents on construction sites.

6.6.

Discussion of findings

Although UK health and safety is well structured in terms of its codes of practice, guidelines, campaigns and initiatives, this investigation has demonstrated that there is a disparity between those regulations directed to those co-ordinating the work and those carrying it out. To understand why this disparity exists for the trades investigated, it is important to understand the nature of the scaffolding trade in which 44% of the Access Operations and Rigging course consists of units covering health and safety units for staying safe in the workplace, the nature of the scaffolding occupation must be understood. A scaffolders role entails the construction of scaffold structures so that its users, predominantly other construction workers, are able to access heights safely to perform their job requirements. Therefore scaffolders need good safety awareness as a result of having a responsibility to secure the safety of construction workers using scaffold towers. In order to meet the requirements of this responsibility, the scaffolding training course is designed more rigorously than the training courses of the other trades investigated. Roofers for example, do not have the same degree of responsibility for the safety of other workers that scaffolders do, therefore the health and safety content of their training courses is less prominent than the training undergone by scaffolders. Thus, my view is that as a result of the disparity between

41

the regulations directed at corporate management and at employees, the health and safety of workers in other construction trades are compromised as they do not contain the same level of health and safety content within their training regimes that positions of greater responsibility do.

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7. Conclusions
The report drew the following conclusions: All the health and safety codes of practice, guidelines and awareness campaigns related to work at height target employers, contractors and managers. By contrast, in the scaffolding trade it was discovered that key guidelines were delivered directly to employees and supervisors operating on site; the training course undertaken by scaffolders also contained a far greater proportion of workplace health and safety regulations than any other profession. There exists a strong correlation between health and safety content of training courses and the number of accidents on site which reflects the degree to which training methods effectively reduce the proportion of fatal fall accidents in the construction industry.

7.1.

Recommendations for further study

The research conducted in this report has led to some useful results and conclusions; however it has also uncovered many areas that require additional study. Further research may: Investigate the risk awareness of scaffolders, relative to that of the other construction trades investigated who work at height. Investigate the benefits and drawbacks of integrating a more holistic approach before enabling potential construction workers to operate on site. This may include a medical examination and/or mental/well being check-up. Investigate the benefit of introducing a literacy test or a test which examines the ability of workers to comprehend verbal instructions in English, prior to working on site. Investigate the benefit of workers topping up their knowledge of health and safety on a regular basis as opposed to the current renewal of the CSCS card every 3 or 5 years.

Findings of the report had shown that training courses which contained a greater content of health and safety showed a reduced overall figure of fatal fall accidents. Therefore the industry might consider incorporating a greater content of the health and safety code of practice into the training courses of workers whom predominantly work at height.

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