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Part 3 of 6:

SEALS, GASKETS AND VALVES

Table of Contents
1 2 Definition ........................................................................................................ 2 Functions of Seals ........................................................................................... 2 2.1 Examples of seals ..................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Lip seals............................................................................................. 6 2.1.2 Piston rings ....................................................................................... 9 2.1.3 Metal-to-metal joints ....................................................................... 11 2.1.4 Gaskets ............................................................................................. 11 2.1.5 Sealing washers ................................................................................14 2.1.6 O-rings .............................................................................................14 2.1.7 Further examples ............................................................................ 18 3 Pipes and Pipe Fittings ................................................................................. 18 3.1 Plastic pipes ........................................................................................... 18 3.2 Copper pipes ...........................................................................................19 3.3 Steel pipes .............................................................................................. 24 4 Valves ............................................................................................................ 26 4.1 Types of valve......................................................................................... 27 4.1.1 Gate valves ...................................................................................... 28 4.1.2 Globe valves .................................................................................... 29 4.1.3 Poppet valves .................................................................................. 30 4.1.4 Butterfly valves ................................................................................31 4.1.5 Needle valves................................................................................... 32 4.1.6 Safety valves .................................................................................... 33 4.1.7 Pressure relief valves ...................................................................... 34 4.1.8 Pressure regulating valves .............................................................. 35

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Mechanical engineering very often involves the design, construction, use and maintenance of MACHINES. A machine implies movement, if any useful task is to be performed. There are very many different machines, performing very many different tasks. One example is the petrol engine which drives a car or motor cycle. The car itself is in fact a more complex machine which incorporates a number of simpler machines or mechanical systems such as engine, gearbox, differential, etc. Another example is a refrigerator in which refrigerant is pumped round and round a series of pipes, radiators, valves etc. to perform its cooling function. The refrigerator includes a number of sub-systems such as the pump for the refrigerant, the motor to drive the pump, the control valves, etc. In both examples given above, and in many other common examples, the machines work (and continue to work satisfactorily) only because of the use of effective SEALS serving many different functions at many different locations in these machines.

Definition

SEALS are usually defined as components or assemblies which prevent the passage of fluids between the moving parts of a machine. Note that "fluid" may refer to liquid, vapour or gas. Where the need arises to prevent the leakage of fluid between two stationary parts, different sealing components, often called GASKETS, are used. These are described later in this Project.

Functions of Seals

Seals have a number of quite distinct functions. Not all seals perform all the functions listed below. The great diversity of seal types is in fact a result of the wide variation of seal requirements. Some of the functions seals may be required to perform are to: 1. Seal working fluid into its desired location. e.g. In a car engine the piston rings seal the compressed gas in the space above the piston.

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2. Prevent escape of lubricant. e.g. In a car engine seals prevent loss of lubricating oil where the ends of the crankshaft protrude from the engine assembly to drive the flywheel at the rear and the accessory drive belts at the front. 3. Prevent contamination. e.g. Seals in a food processing machine prevent grease from the working parts from contaminating the food product. 4. Prevent the ingress of dirt. e.g. It is vitally important to "seal out" abrasive dust from the steering joints and driveshafts on a tractor. 5. Prevent pollution and environmental damage. e.g. Seals on a CFC-based automotive refrigeration system prevent the refrigerant escaping to the atmosphere.

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2.1

Examples of seals

Figure 3-1 Figure 3-1 is a very simplified freehand sketch of a single-cylinder petrol engine. The view shown is a section cut vertically through the centreline of the cylinder and piston, with all seals and bearings omitted. Can you see any major fault with the configuration as drawn? 1
If you look carefully, it is obvious that there is insufficient height to allow the piston to rise as the crankshaft rotates, nor is there room for the crankshaft webs to clear the crankcase.
1

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Figure 3-2 The sketch in Fig 3-1 with bearings shown in green, piston rings in red, gaskets in purple, lip type seals on the crankshaft in blue, metal-to-metal joint on the poppet valve in pink and sealing washers in yellow.

Fig 3-2 shows the use of two different types of SEALS to prevent the passage of fluid between moving parts. The ends of the rotating crankshaft must project from the engine so that it can be used to do useful work. The crankshaft runs in BEARINGS

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which must be lubricated with a continuous flow of oil to reduce friction and prevent the bearings from seizing. The flow of oil also helps to keep the bearings cool. SEALS must be used to prevent the lubricating oil from escaping from the outer ends of the crankshaft bearings, otherwise the oil supply soon runs out and the engine is at risk of major damage. It is clear that there must be very significant differences between the seals used on the two ends of the crankshaft. With the crankshaft as sketched, a seal of annular configuration (a ring) can be slipped over the left-hand end of the shaft. On the right-hand end, the crankshaft drive flange clearly makes this impossible. For the remainder of this section, the discussion will be on seals of annular configuration suitable for use where the seal can be slipped axially over its shaft. The generic name for seals of this type is LIP SEALS. 2.1.1 Lip seals The need for this type of seal, between a rotating shaft and a stationary housing, occurs on many machines. Such seals are often referred to as SHAFT SEALS or OIL SEALS or LIP SEALS. Leather was used initially as the seal material, but this has been superseded by synthetic rubber seals, using various polymers for different applications. Seals of this type perform their sealing function by means of a lip pressing against the rotating surface of the shaft with effectively line contact. In some seals, the elasticity of the rubber of the seal provides adequate contact with the shaft. In more difficult conditions (e.g. where the shaft bearing has some clearance, allowing the shaft to move radially) the natural elasticity of the rubber may be supplemented by a GARTER SPRING. The garter spring sits in a recess within the body of the seal and outside the lip of the seal, as seen in Fig 3-3.

Figure 3-3 An example of a LIP TYPE SEAL which uses a GARTER SPRING to increase contact pressure between the stationary seal and the rotating shaft.
http://1-800-seal-911.com/pages/TFE/FWS/dk351.html

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In many applications, a lip type seal of the general configuration shown in Fig 3-3 provides an adequate sealing solution. In some applications, the garter spring is not needed, with the lip of the polymer seal providing sufficient elasticity to hold the sealing lip in contact with the shaft. As may be seen from Fig 3-4a below, there is a very wide range of general purpose lip seals. Much of the variety of configuration lies in the design of the outer part of the seal, the part which fits into and is located by some sort of recess or housing.

Figure 3-4a Examples of cross-sections of what are described as general purpose OIL SEALS. The top row shows SINGLE-LIP SEALS while the lower row shows DOUBLE-LIP SEALS. http://www.fos-oilseal.com.tw/upload_files/general-purpose-type.pdf

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Figure 3-4b Examples of cross-sections of a more extensive range of DOUBLE-LIP OIL SEALS. http://www.fos-oilseal.com.tw/upload_files/pdf/dual-lip-type.pdf As shown in the text in Fig 3-4b, one of the main functions of double lip seals is to ensure that fluids in adjacent parts of a machine do not mix, e.g. the automatic transmission fluid in some machines is in a compartment adjacent to the differential which uses different oil and a double lip seal is used to prevent leakage and mixing. Note that most of these seals are fitted with two garter springs If the engine in Fig 3-2 operates in dusty conditions, the crankshaft seals may be required to perform two distinct functions: seal the oil in the engine; and seal dust and dirt out of the bearings. This sort of condition occurs frequently on machines such as tractors and earth-moving machinery. Seals of this type are the DOUBLE-LIP SEALS or DUPLEX SEALS such as those seen in Fig 3-4b. The outer sealing lip prevents dust from becoming wedged in the tapering gap outside the inner sealing lip. This dust can rapidly wear the shaft so severely that both the seal and the shaft need to be replaced.

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Figure 3-5 An example of how a seal might be mounted to seal one end of a shaft assembly supported on rolling contact bearings. In this example, the shaft bearing is a deep-groove ball bearing rather than the sliding contact bearings shown in Fig 3-2, and the seal is mounted in an END PLATE or COVER PLATE rather than directly into the engine block, but the sealing principle is the same. In the particular seal shown in the centre assembly of Fig 3-5 ((b) commercial seal), the rubber seal is encased within a steel shell and is generally similar to those in Fig 3-4a. The steel shell is pressed into the end plate with sufficient interference fit to prevent lubricant leaking between the outside of the seal and the end plate. However, many modern seals, including some in Fig 3-4a, encase the steel shell in a polymer outer layer which makes the diameter tolerances less critical. In Fig 3-5, diagram (a) Felt seal shows the cross section of a typical felt seal while diagram (c) Labyrinth seal attempts to seal by using a series of steps as a barrier to leakage. Both felt seals and labyrinth seals were less effective than modern lip seals and are now rarely used.
Shigley JE and Mischke CR, Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill,6E p 728. Diagrams courtesy of New Departure-Hyatt Division, General Motors Corporation.

2.1.2 Piston rings The second type of seal between moving parts which has been used in the engine shown in Fig. 3-2 is between the moving piston and its cylinder. The engine produces useful power by burning the mixture of petrol and air in the space above the piston, using the increased pressure resulting from combustion to force the piston down, thereby turning the crankshaft. In the case of the piston, there is no rotation about its own axis and the seal is required to slide up and down the cylinder. The seals in this particular case are known as PISTON RINGS. They must operate under very severe conditions of temperature and pressure, with very poor lubrication. They are very often made of good quality CAST IRON which, due to its high carbon content, possesses good self-lubricating properties.

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Figure 3-6 Left: A real-life piston about to be inserted into its cylinder. Three piston rings are visible, the upper ring being a COMPRESSION RING, the middle ring a second COMPRESSION RING and the lower slotted ring an OIL CONTROL RING. Right: Illustrations of two ways in which the oil control ring returns excess oil to the engine sump.
http://courses.washington.edu/engr100/Section_Wei/engine/UofWindsorManual/Graphics/Piston%20Rings.jpg

Figure 3-7 A piston with three ring grooves and the three rings which fit into those grooves. The lower oil-control ring appears to be of the composite type, comprising two thin steel rings with a wavy steel segment between the two. The wavy segment is a commonly used method to ensure the oil-control ring fills the full width of the ring groove, since sideways clearance is known to cause an engine to burn oil. http://www.cbperformance.com/catalogimages/1060.jpg

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The piston rings actually serve two purposes: they seal the compressed gas mixture above the piston; and they scrape the oil present in the lower part of the engine from the cylinder wall. Without the second function, the engine would rapidly burn its lubricating oil. The lower piston rings are sometimes referred to as OIL CONTROL rings or SCRAPER rings, whilst the top ones are called COMPRESSION rings. Oil rings are designed with wide slots so that oil scraped from the cylinder wall has a clear return path to the lower part of the engine (refer to Fig 3-6 right). As previously mentioned, compression rings are usually made from cast iron. Oilcontrol rings also can be made of cast iron, but are sometimes made of heat-treated and tempered steel segments, several of which are put together to form one oil control ring, as seen in Fig 3-7. The design of compression rings is such that gas pressure is admitted to the space behind the ring. This gas pressure significantly increases the pressure of the piston ring against the cylinder wall and greatly assists the gas-sealing process. A similar feature will be noted when discussing O-rings later in this document. 2.1.3 Metal-to-metal joints Figure 3-2 also gives an example of another type of sealing function. The inlet VALVE shown at the top of the engine, usually described as a POPPET VALVE, is required to move down at predetermined times in the engine cycle to admit the petrol-air mixture to the cylinder. For the remainder of the engine cycle, the valve must prevent the same gas mixture from escaping. To do this, the VALVE FACE is held in contact with its VALVE SEAT by a spring. The valve face and the seat are both machined to the same angle of taper, often 45. The resulting METAL-TOMETAL JOINT is adequately gas-tight. The valve is caused to open intermittently to admit a fresh petrol-air charge, using a CAM on a rotating shaft called a CAMSHAFT. Details of the camshaft are not shown in Fig 3-2. If carefully and accurately machined, metal-to-metal joints perform quite satisfactorily in many engineering applications, e.g. the top and bottom sections of some water and air valve bodies (see gate and globe valves later in this document) are screwed together and seal with a metal-to-metal joint. Many pipe fittings, as discussed later in this document, also use this principle. 2.1.4 Gaskets Figure 3-2 shows two examples of joints where there is no movement between the two parts. At the top left of the figure, the fuel/air inlet pipe is joined to the top section of the engine which is called the CYLINDER HEAD, with the joint sealed by a GASKET. The second example in Fig. 3-2 is the larger and more critical joint between the CYLINDER and the CYLINDER HEAD. In these joints, a reasonably compliant piece of flat material, called a GASKET, is placed between the two

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components before they are bolted together. The function of the gasket is to conform to any surface irregularities or slight misalignment between the two surfaces and thereby to provide a complete seal. Gaskets are generally of reasonably complex shape, although they are usually made from sheet material of uniform thickness. Often the bolts which secure the joint members pass through holes in the gasket, and the gasket usually covers the entire surface to be joined.

Figure 3-8 Examples of gaskets, cut from flat sheet material. Those illustrated on the left are probably for applications like joining two lengths of pipe together by flanges while those on the right are from a number of different applications, including three rubber seals at lower right. The type of material varies according to the gasket application. In former days, various forms of asbestos was frequently used but has been replaced by a number of proprietary materials.
http://www.americansealandpacking.com/sheetgasketing.htm http://www.americansealandpacking.com/cutgaskets&sheet.htm

Gaskets are often made of special paper-like or cardboard-like material of the general type seen in Fig 3-8, but are sometimes made of soft ductile metals like copper or aluminium. Cork, used in earlier years, is seldom used now. COMPOSITE GASKETS were popular for many years for difficult sealing tasks, but are now often superseded by less expensive construction combined with sealing compounds. One popular composite gasket used two thin sheets of copper with an asbestos interlayer to seal the cylinder heads of automotive and other engines. The use of asbestos is, of course, no longer permitted. In Fig. 3-2, the inlet pipe gasket would probably be made from a thick paperlike or thin cardboard-like material. In former times, the cylinder head gasket might have been a copper-asbestos composite gasket. In modern production engines, it will probably still be of composite construction, such as the gaskets seen in Fig 3-9, the greater part of which will be made of a special heat resisting proprietary compound, the composition of which is not made public, reinforced with metal rings in critical locations.

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Figure 3-9 Examples of modern composite cylinder-head gaskets using fibrous material for the bulk of the gasket with metal or other reinforcing rings at critical locations. http://www.automotive-technology.com/contractors/accessories/rajdhani/

Figure 3-10 Examples of gaskets for such applications as oil pans (sumps) and valve covers of motor vehicle engines. Some such gaskets are made from carefully chosen polymer. http://www.automotive-technology.com/contractors/accessories/rajdhani/

Figure 3-11 Examples of modern gaskets for inlet and exhaust manifolds of motor vehicle engines. Steel reinforcing rings are commonly used in critical locations.
http://www.automotive-technology.com/contractors/accessories/rajdhani/

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2.1.5 Sealing washers The spark plug at the top of the engine in Fig. 3-2 is screwed into the cylinder head using a standard V thread. It is possible to seal the spark plug by a metal-to-metal joint (generally using a conical seat), and this is done on many late-model engines, but the seal has traditionally been made by a gasket of simple annular shape, such as that seen in Fig 3-12 left, which is then called a SEALING WASHER. A sealing washer will also be used on the sump-drain plug in Fig. 3-2, which allows the oil to be drained when necessary.

Figure 3-12 Left: A sealing washer made from sheet copper filled with some sort of fibrous material which compresses when the washer is subjected to loading. Right: Specialised composite sealing washers made from the various materials indicated.
http://www.google.com.au/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=copper+asbestos+gasket+pictures&ie= UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&redir_esc=&ei=-v6eS-3rPM6IkAXNmoG5DA http://www.calchiefs.org/%5Citems%5CEMS_Sealing_Washer.jpg

2.1.6 O-rings An O-RING is a special sealing component which provides a very effective seal for a wide range of operating conditions. Its use in industry is now so widespread that it deserves special mention. O-rings consist of an annulus of solid circular cross-section. They are usually made from synthetic rubbers of various types, to resist oils, acids, bases, solvents, etc, and the effects of temperature. Square-section O-rings are made for special applications, e.g. piston seals in disc-brake calipers on motor cars.

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Figure 3-13 Top: Examples of some O-rings which are commercially available. The colour of the material is often used to indicate its composition and therefore its properties. Lower: The correct use of an O-ring in its machined groove in a shaft or piston. The O-ring must be deformed from its circular cross-section if it is to be an effective seal.
http://www.americansealandpacking.com/orings.htm http://www.americansealandpacking.com/O-Rings/Design/2.html http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FloDynamix_O-Rings.jpg

O-rings are often used in static sealing applications (i.e. as gaskets) as well as the sealing arrangement of Fig 3-14 below. They are often used to seal a reciprocating piston in a hydraulic machine. O-rings are not usually used where one of the components rotates.

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Figure 3-14 An illustration of an O-ring groove which has been machined too large for the chosen size O-ring. Pressure can thereby by-pass the O-ring.
http://www.americansealandpacking.com/O-Rings/1.html

Figure 3-15 Illustration of the behaviour of an O-ring under excessive pressure. Note how the applied pressure, within the O-rings rated pressure range, assists in sealing process.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FloDynamix_O-Rings.jpg

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If an O-ring is to be successfully used as a seal, it must be located in a specially machined recess or groove, which must be machined to quite small tolerances. This may add to the cost of the component. With O-ring seals, the pressure of the fluid being sealed helps to press the O-ring against its groove (Fig 3-15), thereby contributing to its sealing effect. The use of fluid pressure in this way is similar to that described for piston compression rings. Fig 3-14 illustrates the lack of sealing which may occur when the groove is not of the correct size.

Figure 3-16 As seen by referring to Item 5 of the exploded view of a vacuum pump from a diesel truck, O-rings can be used as gaskets. Note that the two Items 10 of sealing-washer like construction are also referred to as O-rings, so terminology is not always precise.
Mazda T2600 Workshop Manual, 6/89, page P24.

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2.1.7 Further examples For more information on gaskets, sealing rings and O-rings, go to http://www.iqsdirectory.com/gaskets/ or other websites.

Pipes and Pipe Fittings

Whilst dealing with seals in general, it is appropriate to make at least some mention of a different area of sealing joining pipes in a leakproof fashion. One point to ponder is the multiplicity of pipe jointing methods which have been used at various times and for various purposes. Why are there so many different systems in use? The answer probably lies in the wide range of pipe applications, from small bore, light duty plastic, through copper and steel pipe in various sizes up to say 25 mm, on to large, high-pressure steel pipes.

3.1

Plastic pipes

Figure 3-17 Plastic pipes are now being joined successfully using material-specific adhesives. PVC rainwater and wastewater pipes are a good example of this type. The pipes to be joined are simply cut square and to length, treated with primer, then smeared with PVC adhesive and pushed together. The adhesive grips after just a few seconds and forms a strong permanent joint.
http://www.rd.com/advice-and-know-how/stepbystep-pictures-and-instructions-for-gluing-andjoining-plastic-pvc-pipe/article118256-3.html#slide

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3.2

Copper pipes

Joining of many copper and steel pipes is achieved by variations of metal to metal joints, in which the surfaces are clamped tightly together (compressed), often taking advantage of the self-centring and wedging action of opposing conical surfaces.

Figure 3-18 Left: A joint between a brass T-piece and three copper pipes. This type of joint is sometimes referred to as a DOUBLE CONE COMPRESSION fitting. In the left-hand photograph, sealing of each pipe is achieved by an OLIVE, a ring of brass which looks somewhat like a wedding ring, which slips over the pipe and is compressed when the nut is tightened to seal the joint. Right: The right-hand diagram indicates the mode of compression between the union and the nut. That diagram is incorrectly drawn - the bulge in the pipe is actually the separate OLIVE, as seen in the left-hand photograph, but the principle of compression between the two conical surfaces is correctly drawn.
http://www.diydoctor.org.uk/project_images/copper_compression_joints/Compression%20T%20j unction.jpg

Nylon tubes are often joined by a fitting similar to that described in Fig 3-18. The loose piece or OLIVE which is slipped onto the pipe may be made of plastic or metal, depending on the application. Its function is to clamp tightly onto the outside diameter of the pipe as it is squeezed between the two screwed fittings.

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Figure 3-19 A further example of a compression fitting using an OLIVE, here referred to as a FERRULE.
http://www.managemylife.com/mmh/articles/authored/using-compression-fittings

Figure 3-20 In this fitting, the end of the pipe, which may be either copper or steel, is FLARED to a conical shape. The conical section is then clamped between conical sections of the body and nut.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings2-0602

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Figure 3-21 This connection is a variation on the olive type, using a shaped FERRULE with a sharp conical section to wedge onto the pipe. Note the black O-ring on the left-hand end of the connection to seal the thread.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings3-0602

Figure 3-22 An O-ring in a machined recess in the body of the joint is compressed to form a FACE SEAL. Note the O-ring on the thread on the right-hand end to prevent leakage from the thread.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings4-0602

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Figure 3-23 The 60 cone fitting again uses a metal to metal seal with the conical section to centre the components and increase the clamping force.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings5-0602

Figure 3-24 Using a straight thread, there is a leak path along the helix of the thread. Sealing is achieved by an O-ring in a machined recess. The recess prevents the O-ring from being forced out under pressure.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings6-0602

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Figure 3-25 In this design, sealing is achieved by the tapered thread on the fitting wedging into the straight thread in the housing. It is common practice to apply a small quantity of sealant such as Loctite to ensure complete sealing.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings7-0602

Figure 3-26 Some of the range of brass fittings available for different applications.
http://machinedesign.com/content/hydraulic-tube-fittings-0602

Students interested in learning more about pipe fittings and joints will find useful information at http://machinedesign.com/article/hydraulic-tube-fittingsdeliver-leak-free-performance-and-long-life-0602.

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Figure 3-27 Relatively new fittings known as Sharks teeth, in which the pipe to be joined and sealed is simply pushed into the fitting. The teeth visible inside the fittings grip the pipe to prevent it slipping out under pressure and the rubber provides a seal. http://www.copper.com.au/cdc/article.asp?CID=49&AID=288

3.3

Steel pipes

Steel pipes bring jointing problems which are different from copper pipes. Sizes may be much larger, the material is harder and stronger, hence the pressures to be sealed may be much greater. Several different jointing methods are available, including threaded pipe ends screwed into threaded sleeves, sealed by sealant such as Loctite or, in past years, red lead. Flanges may be either screwed or welded to the pipe, and may be sealed by either gaskets or O rings.

Figure 3-28 Some examples of methods of attaching flanges to steel pipes by welding or threading.
http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl http://www.wermac.org/flanges/flanges_general_part3.html

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Steel pipes frequently have long "runs", i.e. long overall lengths formed by joining a number of standard lengths of pipe together. This may cause two problems. First, if the temperature of the pipe changes (due to the fluid flowing through it, e.g. steam) the pipe length may change significantly and provision must be made for expansion and contraction. Secondly, it is prudent to design the pipeline and its fittings so that maintenance can be carried out easily, e.g. can one leaking joint be repaired without dismantling the whole pipeline?

Figure 3-29 Some years ago, the School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering updated its fire hose equipment. The new system uses 100 mm galvanised steel mains. Joints are formed by split clamps which locate into machined recesses close to the end of each pipe. Standard pipe lengths come onsite with these recesses already machined. However, where a pipe needs to be cut to length, a new recess can be machined on-site. Sealing of the joint is achieved by a special rubber seal, held in place by the split clamps. An example of this type of fitting, trade marked VICTAULIC, is on view in the Laboratory.
http://www.power-technology.com/contractors/thermal_insulation/victaulic/victaulic1.html

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Note some of the advantages of the Victaulic system for fire hose installation. 1. Pipes have no protrusions and pass readily through 100 mm clearance holes drilled in concrete floors, etc. (cf. pipes with welded-on flanges).

2. Any individual section of pipe can be removed without disturbing the rest of the line. 3. Pipe lengths can be cut on-site to suit the job in hand. 4. Sealing is simply and effectively achieved by the rubber seals. 5. The pipe lengths do not abut and there is sufficient axial space to cater for longitudinal expansion and contraction.

Figure 3-30 Fittings of a type generally used on steel pipes for very high pressure applications, e.g. supplying fuel to engine injectors in diesel engines. The ends of the pipes are SWAGED to form external cones, which make metal-to-metal joints in internal cones. http://news.thomasnet.com/images/large/453/453814.jpg

Valves

VALVES are used to control the flow of fluids in hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Many systems which might appear to be purely mechanical actually have hydraulic or mechanical sub-systems using valves, so that valves are an important group of mechanical engineering components. For example, the engine sketched in Fig. 3-1 3-2 has a valve to admit the petrol/air mixture to the cylinder at the proper time. This particular valve is called a POPPET VALVE. The engine will also have a carburettor which incorporates a THROTTLE VALVE to control engine speed. The

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lubrication system on the same engine (not shown in Fig. 3-1) will have an oil pump and a PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE to ensure that the oil pressure cannot exceed a safe level. As a further example, the automatic transmissions fitted to many cars are hydraulic devices which use a number of carefully designed valves to change the drive ratios to suit driving conditions.

4.1

Types of valve

It is perhaps worth summarising the different functions performed by the main classes of valves which are generally available. Function 1. Off-on Examples Gate valve Globe valve Poppet valve Globe valve Butterfly valve Needle valve Flap valve Ball valve Spring valve Deadweight valve Pressure relief valve Pressure regulating valve

2.

Regulating

3.

Non-return

4.

Safety

5.

Pressure stabilising

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4.1.1 Gate valves

Figure 3-31 Gate valves are made in both small and large sizes, up to the size used on large water mains. A characteristic is that, when the valve is open, the GATE which is the green component in the right-hand diagram is withdrawn completely from the flow path, so unobstructed flow is obtained and there is little pressure loss through the valve. Gate valves are generally intended to be either fully closed or fully open. They are generally not used for flow regulation. Note also the use of another type of seal, the PACKING on the valve spindle to prevent leakage from the top of the bonnet. If the packing wears and begins to leak, there is provision to squeeze it down to renew its sealing effect. Note also that the packing is not subjected to fluid pressure when the valve is closed.
http://www.brassvalve-manufacturers.com/photo/828055e2f390bad6c890604ffe04fb68/GateValves.jpg

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4.1.2 Globe valves

Figure 3-32 Globe valves take their name from their shape, which is required to allow the valve disc to be moved into contact with its seat to shut off the flow. The construction results in some impediment to flow and some pressure loss through the valve. These valves are often used for flow regulation. A common example is the garden tap. Note the need for packing on the valve spindle to prevent leakage from the top of the valve bonnet, and the provision of a means of squeezing the worn packing to renew the seal.
http://www.energy.gov.kw/data/site1/images/doha/Illustrations/globe%20Valve.gif

Figure 3-33 Further examples of globe valves. They are designed for flow only in the direction shown. Since the disc or plug may be mounted on a ball or spherical surface so that it can conform to its seat, the flow may become unstable if it is reversed.
http://www.spiraxsarco.com/images/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/6/1/Fig_6_1_2.gif

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4.1.3 Poppet valves

Figure 3-34 Left: An example of a valve assembly from an automotive engine. This is similar to the POPPET VALVE shown in Fig 3-2. For most of the engine cycle, the spring holds the valve tightly in metal-to-metal contact with its seat. When the valve is required to open to admit air and fuel or to discharge exhaust gases, the end of the valve is pushed downwards by a CAM. FOR KEEN STUDENTS Fig 3-34 Right: Two poppet valves showing the cam mechanism used to open the valves by means of a rotating CAMSHAFT. This illustration is a desmodromic mechanism used in some high speed engines to positively control both the opening and closing of the valve. If normal engines are driven at too high a speed, valve springs cannot control the inertia forces quickly enough and the valve does not close quickly enough. This is called VALVE FLOAT or VALVE BOUNCE.
http://www.google.com.au/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=poppet+valve+pictures

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4.1.4 Butterfly valves

Figure 3-35 Examples of small butterfly valves used in automotive carburettors. Depressing the accelerator opens the valve and a spring automatically closes the valve when the accelerator is released. Butterfly valves are usually circular discs, although they can be square with rounded corners.
http://www.mustangandfords.com/techarticles/mufp_0603_ford_carburetors/photo_16.html http://www.mustangandfords.com/techarticles/mufp_0603_ford_carburetors/photo_36.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve

Figure 3-36 Large butterfly valves used on water mains and similar applications. Used for flow regulation, they cause little pressure drop when fully open.

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4.1.5 Needle valves

http://www.sealexcel.com/gifs/needle-v.gif

http://www.tubefittings.in/valve-fittings.html

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?

Figure 3-37 Examples of NEEDLE VALVES which are usually used for precise regulation of small flows, usually by screw adjustment of a tapered needle.

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4.1.6 Safety valves

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Deadweight_safety_valve_section_(Heat_Engines,_1913).jpg

http://www.spiraxsarco.com/images/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/9/1/fig9_1_2.gif

Figure 3-38 Top: A DEAD-WEIGHT SAFETY VALVE in which the force from the pressure acting over the small inner pipe area must exceed the dead weight for the valve to open and release pressure. Bottom: SPRING SAFETY VALVES in which the dead weights have been replaced by a metal spring.

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Students are sometimes confused over the two quite distinct functions of SAFETY VALVES and PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES. A safety valve is a precaution against an unforeseen or unlikely failure. For example, if the pressure in a boiler should ever rise to a dangerous level, the SAFETY VALVE will operate automatically and allow the pressure to drop to a safe level. The safety valve operates only in an emergency and may never operate within the life of the boiler. 4.1.7 Pressure relief valves Pressure relief valves are designed to open automatically at a pre-determined level of system pressure and to regulate system pressure at that level despite changes the system operating conditions.

Figure 3-39 An application of a pressure relief valve used in an automotive engine. The diagram shows an OIL PUMP, used to provide oil under pressure to engine bearings of a light truck engine. Oil is drawn into the pump through the strainer, with the strainer located at the bottom on the ENGINE SUMP, also called the OIL PAN. If the pressure from the pump exceeds set limits, the SPRING RELIEF VALVE opens and drops the pressure.
Toyota 4YE Engine Repair Manual, August 1985, page LU8

Consider the oil pump shown in Fig 3-39. This pump must provide a flow of oil to lubricate the engine bearings under all operating conditions. When the oil is very hot, its viscosity drops, so that it flows very easily through the bearings. The pump must therefore be designed to have a large flow rate. When the engine is first started, the oil is cold, its viscosity is relatively high and it does not flow easily through the bearings. Since the pump still has a large flow rate, the pressure under these conditions may rise high enough to damage the pump. This risk is overcome by providing a PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE to open at a pre-set pressure. This is not an emergency procedure; it is part of the valve's normal function.

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Figure 3-40 Spring loaded pressure relief valves.

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The simplest and most reliable type of pressure relief valve is the spring-loaded design (Fig 3-40) where a spring force opposes the system pressure acting on the area of the valve disc. Valves of this type may be used to control the pressure of systems using either liquids or gases. When the system pressure rises sufficiently, it overcomes the spring force and the valve opens to reduce the pressure by allowing some of the flow to be dumped through the outlet pipe to a storage tank or, in the case of a compressed air system, vented to atmosphere. It is usual to provide a means of SETTING or adjusting the spring pressure so that the same valve can be used for a variety of applications.

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FOR KEEN STUDENTS 4.1.8 Pressure regulating valves

Figure 3-41: A schematic diagram 2 of the layout of a pressure regulating valve used on hydraulic systems. J. Carvill, The Student Engineer's Companion, Butterworths, 1980. page 35. This type of valve does much more than the simple pressure relief valves of Figs 3-39 and 3-40. Oil at unregulated pressure enters the inlet port of the valve. If the pressure is higher than the set pressure, some of the oil can be discharged back to the storage tank, dropping the outlet pressure. Dumping oil is achieved by forcing the main piston in the centre of the valve body to move to the left, off its conical metal-to-metal seat. The desired outlet pressure is set by adjusting the length of the pilot-valve spring and hence the force holding the pilot valve onto its seat. When the valve is working, pressure at the inlet tends to push the main piston to the left and off its conical seat, but movement is resisted by the main spring tending to push the piston to the right. Inlet pressure is bled through a small diameter hole in the piston and, if the pressure to the left of the piston becomes too high, the small pilot valve opens slightly and drops the pressure in the cavity to the left of the piston. The drop in pressure causes the main piston to move to the left, causing oil to be discharged to the tank until the pressure drops to the set pressure. In practice, the system usually stabilises with a small, slightly varying flow through the pilot valve. _________________
This is intended to be a simple diagrammatic illustration of the function of the valve. You may notice that the valve, as drawn, cannot be assembled because the main piston cannot be inserted into its bore.
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Figure 3-42 A sectioned view of a commercial pressure regulating valve. The mode of operation of this valve is less clear than the example in Fig 341. It is based on a diaphragm rather than a pilot valve. The large area of the diaphragm means that small pressure variations can easily be detected and controlled. The set pressure is adjusted by means of the threaded stem and nut under the top cover.
http://www.swagelok.com/regulators/pressure_reducing_regulators.htm