A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short

circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire cityTypes of circuit breakers

Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Trip characteristics are configurable via DIP switches on the front panel. Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category.

MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of Low Voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so they can trip (open) and close under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power. Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuousunlike an AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle. A direct current circuit breaker has blow-out coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel.

Photo of inside of a circuit breaker The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The design includes the following components: 1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation. 2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart. 3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart. 4. Terminals

5. Bimetallic strip. 6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly. 7. Solenoid 8. Arc divider/extinguisher

Magnetic circuit breakers

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. Some magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker ===Thermal magnetic circuit breakers=== Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term overcurrent conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response feature, which provides faster or slower response for larger or smaller over currents respectively.

Common trip breakers

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A rating When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small

breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect multiple phase ACor to disconnect the neutral wire to ensure that no current flows through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when workers may touch the wires during maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires remain live and RCDs don't trip if someone touches the live wire (because RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is needed

Medium-voltage circuit breakers

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breakersWith rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 35,000 V,[7] which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers. Air circuit breakersRated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance. SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing power circuit connections, using a motoroperated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.

High-voltage circuit breakers

Main article: High-voltage switchgear

Russian 110 kV oil circuit breaker

115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric), Tavrida Electric, Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric), Becker/SMC (SMC Electrical Products). Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc.

Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011,[8] followed by ABB in April the following year.[9] High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a threephase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability.

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers

Main article: Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.

Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB)

The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000[10] and is a high-voltage circuit breaker modeled after the SF6-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting function is integrated in the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors. This increases the availability, since open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need maintenance every 26 years, while modern circuit breakers have maintenance intervals of 15 years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements within the substation, as well as the reliability, due to the lack of separate disconnectors.[11][12]

Other breakers

Residual current circuit breaker with overload protection The following types are described in separate articles.

Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device: o Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a residual current circuit breaker) detects current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection. o Residual current breaker with over-current protection (RCBO) combines the functions of an RCD and an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada, panel-mounted devices that combine ground (earth) fault detection and over-current protection are called Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI) breakers; a wall mounted outlet device or separately enclosed plug-in device providing ground fault detection and interruption only (no overload protection) is called a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI). o Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)This detects earth current directly rather than detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations for various reasons. AutorecloserA type of circuit breaker that closes automatically after a delay. These are used on overhead power distribution systems, to prevent short duration faults from causing sustained outages. Polyswitch (polyfuse)A small device commonly described as an automatically resetting fuse rather than a circuit breaker.

Types of circuit breakers

Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Trip characteristics are configurable via DIP switches on the front panel. Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of Low Voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so they can trip (open) and close under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.

Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuousunlike an AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle. A direct current circuit breaker has blow-out coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel.

Photo of inside of a circuit breaker The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The design includes the following components: 1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation. 2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart. 3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart. 4. Terminals 5. Bimetallic strip. 6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly. 7. Solenoid 8. Arc divider/extinguisher

Magnetic circuit breakers

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. Some magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The

delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker ===Thermal magnetic circuit breakers=== Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term overcurrent conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response feature, which provides faster or slower response for larger or smaller over currents respectively.

Common trip breakers

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A rating When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect multiple phase ACor to disconnect the neutral wire to ensure that no current flows through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when workers may touch the wires during maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires remain live and RCDs don't trip if someone touches the live wire (because RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is needed

Medium-voltage circuit breakers

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breakersWith rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 35,000 V,[7] which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers. Air circuit breakersRated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance. SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing power circuit connections, using a motoroperated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.

High-voltage circuit breakers

Main article: High-voltage switchgear

Russian 110 kV oil circuit breaker

115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric), Tavrida Electric, Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric), Becker/SMC (SMC Electrical Products). Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc.

Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011,[8] followed by ABB in April the following year.[9]

High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a threephase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability.

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers

Main article: Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.

Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB)

The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000[10] and is a high-voltage circuit breaker modeled after the SF6-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting function is integrated in the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors. This increases the availability, since open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need maintenance every 26 years, while modern circuit breakers have maintenance intervals of 15 years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements within the substation, as well as the reliability, due to the lack of separate disconnectors.[11][12]

Other breakers

Residual current circuit breaker with overload protection The following types are described in separate articles.

Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device:

Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a residual current circuit breaker) detects current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection. o Residual current breaker with over-current protection (RCBO) combines the functions of an RCD and an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada, panel-mounted devices that combine ground (earth) fault detection and over-current protection are called Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI) breakers; a wall mounted outlet device or separately enclosed plug-in device providing ground fault detection and interruption only (no overload protection) is called a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI). o Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)This detects earth current directly rather than detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations for various reasons. AutorecloserA type of circuit breaker that closes automatically after a delay. These are used on overhead power distribution systems, to prevent short duration faults from causing sustained outages. Polyswitch (polyfuse)A small device commonly described as an automatically resetting fuse rather than a circuit breaker.
o

Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Inverters:
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC);[1] the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier. The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.[

POWER DISTRIBUTION
The distribution system begins after the Main Substations. Its transmission components may be divided into 3 parts:
Feeders Distributors Service Mains

Feeders

=> Conductors which connects the Main Substations to the various distribution substations. There is no tapping from the feeders. In other words, the current loading of a feeder is the same along its entire length.

Distributors

=> Conductors that radiate out from distribution substations to their allotted consumer areas. Various tappings are taken from the Distributors. Hence, a distributor has distributed current loading

along its entire length. Service Mains => The connecting links between the distributor and the consumer terminals.

What is the definition of "feeder"? A circuit conductor between the power supply source and a final branch circuit overcurrent device. Learn more about feeder in the class Distribution Systems 320 below.

Class Vocabulary Vocabulary Term branch circuit Definition The part of a distribution system consisting of circuit conductors, between the final overcurrent protection and the outlet or load attached. Thick, rigid strips or bars of copper that serve as a common connection between several circuits. Busbars are usually used near the switchboard and can be enclosed in busways. The part of a distribution system consisting of metal enclosed busbars. Busways come in premade sections that can be fitted to any shape needed. The point where all three windings are connected to each other in a wye connection. For delta connections, one of the lines must be tapped to produce a neutral. A power loss due to current flowing through wire. Copper loss is proportional to the resistance of the wire and the square of the current. A component of a transformer. The iron or steel core provides a controlled path for the magnetic flux generated in the transformer by the current flowing through the windings. A connection of three components where a triangular series circuit is formed. Delta connections are used in three phase power systems.

busbar

busway

center tap

copper loss

core

delta

Vocabulary Term delta/delta delta/wye distribution substation

Definition A transformer with both the primary and the secondary connected as a delta. A transformer with the primary connected as a delta and the secondary connected as a wye. A bank of step-down transformers near the end users. The distribution substation converts voltage closer to the required usable levels. A circuit of users linked to a generating station and substations that is typically arranged in either a radial or interconnected manner. Local distribution systems transport power within a building. A physical barrier designed to provide mechanical or electrical protection for components used in a system. A circuit conductor between the power supply source and a final branch circuit overcurrent device. A building where a utility company houses large linked AC generators to create the massive power for widespread use. A system conductor that is intentionally grounded. A conductor used to connect equipment in a wiring system to ground. A distribution system with multiple available power sources that can loop throughout the network. If one source goes down, a different source can be activated to maintain service. A unit used to rate transformer and generator strength. A kilovolt is a thousand volts. Sealed together in multiple layers of thin sheets to construct the core for a transformer. Lamination helps reduce resistance losses. The voltage present between any two of the conductors in a three-phase system. It is 1.732 times higher than phase voltage in a wye connection. A device found in residential locations that performs the same functions as a panelboard does in commercial settings. Load centers are not required to have many panelboard safety features because homes do not draw the same amount of current as industry.

distribution system

enclosure feeder generating station grounded conductor grounding conductor interconnected system

kilovolt-amp laminated line voltage

load center

The part of a distribution system located within a building. Local distribution local power distribution system systems are the responsibility of shop electricians and maintenance workers and fall under NEC rules. main disconnect switch motor control center A heavy, spring-loaded switch on a factory switchboard that can cut off power to the entire building. Switchboards with more than six switches or breakers are required by the NEC to have a main disconnect. A modular assembly specifically designed to plug in motor control units.

Vocabulary Term

Definition Motor control centers are supplied by a common bus, usually straight from the switchboard.

mutual induction NEC

The ability of one coil to induce a voltage into another coil. This principle is used in transformers to step up or step down voltage. The standard for minimum safe electrical installations. The National Electrical Code is adopted in some form as law in all 50 states. A distribution system where multiple power sources are connected to each user to guarantee uninterrupted power. A network system is expensive, so it is used only when constant power is vital. A transformer connection that does not complete the triangle, using only two of the three sides. An open delta is used when full power is not needed. Excess current that may result from overload, short circuit, or ground fault. Devices like fuses and circuit breakers protect against overcurrent. A single panel distribution cabinet or wall cutout box that holds automatic overcurrent protection devices for lighting, heat, or power circuits. () The Greek letter Phi, used to represent phases, such as in a 34W system. The voltage between any one conductor and ground. A type of feeder busway with electrical control that allows loads to be added along the bus structure. Turns of wire on a transformer core, used to transfer voltage from the input to the core. A distribution system with only one power source. If that source goes out, power is lost to the entire circuit. A generator setup where an electromagnetic field is rotated between the conductor wound armature. Most AC generators are of this design. Turns of wire on a transformer core, used to transfer voltage from the core to the outside load. The point where electricity enters a buidling. A service-entrance switchboard has metering equipment and devices for overcurrent protection and electrical control. A continuous single alternating current cycle. In electricity, a phrase used to describe voltage adjustment. To step up voltage means to increase voltage. Any grouping of switchgear and transformers located near a source or user. Substations are used to alter voltage levels and provide a service point of

network system

open delta overcurrent panelboard phase symbol phase voltage plug-in busway primary winding radial system revolving field generator secondary winding

service-entrance single-phase step up substation

Vocabulary Term electrical control. switchboard

Definition

A freestanding assembly of panels with metering equipment, overcurrent and other protection devices. Switchboards take a large block of power from a substation and break it down into smaller blocks for use within a building. A combination of disconnect switches and breakers used to isolate equipment in substations. A wire connected to the midpoint of a transformer secondary winding. This allows the transformer to use different turns ratios. A connecting point in a circuit where a wire is attached to create an electrical connection. A continuous series of three overlapping AC cycles offset by 120 degrees. Three-phase power is used for all large scale distribution systems. The most common form of AC power for distribution. Three-phase power has three overlapping AC cycles offset by 120 degrees. A device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another, without changing the frequency, using electromagnetic induction. A transformer is most often used to change the line voltage. A bank of step up transformers near the generating station. Transmission substations increase voltage as high as 800kV for widespread distribution. A comparison of the number of turns in the primary versus the number of turns in the secondary of a transformer. A connection of three components where one end of each component is connected at a common point. Wye connections are used in three phase power systems. A transformer with the primary connected as a wye and the secondary connected as a delta. A transformer with both the primary and the secondary connected as a wye.

switchgear tap terminal three-phase three-phase power

transformer

transmission substation turns ratio

wye

wye/delta wye/wye

Fault
an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal electric current. For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", charge flows into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a fault can be calculated for power systems. In power systems, protective devices detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakers and other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure. In a polyphase system, a fault may affect all phases equally which is a "symmetrical fault". If only some phases are affected, the resulting "asymmetrical fault" becomes more complicated to analyze due to the simplifying assumption of equal current magnitude in all phases being no longer applicable. The analysis of this type of fault is often simplified by using methods such as symmetrical components.

Electrical Faults on Power System

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Electrical power system have a dynamic and complex behavior. Different types of faults can interrupt the healty operation of the power system. Some of the major Electrical faults are phase faults include phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults and three phase faults. Other Electrical faults are of not major significance but still are considered, Open circuit faults occurs due to the parting of the overheadline or failure operation of the circuit breaker, Interturn fault occurs due to the overvoltage or insulation breakdown, Electrical Faults results in the overloads is due to the passing the current throught the conductor which is above the permissible value and faults due to real power deficit occurs due to mismatch in the power generated and consumed and results in the frequency deviation and collapse of grid.

Phase Faults:
Electrical Phase faults are characterised as:

Phase to Ground Fault Phase to Phase Fault Phase - Phase to Ground Fault Three Phase Fault

Phase to Ground Fault:

In this type of Electrical fault all the three sequence components (positive, negative and zero sequence components ) are present and are equal to each other. In case of isolated neutral connection to the generator, there will be no return path for the current. So for such fault, fault current is zero.

Phase to Phase fault:

These are unsymmetrical faults as these faults give rise to unsymmetrical currents (Current differ in magnitude and phase in the three phases of power system).In case of Phase to Phase fault positive and negative sequence component of current are present, they are equal in magnitude but opposition in phase. zero sequence components are absent.

Phase - Phase to Ground Fault:

These faults are of unsymmetrical nature. In this type of faults negative and zero sequence faults are in opposition with positve sequence cmponents.

Three Phase Fault:

This type of faults are called symmetrical fault. This type of faults occur very rarely but more severe compared to other faults. In this faults negative and zero sequence component currents are absent and positive sequence currents are present. To summarize:

positive sequence currents are present in all types of faults Negative Sequence currents are present in all unsymmetrical faults Zero sequence currents are present when the neutral of the system is grounded and the fault also involves the ground, and magnitude of the neutral currents is equal to 3Io

Open Circuit Faults:

Open circuit faults occur either by overhead line parting or pole of the circuii breaker not fully closing. This results in load imbalance on generators and motors lead to negative phase sequence commponents in the stator current. This negative phase sequence component current s rotate at twice the supply frequency in the opposite

direction in relation to the rotor and causes additional eddy current losses, results in temperature raise in the rotor.

Interturn faults:
Interturn faults occurs in machines i.e, Transformers, Motors and Generators. An Interturn fault occurs due to the insulation breakdown between the turns of the same phase or between the parallel windings belonging to the same phase of the machine. The cause of the interturn fault is usually an overvoltge or mechanical damage of the insulation. Interturn Faults are more severe on large alternators (generators), High voltage motors and power transformers. Interturn fault is most ofen experienced in rotating machines where multiple windings are present in the same groove. For large generators generally single winding rod per groove is designed in such cases interturn fault can occur only in the winding head region. Interturn Fault can occur at both stator and rotor for rotating machines like generators and motors. When an interturn fault occurs on stator of a rotating machine there is a high probability that such fault can lead in to the ground fault. When Interturn faults occur on the rotor winding following symptoms are observed:

When such fault occur high excitation current is required and this is compensated by the voltage regulator. Machine runs less smoothly, because of the asymmetry of the excitation curve magnetization of the shaft due to asymmetrical flux Bearing damage due to current flowing in the bearings

Interturn faults on power transformers can be occured due to the overvoltages accompnying ground faults or deterioration of the insulation due to chemical influence of the transformer oil. Interturn fault current depends on the number of the turms shorted and fault currents will be several times higher than the rated current of the windings and thus damages the windings.

Overload:
Faults due to overload will occur due to exceeding the maximum permissible load current throught the windings, cables, or transmission lines or due to reduction in the cooling offered to the windings. Electrical conductor is designed in such a manner that the conductor allows permissible amount of current without getting over heated. In this manner the current carrying rating of the conductor is decided. When the current passed through the conductor is above permissible level, no immediate damage occurs but over a period of time conductor insulation will be damaged due to the excess heat generated. In large generators and power transformers of large MW ratings, the heat generated is enarmous, so forced fooling is provided in such cases. For large generators hydrogen cooling is provided and for large transformers

forced cooling is provided. This part is nicely presented in Transformer Cooling Methods. When this cooling methods fail then the damage to the equipment is certainly fast compared to the other case.

Real Power Deficit:

Under normal operation the power generated by the generators is equal to the load connected and the losses in the power system. real power is the part of the power which does useful work i.e, the power absorbed by the loads of the power system. Real power deficit occur when the supply is less than the demand or loss of generating unit in the grid. When real power deficit occurs frequency levels in the grid starts falling down. The rate of falling of the frequency depends on the magnitude of the deficit in the real power. In this case primary frequency control is carried by the generators connected to the grid. Governer mechanism connected to the turbine will try to drive the turbine with rated speed by accepting more fuel. In this manner little frequency deviations (Real Power Deficit) are managed. In case of still frequency falling down scenario spinning reserves available at the plant will start delivering power to the grid with in few seconds of frequency collapse (mainly Gas turbine plants and hydel palnts). If still the demand and supply gap is not taken care, then load shedding will be followed in the grid by shedding the load of the one part of the power system to mainatain the relation between the supply and demand of real power.