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WELCOME
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CrudeColumn CrudeColumn
Top
Pumparound
Aqueous
NH3
STABILIZER Water
C4-
Crude Unit
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Vacuum
System
Stm
Stm
Stm
Bottom
Pumparound
Desalter
Stabilized
Naphtha
Flash
Drum
Crude
J et
Diesel
Lt. AGO
LVGO
2
Stm
Stm
H2O
Feed
Hvy AGO
HVGO
Vac
Resid
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CHAPTER 1-I ntroduction
Heat versusEnergy
Heat, is the formof energy that can be transferred fromone
systemto another as a result of temperaturedifference. driving
force
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force
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of
suchenergytransfers is called heat transfer.
Thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred between a system and its surroundings.
Asystem interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work and heat Asystem interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work and heat.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibriumstates.
Thermodynamics does not give information about:
- Ratesat whichenergyistransferred
- Mechanismsof energytransfer.
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I ntroduction
Heat transfer
Heat transfers from higher temperature to the lower temperature.
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Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
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I ntroduction
In practice, we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer
(heat transfer per unit time) than the amount of it.
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From Thermodynamics: We can
determine the amount of heat
transfer from a thermos bottle as the
coffee inside cools from 90C to
80C.
But the question is: howlong will
HOW?
But the question is: howlong will
it take for the temperature to drop
from90C to80C?
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ENGI NEERI NG HEAT TRANSFER
Engineers, deal with heat transfer equipments such as:
Heat exchangers, Boilers, Condensers, heaters, furnaces,
refrigerators, and solar collectors.
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Heat transfer problems in practice can be either
1. Sizingproblems (Designnewequipment).
2. Ratingproblems(Calculationsonanexistingequipment).
ShellandTubeHeatExchanger ShellandTubeHeatExchanger
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Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Specific heat: is defined as the energy required to raise the
temperatureof aunit massof asubstancebyonedegree.
For ideal gases
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For ideal gases
C
p
=C
v
+R
For liquidsandsolids: C
p
=C
v
=C
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Heat Transfer Rate and Flux
The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate,
and is denoted by .Theoverdot stands for the time derivative, or per
unit time. The heat transfer rate has the unit J/s (Watt)
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The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat
transfer is called heat flux, the average heat flux is expressed as
The total amo nt of heat transfer d ring a time inter al The total amount of heat transfer during a time interval
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THE FI RST LAW OF THERMODYNAMI CS
In its general form, the first law of thermodynamics can be expressed as:
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For a closed system:
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Example 1-1: Heating a copper ball
A 10-cm diameter copper ball is to be heated from 100C to an average
temperature of 150C in 30 minutes (Fig. 112). Taking the average density
and specific heat of copper in this temperature range to be = 8950 kg/m
3
and C
p
= 0.395 kJ/kg C, respectively, determine (a) the total amount of
heat transfer to the copper ball (b) the average rate of heat transfer to the
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n heat transfer to the copper ball, (b) the average rate of heat transfer to the
ball, and (c) the average heat flux.
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Example 1-1, cont.
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Example 1-2, Heating of water in an electric teapot
1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15C is to be heated to 95C in a teapot
equipped with a 1200-W electric heating element inside (Fig. 118). The
teapot is 0.5 kg and has an average specific heat of 0.7 kJ/kg C. Taking
the specific heat of water to be 4.18 kJ/kg C and disregarding any heat
loss from the teapot determine how long it will take for the water to be
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n loss from the teapot, determine how long it will take for the water to be
heated.
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Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat can transfer in three different modes:
Conduction.
Convection
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Convection.
Radiation.
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It is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of
a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
Conduction
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Conduction can take place in solids, liquid or gases.
I nsolids, conduction is due to the combination of vibrationsof
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
I n gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusionof the molecules during their random motion.
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Fourierslawof heat conduction
Consider steady heat conduction through a large
plane wall of thickness x and area A.
Experiments have shown that:
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The proportionality constant kis the thermal conductivity
of the material.
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when x 0, the conduction equation reduces to the
differential form:
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This is called Fouriers lawof heat conduction, after J. Fourier,
who expressed it first in his heat transfer text in 1822.
The heat flux (per unit area) in the x-direction can be calculated
from: from:
dx
dT
k q
x
=
.
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Thermal conductivity for some materials
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HowtoDeterminethermalConductivity?
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Thermal conductivity varies with temperature
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k will either be
given and assumed
constant constant.
or can be estimated
at the average
temperature
(T
1
+T
2
)/2.
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Thermal Conductivity of different materials at room temperature
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FIGURE 1 26
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FIGURE 126
The range of thermal
conductivity of various
materials at room
temperature.
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ThermalDiffusivity
Thermal diffusivity is a
material property which
represents how fast heat
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p f
diffuses through a
material and is defined as:
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Convection
It is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquidor gasthat is in motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.
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In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent fluid is by pureconduction.
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Two types of Convection
1. Forcedconvection: If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface.
2. Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces, arising
from density differences arising from temperature variations in the fluid
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Figure 1.7: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced convection and natural convection
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The convective heat transfer is proportional to the temperature
difference between the solid surface and the fluid bulk
temperature.
) (
.

T T Q
S
Convection
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The proportionality constant is the
convection heat transfer
coefficient h
ThisiscalledNewtonslawof cooling This is called Newtons law of cooling
Units for hare (W/m
2
.K)
h depends on (1) surface geometry,
(2) nature of the fluid motion, as
well as(3) fluidproperties.
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Radiation
Radiation (in general) is the energy emitted by matter in the
form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules
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Thermal Radiation
In heat transfer studies, we are interested in thermal radiation,
which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of
their temperature.
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their temperature.
Thermal radiation can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and
gases.
Thermal radiation does not require presence of a medium.
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The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature T
s
(in K or R) is given by
StefanBoltzmannlaw:
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The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
Blackbody.
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted
where a = 5.67 10
8
W/m
2
K
4
or 0.1714 10
8
Btu/h ft
2
R
4
is the Stefan
Boltzmann constant.
y
by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as
Where c is called emissivity 1 0 s c s
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The radiative energy transferred is
proportional to the difference in the
fourth power of the absolute
temperatures of the bodies exchanging
energy.
( )
4 4
surr s rad
T T A Q = co

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= heat transfer per unit time (W)
A = surface area for heat transfer (m
2
)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
c = emissivity.
T
s
= absolute temperature of surface (K)
T
surr
= absolute temperature of surroundings (K)
( )
surr s rad

Q
rad
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EXAMPLE 111 Heat Transfer between Two Isothermal Plates
Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant
temperatures of T
1
=300 K and T
2
=200 K that are L =1 cmapart, as
shown in Fig. 140. Assuming the surfaces to be black (emissivity c =1),
determine the rate of heat transfer between the plates per unit surface area
assuming the gap between the plates is (a) filled with atmospheric air (b)
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n assuming the gap between the plates is (a) filled with atmospheric air, (b)
evacuated, (c) filled with urethane insulation, and (d) filled with
superinsulationthat hasanapparent thermal conductivity of 0.00002 W/m
C.
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EXAMPLE 111, cont
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PROBLEM-SOLVI NG TECHNI QUE
Step 1: Problem Statement
Read the problem and understand it first.
Step 2: Schematic diagram
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Will help you to summarize the given information and have an overview of the
problem.
Step 3: Assumptions (if needed)
Step 4: Physical laws to be used
Step 5: Properties needed
Make sure you are not looking for something which is given!
Make sure you got the right value for the property.
Step 6: Calculations (NOT the first step!).
Step 7: Reasoning and Verification (does the answer make sense?)
The energy savings in insulating a water heater that uses $80 fuel/ year is $200/year!
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You decide which way to get to the top!
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