FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS, AND THE SYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS*

By D. G. TUCKER, Ph.D., Associate Member.f

{The paper was first received 1st September, 1944, and in revised form 29th January, 1945.)

tions. These are difficult to solve, and do not generally lead to very useful practical results. But, in practice, general solutions are not always needed, and with valve oscillators "synchronized" by an injected tone the practical problem is merely a study of the behaviour of the forced oscillation in circumstances in which no free oscillation is able to take place. Here, then, it is sufficient to consider the circuit under steady-state and stable conditions, and to determine the limits between which these conditions apply. The working can now be quite simple, and the physical conceptions quite clear. (1) DEFINITIONS AND LIST OF SYMBOLS The principle adopted in this paper is to consider the oscillator Transfer voltage ratio. The complex ratio of output to input as a loop circuit composed of a frequency-discriminating unit and voltage of a network. an amplifying or maintaining unit. The former may be regarded Free oscillation. A spontaneous steady oscillation similar to as linear in its relation of transfer-voltage ratio to amplitude, but that in an ordinary oscillator. the latter is non-linear in this respect. A signal, normally conForced oscillation (or synchronized oscillation). An oscillation sisting of a pure tone, is injected into this circuit, and the condiproduced and maintained by an external tone injected into the tions are found under which the free oscillation is suppressed, circuit. and the behaviour of the forced oscillation is investigated for Z>(o) = A(co) + jB(co) = transfer voltage ratio of frequency- these conditions. The specific application of the results to discriminating circuit. certain common types of oscillator is given, and the effect of G(?i) = transfer voltage ratio of non-linear maintaining impurities in the injected tone is briefly examined. circuit. et = input voltage to non-linear maintaining circuit. (3) GENERAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORCED eF = output voltage (feedback) from discriminating circuit. OSCILLATION es = injected voltage (of synchronizing signal, where It is convenient to consider first the general behaviour of the appropriate). forced oscillation, assuming that no free oscillation is present. em = output voltage from maintaining circuit. The conditions under which no free oscillation can take place ea = anode voltage. and under which the forced oscillation is stable may then be eu = injected voltage of unwanted signal. considered later. Heavy-faced type signifies vector value. Fig. 1 shows the schematic of an oscillator circuit. The disA circumflex (A) above a term signifies peak value. Suffix s means synchronized or forced oscillation value. Suffix f means free oscillation value. Gfe) Suffix o means value for the natural oscillation when no tone is injected. Suffix p means pull-out value. Suffix u means unwanted signal value. Ob) o> = angular frequency. cos = angular frequency of forced oscillation, and so on.
SUMMARY The behaviour of a feedback oscillator circuit under the influence of an injected tone having a frequency close to the natural frequency of oscillation is considered from the point of view of the steady-state equilibrium of the loop transmission circuit. The conditions for the absence or suppression of the free oscillation and for the stability of the forced oscillation are found. The application of the principles to certain common types of oscillator is discussed, and the effect of impurities in the injected tone is outlined.
x = CO/UJQ

Fig. 1.Oscillator circuit.

criminating circuit has a transfer voltage ratio varying with frequency according to the function D(a>). This is considered to be independent of amplitude. M = V(A2 + B2). The "maintaining" circuit has a transfer voltage ratio dependent a, b, c, etc. = coefficients of various series representing nonon the input voltage amplitude, but independent of frequency. linear characteristics. To the fundamental frequency of an applied pure tone, this Q = "magnification" or Q-factor of tuned circuit. transfer ratio is G(e{). It is necessary to specify "to the h = harmonic amplitude at grid of valve. fundamental frequency," since the non-linear transfer necessarily involves the production of harmonic frequencies. It will be (2) INTRODUCTION 1 10 Previously published work - on the behaviour of forced assumed initially that the effect of these on the circuit peroscillations in non-linear oscillatory circuits has dealt with the formance may be neglected. Let an injected signal of angular frequency <os and voltage problem from a consideration of the circuit differential equaes{= is sin oost) be connected in series between the output of Radio Section paper, based on parts of a thesis for the degree of Ph.D.(London), the discriminating circuit and the input of the maintaining cirt Post Office Research Station. [226]

d = phase angle between injected voltage es and the forcedoscillation voltage e{. <f> phase-shift of discriminating circuit = arc tan B/A.

TUCKER: FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS, AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS 227

cuit. If the output of the discriminating circuit is eF, then in the equilibrium condition = e{ where the heavy-faced type signifies vector value. Evidently also So that eF = G(e{). D(o>). e{ . . (1)

jected angular frequency u>sy the discriminating circuit produces a phase shift <f> and a voltage ratio M, where
and

(2) (3)

M =

If the horizontal axis is taken as the direction of the vector e{, then the direction of the vector eF is at an angle <f> to the horizontal axis. Now assume G is real, and D = A + jB. If 6 is the phase angle The magnitude of eF is Mem, and, since the eF vector may be between e{ and es, we can take the phase of es as a reference, regarded as an axis of eF inclined at <f> to the horizontal, the and express e{ as ,(cos 6 + j sin 6) and es as es. relation between eF and em may be represented by a graph of Therefore (3) becomes Mem cos <f> on a horizontal axis against em on a vertical axis. {[A(to) + JB(fo)] . G(et) - l} . ^(cos 9 + j sin 0) + 4 = 0 (4) If the discriminating circuit is linear in its relation between transfer coefficient and amplitude, this graph is a straight line. Equating the real terms gives It is now clear that, since the em axis is common to both graphs, any equilibrium of the circuit voltages must be repreet{[A(a>) . G(e,) - 1] cos 0 - B(OJ) . G(e,) . sin d} = - es sented by points on the two graphs which lie on the same horizontal line. Consider, for example, the points N, and N 2 in Equating imaginary terms gives Fig. 2, which lie on the same horizontal line. These correspond to a value of et given by OQ and a value of eF given by OP. It i^B(<o). (?(<?,). cos d + [A(oS). G(et) - 1] sin d} = 0 is clear that, to maintain a steady state, the vector representing Squaring and adding, we obtain es must be PQ, where the angle PQO is the phase angle 6. OPQ is therefore the vector triangle representing equations (5) and (6). (5) When es is given, and it is required to find et and 6, the method is altered slightly, since the position of the line NjN2 is not and, since e{ is not zero, known. A pair of dividers is set to the length representing es, -B(co).G(ei) tan0 = (6) and a position is found for them such that one point lies on OP A(to). G(ei) - 1 and the other on OQ in a manner which brings the points under corresponding positions on the two graphs which are seen to lie These two equations, (5) and (6), define the behaviour of the on the same horizontal line. forced oscillation when no free oscillation is present. [Giefi . D(co) - \]ei + es = 0 (4) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE EQUATIONS It is evident that the simple relationship of the three voltage vectors eF, es and e{ expressed by equation (1) can be represented by a vector triangle. A simple graphical way of determining this triangle is described below; the general idea of the method is due to U. Bab,11 who, however, has not dealt with it quantitatively. The use of this graphical method avoids the rather laborious numerical work involved in working out practical cases by the algebraic method described above. The graphical work is shown in Fig. 2. The curve represents (5) THE CONDITIONS OF ABSENCE OF FREE OSCILLATION If the product D(OJ) . G(et) can never equal or exceed unity, whatever values of a> and e{ are chosen, then it is clear that the circuit is incapable of free oscillation in any case, and the above working applies for the injected frequency. In this case the two graphs of Fig. 2 never intersect. If, however, the product D(u)). G(e;) can equal or exceed unity at some value of a> and eh then the circuit is, as a rule, capable of free oscillation in the absence of the injected tone. It will now be shown that, in the presence of the injected tone, it is possible for the free oscillation, to be suppressed. The function G(e,-) must first be considered in more detail. In the maintaining circuit, for any instantaneous input voltage et let the instantaneous output voltage be em. Then, in general, we may represent the non-linear relation between em and e( by a power series thus:
(7)

If the input signal is a sine wave, i.e. e{ = /sin cot, then, on substituting this in equation (7), we find that the even-power terms do not affect the amplification of the fundamental component of the output, and we may put Amplification to fundamental frequency, i.e. Fig. 2.Graphical construction. the relation between the output em and the input et of the maintaining circuit as expressed by the function G(et). At the inwhere bx = alf b3 = $a3, bs = | a 5 , etc.

component of output at fundamental frequency input

. . . (8)

228

TUCKER: FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS, AND

to Fig. 2, it is seen that when o)s and o>o are close together, and consequently the loop phase shift (f> is small at the angular frequency cos, then cos <f> is nearly unity, and the two graphs (ON, e i $is s m o)st + etf sin ioft and ON2) intersect at a point L remote from O. When cos and On substituting this in equation (7) we find that the amplification co0 are considerably different, <f> is large, and cos cf> is therefore to the free fundamental frequency is considerably less than unity; in consequence the two graphs do not intersect at any point other than O. In the latter case, the . (9) angle 6 never numerically exceeds %n radians, and the condi( + I}e,j2n-*n . iff tions described in Section 5 apply. But in the former case, where the curves intersect, the angle 9 may numerically exceed where the c coefficients are related to the a series in a rather $TT radians. If the horizontal line N,N passes through the 2 complex manner.13 intersection L, then PQ is vertical and 6 = \TT. If N,N 2 passes It is readily seen, however, by putting eis = 0, that one relation below L, then 6 > }TT\ If, however, L corresponds to a value is of et less than the limiting value of eis defined in Section 5, free 0) oscillations will have commenced before 6 %rr, and the relaThe condition for the free oscillation to cease, i.e. for the oscil- tionships of Fig. 2 no longer apply. Therefore, just in those lator to become "synchronized," is that the loop gain, which cases where the two graphs intersect at a point corresponding to has its highest value when it = 0, should be diminished to unity a value of et greater than the limiting value for suppression of or less by the presence of the forced oscillation. That is to say, free oscillations, it is possible for 6 to become ^n radians if we assume D{OJ) is unity and real at the natural oscillation while free oscillations are still suppressed. This is actually the limit of stability of the forced oscillation, and instability occurs frequency, then Gf{ei)<\ . . . . . . ( 1 1 ) if 6 exceeds %n. The nature of this instability and its effect on the output of the oscillator are discussed in the next Section. It may and since the free oscillation is now suppressed, we can put seem obvious that the limit is as stated, but the author has so itf = 0 in equation (9), so that (11) becomes far been unable to formulate any rigorous proof.* The limit has, however, been well substantiated experimentally for several (12) types of oscillator. 02*+1 To sum up, we may say that the forced oscillation is stable if where the only remaining terms are those in which m = n. Now if l0 is the peak amplitude of the free oscillation in the absence of the injected voltage, we have, from (8), = 1
(13) _ <- Q

If, however, a free oscillation is present as well as a forced oscilJation, we must put

2 ^

(18)

(7) THE "SYNCHRONIZED OSCILLATOR" AND "PULL-OUT"

The principles described above have an application in practice where it is desired to control an oscillator to a standard freand so only for a given power series (7) can we state, by consider- quency, but yet have an output of approximately the correct ing (12) and (13), the minimum value of the ratio ifjim for frequency if the control frequency fails. A small voltage at the which suppression of the free oscillation is effected. control frequency is injected at some convenient point in the As a special case, but fortunately one which for many purposes oscillator circuit, and, provided the natural frequency of the sufficiently represents practical conditions, consider only three oscillator is sufficiently close to the required frequency, and that the voltage injected is adequate, the natural oscillation is supterms in equation (7), thus: pressed, and the only output is at the control frequency. The a3ej oscillator may be considered as a tuned-positive-feedback (14) amplifier so far as the injected tone is concerned, and the ampliThen it is easily seen that tude built up from the injected tone is large enough to reduce the gain for the free oscillation (by virtue of the non-linearity . . . (15) corresponding to (12), of the circuit) to a value below that required to maintain oscillation. The oscillator is now .said to be "synchronized" or "locked" and Goto) = ai + ia3$fo = 1 , (16) to the control frequency. If the "synchronized" (i.e. forced) corresponding to (13), oscillation becomes unstable, or if free oscillations commence, so that free oscillation is suppressed if the oscillator is said to "pull out" of synchronism. It is clear from Sections 5 and 6 that if the range of frequency over which 1 (17) the oscillator remains synchronized is small, then pull-out occurs when which is independent of the actual coefficients in the series (14). (19a) (6) THE CONDITIONS OF STABILITY OF THE FORCED but if the range of frequencies is large, pull-out occurs when OSCILLATION 1 The work described above shows that the free oscillation is (196) V2 suppressed if the amplitude of the forced oscillation exceeds a certain value. But even within the limits thus determined for assuming the cubic law of amplification defined by (14). the suppression of the free oscillation, it is possible for the forced * A graphical proof was suggested by Subra,* in rather vague terms. But on oscillation to be unstable, and to have, in consequence, other careful examination and more precise exposition, this proof has been found to give the anomalous result that oscillators with a negative slope ofloop phase-thift/frequency frequencies mixed with it. This condition arises when the in- characteristic are stable with 6 numerically less than i n , but oscillators with a positive jected angular frequency (o)s) is very near the natural angular slope are only stable with 0 numerically greater than in. Experiment shows that the slope of the phase-shift curve does not affect the problem of the stability of the frequency (co0), and the injected amplitude is small. Referring forced oscillation. Thus there appears to be some fallacy in Subra's work.

THE SYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS

229

When pull-out occurs by the first criterion, the effect is that of a regular impulsive "slip" of synchronism; between each two "slips" the oscillator apparently remains synchronized. If the difference between injected and natural frequencies is increased, these slips occur more frequently, and ultimately they occur at the frequency of the difference. Fig. 3 shows an oscillogram of Timing wave. 25c/s

>r

Oscillator just pulling out-very slow beat

" M Paster beat

Tuning condenser slowly rotated, beat frequency increases Fig. 3.Pull-out of a synchronized oscillator. the beat between injected signal and output signal in the case of a certain 6 000-c/s oscillator, and shows how the slip frequency increases and how the waveform consequently changes as the
41)

Fig. 5.Z.C-tuned oscillator. and et are used as before, and e( is now the actual grid voltage; ea is the anode voltage. All these are signal voltages and ignore any steady d.c. bias voltages. Assume RF^> RT- The load on the valve is then nonreactive, and we can consider the gain to be independent of frequency. To simplify the work, however, it is convenient to put
G(ei)

= (R t / ? ) 7
T F t

. . . .

(20)

fc' \|
\ \ \ S O
/ /

and this is, of course, unity when the oscillator is oscillating at its natural frequency, assumed for the present to be the same as the resonant frequency. We have then that D ~ 1 at resonance, and, at any angular frequency xa)Oi

/ /
es-005 U-80
/ V

g-20 t
10

s-O-l Q 80

' f t " tf -40 0 -30 -20 -10 20 1 0 SAc/s Fig. 4.Beat frequency of oscillator in the pull-out range. /o ~ 8 000c/s. ^ ~ 0-5 volt.

V -\

J-IC

It is simplest to consider a numerical example, and to work it out by the graphical method. Take = 1-15-0-15*7 corresponding to equation (8), with 6, = 1-15, 63 = 0-15, and all other coefficients zero. It is easily seen on working out that the original series (7) has a, = 1 15, a3 = 0-2 and all other odd coefficients zero. Take also Q = 80. Then from (21) we can tabulate values of M cos <f> = VO*2 + B1). cos (arc tan B/A) against x. Corresponding to Fig. 2, we can now draw the two graphs 30 and the vectors eF and e{ (so far as direction is concerned) for

oscillator is slowly detuned more and more from the correct frequency. Fig. 4 shows some measured results on the beat frequency of an 8 000-c/s oscillator. When pull-out occurs by the second criterion, the free oscillation commences at very nearly the natural frequency (any difference being due to the different amplitudes involved affecting the harmonic content and stray phase-shifts), and the forced oscillation remains merely at a changed amplitude. The beat frequency is therefore equal to the difference between injected and natural frequencies. Such a case is also shown in Fig. 4. The behaviour of an oscillator in the pull-out region has been analysed mathematically by Rjasin,9 but the treatment is long and difficult. The results accord with those described here. (8) THE SYNCHRONIZATION OF A SIMPLE INDUCTANCECAPACITANCE-TUNED FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR Consider an inductance-capacitance-tuned oscillator with injected signal as shown in Fig. 5. The grid coil is assumed to have the same number of turns as the primary winding, and to be tightly coupled with it. RT is the effective parallel resistance of the tuned circuit. Put Q = RTICOQL. The symbols es, eF

0-9945 09950 0-9955 0-9960 0-9965 0-9970 0-9975 0-9980 0-9985

0-9990 0-9995

0-2

0-4

06

08 10 e, or Mem cos 0

O707

1 2

1 4

Fig. 6.Graphical construction for LC-tuned oscillator (example).

230

TUCKER: FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS, AND tion holds is usually quite small, and gives pull-out always at the condition d = TT. It is worth while, therefore, to work out some rather simpler equations which apply only to this condition. The phase angle d can be expressed in terms of the actual frequency and that frequency at which pull-out would occur with the same value of es. Referring to the vector triangle of Fig. 2, we have
sin <f> sin (d + <f>)

each value of x. These can be combined in one diagram for all the values of x, as shown in Fig. 6. It is seen immediately that only for small values of (1 x), i.e. of (co0 cus), do the two graphs intersect. The point A represents a value of et = l / \ / 2 , which is the limiting value according to equation (196), since in our case el0 (the amplitude of the natural oscillation) = 1. D is the point on the non-linear curve of em against it at which it = 1/^2. The horizontal line CD therefore represents the lowest position of the line N , N 2 of Fig. 2 at which synchronization is possible. When the intersection of the two graphs occurs above D, pullout occurs at a value of et corresponding to this intersection and with 9 = 90. When the pull-out occurs at the limit it = 1/V2, the e$ vector is not verticalas AB when x = 0-9945, with 9 < 90being determined by the intersection of CD with the straight-line graph of em against Mem cos <f>. Using the suffix p to indicate pull-out values, we can usefully plot graphs of 9P, eip and esp against the frequency-difference
IV
p

From equation (21), if 1 x is small, tan <j> = 2Q(1 - x) sin <f> ~ tan (f> and cos <f> ~ 1 So, expanding sin (6 + cf>) and making these substitutions, sin 9 + cos 6 . 2Q(1 - * ) = - . 2Q(1 - x) (22)

0-8

Now at the pull-out frequency, tan <f>p = es\ew 2Q(l xp)

Therefore sin 6 + cos 6 -^ . I x

i*
1

Xn

xn

0-6

0-4

0-2

H
0003
\-Xp

>
0004 0-005 0-006

In the practical cases we are considering, es < eip, and cos 9 < 1, (1 JC)/(1 xp) < 1; moreover, as cos 9 increases, (1 .v)/(l xp) decreases. The second term on the left-hand side may therefore be neglected as a first approximation. Therefore 1 JC (23)

xn

When the injected voltage is small, or the amount of nonlinearity very large, e( varies very little over the synchronized frequency range, and then 1- x sine ~ 1 xn
(24)

0001

0002

Fig. 7.Grid volts and injected volts at pull-oat (example). 100 9P < ) 801
() <

k 1
1 M

Equation (23) checks very well in practice, and can be checked against the graphical construction; for the numerical example given above, with es = 0-1, the values of 9 check within 1 degree over the whole range. The variation of 9 and et over the synchronized frequency range is shown, for this numerical example, in Fig. 9. The synchronizing frequency range for the condition that pull; . II ei 10
0-9
i

60

40, 0

0001

0002

0003

0004

0O05

0006

\~xp
Fig. 8.Phase angle at pull-out (example). term (1 xp). These relations are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, where all values have been determined from Fig. 6. Over these small ranges the responses are, of course, symmetrical about x = 1. (9) SOME USEFUL SIMPLE RELATIONSHIPS FOR THE INDUCTANCE-CAPACITANCE-TUNED FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR The two equations (5) and (6), representing quite general conditions, are rather complicated when specific values are inserted. But, in practice, the range of frequencies over which synchroniza-

i Pull-out 100 80
e
/

*60 40 20

j
O0005

\-x Fig. 9.Variation of amplitude and phase of forced oscillation over synchronized frequency range (example).

THE SYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS out occurs when 6 = \-n is easily determined. From the vector diagram again, at pull-out, es is perpendicular to e{, so that (25) Also Therefore = 2 . ei xp) (26) 1-3 1 2 11 . 10 %9 08 07 006 005 . 004 *0-03 002 001 and, applying equation (21), es = 2 . eip . Q(l xp) as before. (10) THE SYNCHRONIZATION OF OTHER TYPES OF OSCILLATOR Other types of oscillator which may be considered as a feedback circuit can be dealt with in the same way as the simple LC-tuned oscillator analysed above. The phase shift of the loop circuit can be related to frequency and then applied to equation (25), which is quite general for the case of pull-out at 0= \TT\ this gives a very useful design equation. The graphical construction of Fig. 2 can also be applied quite generally. Most frequency-discriminating networks are more or less symmetrical about the oscillation frequency, but one well-known network is quite unsymmetrical and is worth examining. This is the 3 (or more) section RC network used in the so-called "phaseshift" oscillator.14- '5 if w e consider the 3-section network with series capacitances and shunt resistances, it can be shown15 that the phase shift near the oscillation frequency is given approximately by (27) tan (f> = x - 1 Comparing this with equation (22) for the LC-oscillator network, we see that, on the basis of phase-shift response, and neglecting sign, the RC network is equivalent to a tuned circuit with Q = 0-5 only. Applying (27) to (25), we obtain *s = iP(xp - 1) (28)
(JJQ

231

l - xp)

which is a very useful equation for design purposes. This can also, of course, be obtained from the work of Section 3. From equation (6), when 6 = $TT, 1 G(eip) = A{u>) Putting this in equation (5), we obtain

y / /

0-94

0-96

098

\ 10 /

/ //
102

104

l-Oti

Fig. 10.Grid and injected voltages at pull-out for a "phase-shift" RC oscillator with network:
G(e ( ) = 1 - 1 5 - 0 - 1 5 ^ ; i.e.

1-0

(11) THE EFFECT OF HARMONICS PRODUCED IN THE CIRCUIT So far, the effect of harmonics generated in the non-linear circuit has been neglected. As a first approximation to the real behaviour of the synchronized oscillator, this is justified, but we must now examine the effect of harmonics. In general the discriminating circuit will have different phase shifts at harmonic and fundamental frequencies, so that any harmonics returning to the amplifier input will have phases different from the fundamental. These harmonics will then be intermodulated in the non-linear circuit, and some intermodulation products will be of fundamental frequency, but will have a phase different from that of the original fundamental component. The resultant fundamental component will therefore have a phase dependent on the harmonic magnitudes and phases. The natural frequency of the oscillator will consequently be displaced, in order to compensate for this "stray" phase-shift. In an inductance-capacitance-tuned oscillator as shown in Fig. 5, the amount of the frequency shift produced by the harmonics measured at the grid of the valve (i.e. across the tuned circuit) is shown by Groskowski16 and van der Pol3 to be (30)

It can also be shown that the amplitude ratio of the network, near the oscillation frequency, is approximately given by Input voltage Output voltage X 1 M (29)

?tl

where hi ~ amplitude of the fundamental, and hk = amplitude of A:th harmonic.

which shows that the loss of the network is less above x = 1 This has been found to accord reasonably well with measured results. The effect of this change of natural frequency is to and greater below. make the response of the forced oscillation unsymmetrical with If now equations (27) and (29) are used in the graphical construction of Fig. 2, and if we take the same non-linear law of respect to the natural frequency. For instance, Fig. 11 shows a Gifii) as in the LC-tuned example, we can plot curves of iip and measured performance compared with the calculated performance #sp against xp to correspond to those shown in Fig. 7. These for a certain oscillator, with Q = 80 and an approximately cube curves are shown in Fig. 10, and it will be seen how they are not law of non-linearity, giving a gain to fundamental of symmetrical about x = 1, and how pull-out occurs due to the G(et)= 1 0 3 - 0 1 2 ^ 2 amplitude limit (196) for values of xp below about 0-96, but so thate,p = 0-5 volt. does not occur in this way for values of xp > 1 within the range The injected voltage was 0 05 volt. Both the phase (0) and of the calculations and approximations made. amplitude curves are unsymmetrical. The reason for this is

232

TUCKER: FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS, AND

160

modulation products may have a frequency falling near a)s, and may therefore be important. If such frequencies fall within the \ , Calculated 4 range over which the tuned positive feedback is effective, then \ their amplitudes must be adjusted in accordance with paragraph N 120 06 \ \ (b) below. Measured s Is. y ( The determination of the amplification of one tone in the e volts ^Calculated Measured presence of another in a non-linear circuit has already been dealt 04 80 > with briefly in Section 5 (see, for example, equation 9). In general we may say that if the amplitude eis of the wanted fre\ 40 quency is much larger than the amplitude iiu ( = iu since there is no positive feedback) of the unwanted frequencya condition ""5: -P.. almost invariably obtainingthen the amplification Gu{e{) of 0 -O0008 -O0006 -00004 -00002 0 00002 00004 00006 00008 the unwanted frequency is dependent on iis, but practically in\-x' dependent of iu. This is because the terms in equation (9) conFig. 11.Correlation of calculated and measured performance (effect taining the smaller voltage will be negligible in comparison with of harmonics). those which contain only the larger voltage. i - 0 - 5 volt; <*, = () 05 volt. The determination of harmonics and intermodulation products and of the actual coefficients in equation (9), is a very complex 12 13 evidently that the varying amplitude of the forced oscillation, matter in the general case, but has been described by Espley. . and therefore of the harmonic/fundamental ratios over the fre- For a cube law relating em to ev however, (see equation 7) it is a quency range, produce a varying amount of extra loop phase- simple matter to substitute shift and shift of the natural frequency. In the middle of the et = Sis sin u)st + eiu sin coj range, the amplitude of the forced oscillation is large, and produces a large extra phase-shift and depression of the natural and to extract the wanted terms. For instance, the output of frequency. The angle <f> is thereby changed from zero to a wu i is negative value, and the forced oscillation amplitude is reduced. sin a>J At some lower frequency, the extra negative phase-shift is a, + balanced by the positive phase-shift of the tuned circuit, and a larger forced-oscillation amplitude results. At the edge of the The second-harmonic terms are synchronized frequency range, the harmonic amplitudes are js cos 2u)st $a2ifu c o s ^J comparatively small, and, since equation (30) involves the squares of the amplitudes, the extra phase-shift is small, and the The second-order intermodulation terms are calculated and observed results agree more closely. The whole a2iis. i(u cos iois wu)t a2iis. <?, cos (cos o>u)t of the unsymmetrical effect of harmonic production can be determined, for any particular case, by means of the graphical The third-harmonic terms are method of Fig. 2, using Groskowski's equation (30) (for the la3i?s sin 3a)st a3i]u sin Zcout LC-tuned oscillator) and determining harmonic amplitudes from the non-linear amplifier characteristic, allowing for the dis- The third-order intermodulation terms are criminating effect of the tuned circuit. The fact that the hara>u)t - $a3e}s. iiu sin {lois - a>Jt - $a3e}s. ilu sin ( monics are calculated for a single loop trip instead of for the oscillating condition will generally produce an entirely negligible - ia^ . efu sin (2cott - <os)t - $a3els . ifu sin a)s)t error. The process is not straightforward, however, its worst ( Z > ) When the unwanted angular frequency cou lies quite close feature being the interdependence of extra phase-shift and to o)n so that the positive feedback is not negligible, but does amplitude. not lie actually in the synchronized range (to choose an arbitrary (12) THE EFFECT OF IMPURITIES IN THE INJECTED SIGNAL limit), then we may take advantage of the fact that the amplificaIt may often happen in practice that the signal injected into tion Gu(e{) is largely independent of eu, i.e. is nearly linear; we an oscillator to synchronize it may have mixed with it some may then consider the circuit as merely a linear positive-feedback other frequency. This will be an unwanted signal, and it is amplifier, in which the loop gain is unity at the frequency cu,. therefore often a fact of importance that its amplitude in the So we may put Gu(e^ . Ds(u>) = 1 and Gu(ei). DU(CD) = AU{OJ) o). Then, as in equation (3), output of the oscillator is likely to be very much reduced relative to the amplitude of the wanted forced-oscillation frequency. [Au(w) +jBu(a>) The oscillator behaves, in fact, as a very selective amplifier. The 1 analysis of the response of the circuit to the unwanted frequency that is (31) has been described elsewhere,17 and consequently only an outline 1 - Au(u) of the process is given here. which gives the voltage gain to the unwanted frequency caused (a) If the unwanted angular frequency o>u is sufficiently remote by the positive feedback. This can now be added to the effects from the wanted frequency cos for the effect of the tuned positive described in the previous paragraph (a). In the case of theLC-tuned oscillator of Fig. 5, substituting for feedback to be negligible, then the problem is that of determining harmonic and intermodulation products, and the amplification A and B from equation (21) gives of the fundamental frequency wu relative to that of ws. HarC2d . (32) monics of co3 appearing in the output of the oscillator are not generally important; the oscillator would produce similar harmonics if unsynchronized. But harmonics of wu and inter- where xu = COJOJQ.

i<t

THE SYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS When xu is very nearly unity, this becomes 1

233

of electrical technology are given by Kirschstein. The application of the principles to the filtration of a pure carrier tone (33) from a modulated radio signal has been described by Byard and Eccles21 in connection with automatic tuning. A graph of the function (32) for Q = 15 is shown in Fig. 12, Synchronized oscillators have also found an application in the which shows also the response of the tuned circuit alone. If detection of frequency- and phase-modulated signals.22.23.24 the output of the oscillator is taken from the terminals of the It is possible, according to one application, to take advantage tuned circuit instead of from the anode circuit, then the response of the very rapid change of phase with frequency, which, as can of the tuned circuit must be added to (32) or (33). be seen fromSections 7 and 9, can be made to give a change in phase angle of 180 over a frequency range which is practically -a proportional to the injected voltage, and which would normally be adjusted to suit the frequency swing of the modulated signals. Relative response 18 of tuned circuit A synchronized oscillator can also be used as a peak limiter in a alone / 16 frequency-modulation receiver. 25

,.

5cI>

14 12

-O

Si

1
c

z.

/
Equation (32*

a 4 3 2

/ y
0-94

)
0-98 1-0

Fig. 12.Response of oscillator to unwanted signal. Example for (2=15. (c) If the unwanted angular frequency CJU is very close indeed to u)s, for instance if it lies within the synchronizing frequency range, then the analysis of the problem is extremely complex, since the amplifications of the two frequencies are interdependent. It can no longer be assumed that elu is very small compared with els, unless iu <^ es. When the two amplitudes are of the same order, either signal may be regarded as the synchronizing signal, according to its relation to the natural frequency. The matter will not be pursued further here. (13) THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY, AND OF SYNCHRONIZED OSCILLATORS IN GENERAL The synchronization of oscillators was originally investigated because of difficulties experienced with early radio transmitters of "pull-in" to adjacent-station frequencies. Since then, however, the properties of oscillators under the influence of injected tones have been utilized in several ways. An application in carrier line-telephony is the synchronization of carrier frequencies over the various links of the telephone network. The basic requirement is that the carrier generators at the two ends of any single-sideband, suppressed-carrier link should have exactly the same frequency. For convenience, ordinary oscillators are used at both ends, and one is synchronized to the other (i.e. is forced to oscillate at the frequency of the other) by means of a tone transmitted over the line and injected into the oscillator concerned. Since the line may also carry many other signals and noise, the selective properties described in Section 12 are very valuable. More complicated systems are also in general use, in which the transmitted tone is a harmonic of the frequency to be synchronized. An account of such systems has been published elsewhere,18 and a discussion of various subsidiary problems (such as phase stability and "flutter" effects) is also available.19 Some miscellaneous applications in radio and other branches

(14) CONCLUSIONS It has been shown that when forced oscillations are generated in an oscillator (i.e. in a circuit normally capable of self-oscillation) it is possible for the free oscillations to be suppressed by the forced, and the behaviour of the circuit can then be determined by a consideration of the steady-state equilibrium of the forcedoscillation frequency round the oscillator loop circuit. For an oscillator in which the maintaining circuit has a nonlinear characteristic sufficiently represented by a cubic law, one condition that the free osculation shall be suppressed is that the forced-oscillation amplitude shall be greater t h a n l / V 2 times the amplitude that the free oscillation has when no forced oscillation is present. If the injected e.m.f. producing the forced oscillation is applied in series with the loop circuit (as distinct from injection into the inductance coil of the tuned circuit, for example) another condition, representing stability of the forced oscillation is that the phase angle between the injected voltage and the forced oscillation at the point of injection .shall not exceed &T radians (positive or negative). It is shown that the operation of a synchronized oscillator (i.e. an oscillator in which a stable forced oscillation alone exists) is limited by the first condition for large injected amplitudes and by the second for smaU injected amplitudes; in the latter circumstances, the frequency range over which the oscillator remains synchronized is practically proportional to the injected amplitude, but for an inductance-capacitance-tuned oscillator is inversely proportional to the Q-factor of the tuned ' circuit. The effect of the harmonics generated in the circuit has been shown to be a lack of symmetry in the performance above and below the natural frequency of oscillation. The effect of unwanted tones mixed with the injected signal has been discussed and it has been shown that the oscillator acts as a very selective circuit in largely suppressing the unwanted frequencies. (15) BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) APPLETON, E. V.: "Automatic Synchronization of Triode Oscillators," Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1922-3, 2 1 , p . 231. (2) VAN DER POL, B . : "Forced Oscillations in a Circuit with Non-lmear Resistance," Philosophical Magazine, 1927 3, p. 65. ' ' (3) VAN DER POL, B . : " T h e Non-linear Theory of Electric Oscillations," Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1934, 22, p . 1051. (4) SUBRA, H . : "Etude du Fonctionnement d'un Auto-Oscillateur perturbe par une Onde Exterieure de Frequence peu differente de la sienne," Annales des P.T.T., 1933, 22,
(5) ANDRONOV, A., and W I T T , A . : " Z u r Theorie des Mitnah-

mens von van der Pol," Archivfur 24, p . 99.

Elektrotechnik, 1930

234 TUCKER: FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS, AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS L., AND OTHERS: "Expose des Recherches (16) GROSKOWSKI, J.: "The Interpendence of Frequency Variation and Harmonic Content, etc," Proceedings of the Recentes sur les Oscillations Non-Lineaires," Technical Institute of Radio Engineers, 1933, 21, p. 958. Physics of the U.S.S.R., 1935, 2, Nos. 2-3, p. 81. (7) MANDELSTAM, L., and PAPALEXI, N.: "Uber Resonanz- (17) TUCKER, D. G.: "The Synchronization of Oscillators, Part 4," Electronic Engineering, 1943, 16, p. 114. erscheinungen bei Frequenzteilung,"Ze//sc/ir////KV iViy-s/A:, 1931,73, p. 223. (18) TUCKER, D. G.: "The Synchronization of Oscillators, Part 3," ibid., 1943, 16, p. 26. (8) MIGULIN, W.: "Uber autoparametrische Erregung der Schwingungen," Technical Physics of the U.S.S.R., 1936, (19) TUCKER, D. G.: "The Synchronization of Oscillators and 3, p. 841. its Application to Carrier Telephone Systems," Ph.D. (9) RJASIN, P.:"Einstellungs- und Schwebungsprozesse bei der Thesis, University of London, 1943. Mitnahme," ibid., 1935, 2, Nos. 2-3, p. 195. (20) KIRSCHSTEIN, F.: "Die Mitnahme selbsterregter Schwingungen und ihre technische Verweitung," Elektrische (10) WENKE. W.: "Die Instabilitat linearer und nichtlinearer Schwingungen (Mitnahme-schwingungen)," HochfrequenzNachrichten-Technik, 1943, 20, p. 29. technik und Elektroakustik, 1940, 55, pp. 94 and 109. (21) BYARD, S., and ECCLES, W. H.: "The Locked-in Oscillator, (11) BAB, U.: "Graphische Behandlung von Mitnahme-erscheietc.," Wireless Engineer, 1941, 18, p. 2. nungen," Elektrische Nachrichten-Technik, 1934, 11, (22) WOODYARD, J. R.: "Application of the Auto-Synchronized Oscillator to Frequency Demodulation," Proceedings of p. 187. (12) ESPLEY, D. C : "The Calculation of Harmonic Production the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1937, 25, p. 612. in Thermionic Valves with Resistive Loads," Proceedings (23) MAHMOUD, H. M.: "The Synchronization of Oscillators and its Application to the. Detection of Frequency-Modulated of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1933, 21, p. 1439. (13) ESPLEY, D. C.: "Harmonic Production and Cross-ModulaSignals," M.Sc. Thesis, University of London, 1938. tion in Thermionic Valves with Resistance Loads," ibid., (24) CROSBY, M. G.: "Communication by Phase Modulation," 1934, 22, p. 781. Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1939, 27, p. 131. (14) GINZTON, E. L., and HOLLINGSWORTH, L. M.: "Phase-Shift (25) CARNAHAN, C. W., and KALMUS, H. P.: "Synchronized Oscillators," ibid., 1941, 29, p. 43. Oscillators as F.M. Receiver Limiters," Electronics, (15) TUCKER, D. G,: "The Synchronization of Oscillators, Aug. 1944, p. 108. Part 2," Electronic Engineering, 1943, 15, p. 457. (6)
MANDELSTAM,

"FREQUENCY ALLOCATION FOR LONG-DISTANCE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS (OVER 1000 MILES)"

RADIO SECTION DISCUSSION MEETING, 16TH JANUARY, 1945
The discussion was opened by Mr. R. L. Smith-Rose, D.Sc, Ph.D., who said that his introductory remarks were confined to the radio frequencies which were implicit in the title and which, broadly speaking, embraced the 10-300 kc/s and 3-30 Mc/s bands. While, at specially favourable times or seasons, signals on frequencies outside these bands are sometimes received at distances of over 1 000 miles, such conditions cannot be considered as suitable for the operation of a communication service at a usefully high load-factor. In particular, the intermediate region from 300 to 3 000 kc/s is uneconomic for ranges exceeding 1 000 miles, since the attenuation of the ground wave and the absorption of the ionospheric waves preclude reliable communication over such distances. The justification for selecting the above frequency bands is based upon the present state of our knowledge of the propagation of radio waves round the surface of the earth and through the ionosphere. This knowledge is now considerably in advance of that available when the prevailing distribution of frequencies was drawn up by the International Radiocommunication Conference held at Cairo in 1938. At the low-frequency end of the first band (10-300 kc/s), the experience gained in the operation of a station, such as Rugby, on a frequency of 16 kc/s, has shown that only by using a low frequency of this order can a virtually continuous telegraphic service, necessarily of a broadcast nature, be maintained with ships and other receiving stations in all parts of the world. Thus there is justification for continuing the use of the band 10100 kc/s for those fixed stations erected for the purpose of maintaining communication in various directions at ranges from 1 000 miles upwards. The upper end of this band and the band continuing up to about 300 kc/s are usefully confined to those services operating entirely oversea, as from coastal stations to ships and aircraft, since in this way maximum use can be made of the reliable ground-wave range. While at least one radio-telephone service has been operated successfully on a carrier frequency near 60 kc/s, it is perhaps relevant to enquire whether the frequency band required for such a service could not be more usefully and economically employed for telegraphic purposes. It is by no means so simple to suggest allocations in the frequency band 3-30 Mc/s, but note should be taken of the conditions imposed by the ionosphere on the possibility or impossibility of maintaining virtually continuous communication conditions over the assigned path. The results obtained from studies of the reflection of waves from the ionosphere should assist in planning the allocation of frequencies for communication purposes. The highest frequency at which radio waves are reflected from the ionosphere over a particular path varies in a ratio of between two and three to one from day to night in the winter, and in a somewhat smaller ratio in the summer. The change in frequency from maximum to minimum of the sunspot cycle, some five to six years, is also about two to one, all other conditions remaining the same. Apart from the fact that waves in this high-frequency band are transmitted efficiently through the ionosphere, the wavelengths involved (10-100 metres) are suitable for the use of highly-directive antenna array systems, which both reduce the signal interference conditions and improve the overall efficiency of the communication circuits. For a given distance, geographical location and time of transmission, there is a maximum frequency above which it is, in general, not possible to sustain communication, however much power is available at the sending end. As the frequency is reduced below this maximum usable frequency, the absorption of waves by the ionized regions increases steadily so that, for a