Introduction to Light, Atoms, the E/M Spectrum

(all uncreditied figures courtesy of Thomas Arny)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum/Electromagnetic Waves

E/M waves are disturbances that travel through space E/M waves are transverse, and harmonic E/M waves have particle and wave properties E/M waves travel at 3 108 m/s in free space, c E/M waves transport energy (electromagnetic energy)

c = f

E = hf = h

decreasing wavelengths increasing energy longer wavelengths lower frequency E/M waves reflect, refract, scatter, diffract, interfere, and may be polarized

Origins of E/M Radiation

Visible, ultraviolet and infrared light originates from electronic transitions in atoms. Gamma rays originate from similar events in the nuclei of atoms. X rays may form in any of several ways but most commonly from the rapid acceleration of atoms. At the other end of the spectrum, microwaves may originate from molecular transitions, radio waves result from the oscillations of large numbers of charged particles.

E/M Radiation from Space and the Transparence of Earths Atmosphere

E/M Radiation and Temperature

All objects emit thermal radiation. An analysis of thermal radiation shows that it actually consists of a broad spectrum of e/m waves that have a peak intensity related to the temperature of the object. The temperature of this page, for example, is about 20oC and its emission spectra peaks in the infrared (long wavelength) region of the spectrum at around 0.7m. The human eye cannot detect infrared radiation, so the light that one sees coming from this page is reflected light from other sources. Certain objects are both very good absorbers and very good emitters of all radiation in the form of e/m waves. Such objects are called blackbodies. A blackbody is any object that is 100% efficient at absorbing all of the electromagnetic radiation that falls on it. Because such an object reflects no light it appears to be black as long as it is cool. When blackbodies get hot, either through absorbing radiation or other external means they are also very efficient radiators of energy. Most blackbodies are high-density materials such as solids. There are very few perfect blackbodies, but many objects are close enough that we may assume that they are essentially blackbody radiators. Wiens Law relates temperature to color for any blackbody or near blackbody When an object is a selective absorber and emitter of electromagnetic radiation it obeys Kirchoffs laws. Wiens Displacement Law relates the temperature of a blackbody to the wavelength of maximum emitted intensity: (max)T = 0.2898 10-2 mK , where max is the wavelength at which maximum emission occurs. When all objects are heated to any temperature above absolute zero they emit a broad spectrum of wavelengths but emit most strongly in a narrower region of wavelengths closely associated with a particular temperature. In blackbodies the relationship between intensity, temperature and color obeys Wiens law. Hotter objects emit more strongly in the shorter wavelength region. Why do very hot objects emit white light, instead of blue or ultraviolet?

For the Sun max = 0.2898 10-2 mK/6000K, which is roughly equal to 0.520m or 520nm. This indicates that the suns radiant energy peaks in the yellow-green portion of the visible spectrum. The earths surface temperature averages 300K (810F). In this case max = 0.2898 10-2 mK/300K, which is roughly equal to 10m, 100nm, or 10,000 angstroms. This corresponds to emission in the infrared part of the spectrum. An alternative mathematical expression of Wiens law is:

TK =

3 10 6

max

where max is in nanometers (10-9). For our sun:

TK = Luminosity

3 10 6 = 5800 K 520nm

Luminosity is energy radiated per second, i.e., power. Expressed in Joules/sec or watts. The suns luminosity is about 4 1026 watts

The Inverse Square Relationship

I=

P L = A 4r 2

The Stefan-Boltzman Law

Stefan-Boltzman relates luminosity to temperature.

constant).

E = T 4 , where E = L/A, = 5.67 10-8 W m-2 K-4 (the Stefan-Boltzman

4 2 More conveniently written: L = T 4R for a spherical isotropic radiator.

Not universally applicable works with blackbody radiation Note that a small increase in temperature results in a large increase in E. Applying Stefan-Boltzmann Law to the Sun: 4 E = (5800K) 15 4 = () 1.132 x 10 K = (5.67 x 10-8W m-2 K-4)(1.1 x 1015K4) = 6.4 107 W m-2

This is a whopping amount of energy when the entire surface area of the sun is taken into account (about 4 1026 watts). Example If the sun radiates 4 1026 watts, and we are 150 million kilometers away what is the intensity of the radiation from the sun at the top of the earths atmosphere? The inverse square law for a spherical isotropic radiator: I =

4 1026 watts P L , = = A 4r 2 4 150 109 m 2

yielding a little over 1400 watts per square meter. Most of this is visible light. About 1000 watts per square meter reaches the surface of the earth in equatorial latitudes.

Spectroscopy
Spectral analysis of light emitting objects yields information about elemental composition, relative abundance of elements, temperature, relative velocity and other information by splitting the light given off by a glowing object into its component colors. Each of these colors is indicative of a specific atomic transition. All elements have a unique spectral fingerprint There are three types of spectra: bright line or emission line spectra, continuous spectra, dark line or absorption line spectra. Emission spectra are produced by low-density gasses that radiate energy at specific wavelengths characteristic of the element or elements that make up the gas. The spectrum consists of a number of bright lines against a dark background. Continuous spectra are produced by solids, liquids or dense gases. The spectrum appears as a smooth transition of all colors in the visible spectrum from the shortest or the longest wavelength without any gaps between the colors. Blackbodies emit continuous spectra. Absorption spectra are produced when a cooler gas absorbs specific wavelengths of light passing through it. The wavelengths absorbed are determined by the elements that compose the gas. Since no two elements absorb the exact same wavelengths, it is possible to determine the elemental composition of the gas by examining the spectra. A dark line or absorption spectrum appears as a continuous spectrum of all colors with a number of dark lines through it. The K and H lines in the solar spectrum, for instance, are due to ionized calcium in the outer layers of the sun's atmosphere. If the dark lines are closely spaced in some parts the clumps of dark lines are known as bands.

Spectrometers may use either prisms or diffraction gratings to separate light into its component colors.

Doppler Shift
Any relative motion between an observer and a source of light or any form of e/m radiation results in a Doppler Shift, i.e., a shifting of spectral lines toward either shorter or longer wavelengths. Objects moving towards an observer undergo a blue shift and objects moving away from an observer undergo a red shift.

Electromagnetic Waves and Maxwells Equations Maxwells Equations describe all classical electromagnetic phenomena in much the same manner as Newtons Laws describe all classical mechanical phenomena

r v q enc E dA =

v v B dA = 0 r d m v E d s = dt r v d E B ds = 0 I enc + 0 0 dt
v v v F = qE + qvB

Gauss Law Gauss Law for Magnetism Faradays Law Amperes Law The Lorentz Force Equation

For harmonic transverse waves traveling to the right along the x-axis of an arbitrary coordinate system (assuming that y = 0 when x = 0 and t = 0) the displacement of the medium with respect to time may be expressed as: y = A sin (kx t ) An equivalent form of these equations is = 0 sin (kx t ) where a + sign indicates the wave is moving to the left. In general the displacement of the medium is represented by a general coordinate,, so that: = 0 sin(kx t ) where: k =

v = f =

, = 2f ,

f =

1 , T

for e/m waves is the amplitude of the E or B field E, B and k are all perpendicular

r r E = E 0 sin (kx t ) where E0 and B0 are maximum amplitudes r r B = B0 sin(kx t ) E = cB in free space E0 E 0 = vB0 in general

B0 k

The Energy in E/M waves

The energy transported in an e/m wave is stored in the E and B fields. The respective energy densities: u E =
2

1 1 B2 0 E 2 , uB = 2 2 0

0 0 1 E (E )2 = u E u B = u E , hence the energy of an e/m wave is uB = = 2 0 c 2 0

equally divided between the electric and magnetic fields
2 Total energy u = u E + u B = 2u E = 2u B = 0 E 2 = B 0

Power carried by E/M waves The Poynting Vector

cdt

Consider a cube with sides of area A that encloses some flux of e/m energy in free space. The energy in this volume of space is:

E = energy density volume = 0 E 2 Acdt

E 2 )Acdt = ( 0 E 2 )Ac dt r r r r v Power Define: S = = 0 cE 2 = 0 cEcB = 0 c 2 EB = 0 c 2 E B Area

0

( Note that power is energy per unit time: P =

More commonly The Poynting Vector is written S

1 r v E B . Note that the Poynting

vector is a measure of the intensity of an e/m wave.

The E and B ,vectors are perpendicular to each other an the Poynting Vector points in the direction of the wave travel.

E0

B0 S

r S = 0 cE 2 = 0 cE 02 sin 2 (kx t )
S oscillates at twice the frequency of the wave and is always positive

Define irradiance Ee the time average value of the absolute value of the Poynting vector.

r E e = s = 0 cE02 sin 2 (kx t )

To find the time average value of f = sin 2 t over one full cycle of the function:
t= 2

f =

t =0

sin
t=

tdt
=

t =0

dt

1 2

So: E e =

1 1 1 1 1 1 c 2 2 0 cE0 2 = 0 cB0 ccB0 = 0 c 3 B0 2 = 0 c B0 = B0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 0

The Speed of E/M waves

In free space the speed of an e/m wave is c = f =

0 0

,were 0 is the permittivity of free

space (electricity) and 0 is the permeability of free space (magnetism). In matter v = f =

Derivation of the speed of light in free space from Maxwells equations

B vdt

Consider an e/m wavefront moving through space as shown above. As the wavefront moves through space the E vector sweeps out area svdt, where s is length of the E vector

vdt

This area swept out by the E field experiences a change in magnetic flux. Note that there is a simultaneous B field present with field lines that penetrate this changing area. By applying Faradays law to this we may determine the relationship between E and B. 4

r v d m E ds = dt

Faradays Law

2 Summing up the contributions of Es from each segment of the loop, ccl: 1. 2. 3. 4. Es 0 0 0

So from Faradays Law: Es =

By symmetry the B field sweeps out an area in the same time that is penetrated by electric flux from the E field. We may therefore apply Amperes law to determine the relationship between E and B here. E
4

r r v d m = Bsv E = vB dt

1 3 2

v dt

r v d E B ds = 0 I enc + 0 0 dt Amperes Law

Once again, ccl around the loop:

1. Bs
2. 0 3. 0 4. 0

So from Amperes Law:

r v d E = 0 0 Evs B s = 0 0 dt r r B = 0 0 Ev r r v 1 1 v B E= BE= 0 0 v v 0 0
If Maxwells equations are valid, then both Amperes and Faradays laws must be valid and both expressions must be true. Hence:

r v E = vB = v2 =

r B v 0 0 1 v= 1
12

0 0

(8.85 10

C N
2

)(4 10

NA

= 2.998 10 8 m s 1

The quantity 0 c is known as the impedance of free space, has the SI unit of ohms and the value:

0c =

0 = 377 0

Radiation Pressure
E/M waves transport momentum as well as energy. This means that when an e/m wave impinges on a surface it exerts pressure on that surface. If p, U, and c represent linear momentum, energy and wave speed respectively:

p=

U c
2U c

for an absorbing surface

p=

for a reflecting surface

Note that the first expression applies strictly only to blackbodies. In terms of the Poynting vector (P is the radiation pressure):

P=

S c

for an absorbing surface

P=

2S c

for a reflecting surface

Radiation pressures are small for sunlight on earth (about 5 10 6 N m 2 in direct sunlight). Example The average intensity of light (power per unit area or the value of the Poynting vector) from the sun on the earths surface worldwide is about 340 watts per square meter (the maximum amount is about 1000 watts per square meter near the equator). Calculate the power delivered to a solar panel with dimensions of 8 15 meters (about the size of the roof of a house), assuming complete conversion.

P = SA = 340W m 2 8 15 m 2 = 40.8kW
In practice most solar panels are about 15% efficient for a yield of about 6 kW. This is good for about a 50 ampere service which is less than that the 100 200 amp service required by most homes. What is the radiation pressure on the roof? Assuming complete absorption:

)(

P=

S 340W m 2 = = 1.3 10 6 N m 2 c 3 10 8 m s 1

A small fraction of the normal load any roof supports.

Computing the distances to stars

There are basically two methods of computing distances to stars: the parallax method and the method of standard candles.

The parallax method uses trigonometry to compute the distance to a star based on a measuring a parallax angle formed due to the apparent shift of a stars position against the background of stars as the earth orbits the sun. This method works with stars up to 250 parsecs (800 ly) distant. The method of standard candles uses spectral data and Wiens law to determine a stars surface temperature, Stefan-Boltzman to determine its actual luminosity, and the inverse square law to determine the distance from its apparent luminosity. This method works well for stars greater than 250 parsecs (800 ly) distant.