INTRODUCTION

1. PRINCIPLES OF WELL LOGGING

1.1 What is logging : Logging means recording of information and in oil industry a log means recording of any information characteristic of the rock formation either at surface or in the borehole. Wireline logs or well logs are obtained by logging tools lowered into the well by means of a cable. Measurements are transmitted upto the cable to a recording unit mounted on a logging truck. The recorded information on film or paper is called as well-log. There are different logs, each recording different physical property of the formation of the well versus depth. Wireline logs are different from the drilling logs and mud logs which record information like drilling- rate, mud loss, torque, mud salinity, mud weight etc. which are obtained during drilling operations. The wireline logs are obtained after an interruption (or termination) of drilling activity. 1.2 Logging Objectives: The primary aim of well logging is to evaluate subsurface formations in a well in terms of their hydrocarbon bearing potential. However, the well logs also aid in drilling, completion and production operation of wells; geological and geophysical exploration and development of reservoir models for efficient production. In fact well logging offers a way of gathering the data needed for both economic and production planning. To understand how well logging aids this, we have to understand the parameters needed by the manager, the geologist, the geophysicist and the production and reservoir engineer. The geologist needs to know the stratigraphy of formations, the structural and sedimentary features and the mineralogy of the formation that the well drills through. The requirement of the geophysicist is to relate seismic references to specific horizons encountered in the well section. The reservoir engineer needs to know the vertical and lateral extent of the reservoir, its porosity (and the type of porosity) and permeability, the fluid content and its recovery. A production engineer is interested in knowing rock properties, various clay types and their sensitivity to completion fluids and whether over pressures exist or not, assessment of sanding and other problems and need for secondary recovery efforts or pressure maintenance. In case a well is on production, he is interested to know the dynamic behaviour of the well under production condition and diagnose the production problems. Other factors which are of interest to a production engineer are formation injectivity and residual oil saturation which are needed to plan water flooding and also to monitor the progress of water flood when it is operational.

Points of interest for a manager are vital inputs to economic study, such as the original hydrocarbon in place, recoverability cost of development and ultimately the profitability of the reservoir. Log measurements can give the majority of the parameters needed. Logs provide direct or indirect measurements of : Formation lithology Formation dip and structure Sedimentary environment Travel times of clastic waves in the formation Porosity (both primary and secondary) Permeability Hydrocarbon type (oil, gas or condensate) Water saturation and hydrocarbon movability Well deviation Formation temperature and pressures Cement evaluation behind casing In producing wells, logging provides measurements of : Flow rate Fluid type Pressure Temperature Oil and gas saturation Points of fluid entry. These measurements help to understand the well behaviour and are of great utility to production engineer. Besides the above mentioned fields of interests, logging also aids smooth and trouble free drilling of a well. Casing seat selection, detection of abnormal formation pressures, estimation of dog leg severity by well deviation profile are some of the important points which require measurements by wireline logging. Thus well logging when properly applied, can answer a great many questions from a wide spectrum of special interest groups ranging from basic geology to exploration or development economics.

2. EVOLUTION OF WELL LOGGING

2.1 Brief History The foundation of well logging was laid by Schlumberger Brothers in 1927 when they first introduced electrical measurements in bore hole which they called electric coring implying that the method would be a possible alternate for coring as a means of examining subsurface rocks. Soon after this, the use of electrical resistivity measurements mushroomed throughout the world. Spontaneous potential was discovered during the early thirties and in beginning, both SP as well as electrical surveys were used for correlation purpose only. However during the forties, due to development of Gamma Ray, sonic and other logging tools, the estimation of porosity and water saturation was made possible. Since then there

has been no looking back, and more tools as well as techniques were introduced from time to time. The evolution of Schlumberger tools and techniques have been listed in plate-1. One can see that it is a long list of achievements. Although, every development in itself is important yet there are two landmark during the evolution which need special emphasis. One such is computer processed interpretation during the seventies which made decision making quick and more accurate than before. The other is the introduction of digital logging units and telemetry system during late seventies and early eighties which resulted in subsurface data explosion and started an era of rapid developments. 2.2 New Technology Services The latest advances, in well logging industry, are improving the quality and increasing the quantity of formation data while reducing costs and making operations more efficient. The increased use of array tool designs provides improved vertical resolution, improved coverage of borehole, improved and multiple depths of investigation and enables radial and azimuthal imaging of resistivity and invasion by resistivity tools. Acoustic-array designs, using either dipole or quadrupole sources, can acquire high - quality shear wave data in most types of reservoir rocks. Improvements in downhole microprocessor based technology and highspeed digital telemetry make possible the development of high data - rate array and imaging tools as well as increased combinability of different tool types. Improvements in uphole computer processing combined with new visualisation techniques made possible by the advent of powerful desktop computers enhance presentation and interpretation of the data acquired with these tools. Well logging is evolving from averaged measurements that see the formation as approximately homogeneous into array measurements that respond to the heterogeneous composition of the formation. These responses are measured in every physical domain: matrix mineralogy, sedimentology, fluid characteristics and well dynamics. To handle this new wave of wireline services, world-wide, a new approach to data acquisition, processing and interpretation has been developed by logging companies. Some of the latest advances are discussed as under:(a) MAXIS-500@ System M/S Schlumberger's MAXIS system is designed for multi-task acquisition and integration. This system includes new downhole imaging tools, high datarate telemetry equipment (upto 500 kilobits per sec.), the new Maxis 500 surface logging unit and a new interactive workstation. Some of the logging services of MAXIS system are listed below: AIT - Array Induction Tool ARI - Azimuthal Resistivity Imager IPLT - Integrated Porosity Lithology Tool ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------@ Mark of Schlumberger

PEX - Platform Express Tool (Resitivity, Density and Neutron Tools) DSI - Dipole Sonic Imager MDT - Modular Formation Tester FMI - Fullbore Formation MicroImager CMR - Combinable Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Tool CSI - Combinable Seismic Imager USIT - Ultra Sonic Imager Tool CPLT - Combinable Production Logging Tool RST - Reservoir saturation Tool MPL - Memory Production Logging DEFT - Digital Entry Flowmeter Tool SAFE - Slapper Activated Firing Equipment (b) Excell-2000# System M/S Halliburton's state of art integrated logging platform that consistently delivers accurate, high quality data and provides powerful post processing workstation capabilities. The system enables greatly improved wellsite performance and provides a standard platform from which new logging tools and software currently in development can be more efficiently operated. Following are few logging services being coducted by the system: HRI - High Resolution Induction Log HFDL - High Frequency Dielectric Log FMRL - Focused Micro Resistivity Log FWS - Full Wave Sonic Log LFDS - Low Frequency Dipole Sonic CAST - Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool SGR - Spectral Gamma Ray MRIL - Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log ENL - Epithermal Neutron Log VSP - Vertical Seismic Profile SED - Six Arm Dipmeter PSC - Percussion Sidewall Cores MWFT - Multisample Wireline Formation Tester PLS - Production Logging Services 2.3 Measurements While Drilling Logging While Drilling (LWD) implies the acquisition of high quality petrophysical log data by sensors located drill collars as an integral part of the drillers Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA). It is an extension of Measurement While Drilling (MWD) technology, whose primary purpose is directional control and drilling mechanics. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------# Mark of Halliburton

The evolution of LWD has been brought about by two major technical developments - Downhole recording memory continuously powered by battery. Advanced Formation Evaluation Sensors. The main tools are :(i) Compensated Dual Resistivity (CDR) Compensated Dual Resistivity High frequency, as Induction (oil base muds) Resolution better than 18 inches Spectroscopic gamma ray Real time transmission Downhole recorder (ii) Compensated Density Neutron (CDN) Retrievable radioactive sources Compensated thermal neutron porosity Compensated capture gamma porosity Compensated litho density Real time transmission Downhole recorder 2.4 Logging Services in ONGC Logging services in ONGC, were introduced in the year 1937 with the help of Russian technology. With these units it was possible to record only a few basic logs which were just sufficient for qualitative evaluation of very simple type of reservoirs. With the discovery of the Oil by ONGC, there was a need for quantitative determination of reservoir parameters for reliable reserve estimation. To overcome the defficiencies in the Russian system, in achieving this objective, logging services of M/S Schlumberger on contract basis were utilised both in the Western region and the Eastern region. This was necessiated as at that time logging equipments were not available on sale from the Western sources and in 1975, two openhole analog logging units from these sources were procured for the first time. These units replaced the Schlumberger units working on contract in the Eastern and Western Region. In the later half of 1970s the well logging technology had undergone a revolutionary change which has a number of advantages. Further the exploratory activities of ONGC were extended to more and more complex areas which required sophisticated logs for formation evaluation. Considering these facts, in 1982, 3 openhole logging units based on digital technology were procured from Western sources. More such units were procured in 1983, 1887 and 1998 and the number of such units at present is 17. (KDMIPE UPDATE, April June 1998). Well logging services are still being provided through contractual services in areas: Where down hole conditions are still hazardous and for which equipment is not available on sale, such as West Bengal.

 At isolated rig projects, where departmental services are costlier then contractual services. Where most modern logging services are required.

BASIC CONCEPTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Wells are logged for the following reasons : Where we are we (correlation tool)? Is there any oil or gas (Sw)? How much hydrocarbons is there (Porosity)? Can the formation flow (Permeability)? Will the formation flow (Pressure)? Well logging is probably the single most important operation in the oil business. Considerable effort and expenses go into the acquisition of formation parameters by wireline logging, which have become essential in completion design, seismic interpretation, reservoir modelling in working out economics and in planning the future exploration. The precision with which the data are obtained is of paramount importance. The objective of obtaining the high quality log data should therefore be a part of all decisions. Wireline measurements are heavily dependent on condition pervailing in the borehole at the time of logging operations.

2. EFFECTS OF HOLE CONDITIONS ON LOGS

Hole conditions play important role on log quality. They fall under two categories: Mud effects Before hole geometry effects. (i) Mud effects Mud cake Mud cake is detrimental to all padded tools viz. Rxo, Density, Dipmeter. This prevents direct contact with the formation. If the mud cake thickness is large, RMSFM will read too low. Though it can be corrected, the correction becomes too large and so the precision of measurement suffers. Invasion effect Shallow invasion facilitates the measurements of Rt but the measurement of Rxo becomes imprecise. This in turn makes the hydrocarbon effect correction to Neutron and Density log erroneous. In such a situation high hydrocarbon saturation would be indicated.

Stress and chemical unbalance Many formations especially shaly ones, have their physical properties changed by contact with the mud. Another effect of this phenomenon is swelling or shrinkage of shaly formations, giving rise to caved and/or rugose bore hole. (ii) Bore hole geometry effects There is always a deviation in bore hole geometry from a perfect/cylinder. This may be due to mud chemistry, mechanical effects due to drill string or due to circulation. Bore hole geometry can be classified under four categories. Caving Rugosity Microrugosity Threading (i) Caving Against large caving mud signal is predominant and the correction becomes imprecise. (ii) Rugosity Rapid variations of hole diameter, even when maximum caving is only a few inches over bit size, do not permit a simple bore hole correction on many logs. They give a variable stand off or contact for Neutron, Induction and other padded tools. This causes uneven moments of the tools up the well. They cause difficult depth matching problems and spurious dips on the dipmeter. In the case of nuclear tools there is complete loss of information at those sections where the tools move too fast. (iii) Microrugosity Small irregularities in the bore hole less than over an interval of few inches to 2 ft. affects the Rxo measurements and the density measurements tremendously. This is due to the mud between the pad and the bore hole. (iv) Threading This phenomenon, having a spinal groove in the bore hole wall with a pitch of between 5 and 20 ft., can give rise to perturbations on many logs. This is due to poor pad contact, different stand off and slipping of the tool. Dipmeter will show spurious dips. Generally speaking bore hole geometry anomalies are difficult to handle and it is difficult to conceive logging tools which would be immune to them. However, the skill and the experience of log analyst will generally find his way around the problem.

3. EFFECT OF DRILLING PARAMETERS ON HOLE CONDITIONS

Hole condition is dependent on: Mud parameters Mechanical parameters (i) Mud parameters A thin cake is desirable for precision in logging measurement. Large mud cake correction and loss of precision due to extreme invasion effects will be avoided. Chemical balance of the mud system (PH, Salinity etc.) is an important factor in reducing the phenomenon of formation alteration. High viscosity mud helps in maintaining the bore hole wall in good shape but it lowers the drilling rate due to lower horse power available at the bit. Mud weight has varying effect : High mud wt. minimizes caving but it causes deep invasion and increases the tool sticking hazard. (ii) Mechanical parameters Higher annular velocity will cause erosion to the borehole. It is a function of viscosity, pump stroke, drill-collar size etc. Poorly stabilized bottom hole drilling assembly causes dog legs, crooked hole, key seats and evaluation. High rotary speed cause to the bore hole wall but it increases the drilling speed. Higher bit weight may cause crooked hole but it increases the drilling speed.

4. LOGS TO EVALUATE RESERVOIRS

We know that almost all the oil and gas produced today comes from accumulations in the pore spaces of reservoir rocks usually sandstones, limestones and dolomites. Such accumulations in the pore space is known as reservoir. The main purpose of drilling the well is to find and produce the hydrocarbons from these reservoirs. In order to fulfill this objective, following queries are to be answered. Reservoir identification i.e. how deep it is and how thick it is. The amount of hydrocarbons present in unit volume i.e., the product of its porosity and hydrocarbon saturation. Then our next aim is to find porosity and hydrocarbon saturation. The volume of formation containing hydrocarbons is needed in order to estimate the total reserves and to determine the commercial viability. Therefore, knowledge of the thickness and area of reservoir is needed for computation of its volume. Productivity of reservoir depends upon permeability of reservoir which determines how easily the fluid can flow through reservoir. The main petrophysical parameters needed to evaluate a reservoir, then, are its

POROSITY, HYDROCARBON SATURATION, THICKNESS, AREA AND PERMEABILITY. Formation temperature, pressure and lithology also can play important role and their knowledge is necessary. Fortunately, the answers to most of the reservoirs can be derived from various logs. (a) Reservoir identification : Reservoir may be identified by SP Gamma Ray Evidence of mud cake on caliper Evidence of invasions (Separation of Resistivity curves) Existence of Porosity (b) Bed-thickness : The following logs can be used for identifying the bed boundaries and therefore bed thickness SP Gamma Ray Resistivity logs (c) Porosity determination : Porosity is the pore volume per unit volume of reservoir and can be determined with the help of following logs Acoustic Log Density Log Neutron Log (d) Saturation determination : The saturation of a formation is the fraction of its pore volume occupied by the fluid considered. The pores contain water and may contain some hydrocarbon (Both oil and gas). Sum of all the saturations will be 100%. Therefore evaluation through logs aims at computation of water saturation Sw of reservoir using different models which eventually provide data about hydrocarbon saturation (1-Sw). In addition to these parameters, inferences about several other geological parameters like grain size, bedding plane features, post depositional deformations like fractures, faults etc. can be drawn from well logs. (e) Estimation of hydrocarbons : The amount of oil or gas contained in a unit volume of reservoir is the product of its porosity and hydrocarbon saturation. For oil, the number of barrels in place is, N = 7758 *phi* ( 1 - Sw )* h * A where N = Initial oil in place

phi = Effective porosity Sw = Initial water saturation h = Productive interval thickness A = Drainage area To obtain stock tank barrels at the surface, this number is divided by the formation volume factor, Bo > 1.0, which takes into account the shrinkage of oil volume, mainly by gas evolution, as it comes to surface. For gas, the number of cubic feet in place is G = 43560 *phi* ( 1 - Sw )* h * A To convert it to the standard cubic feet at 14.7 psi and 60 degree F, this umber is multiplied by 520 * Pr /14.7 * Z *(460 + Tr ) Where Pr = Reservoir pressure Z = Gas deviation factor Tr = Formation temperature To obtain recoverable hydrocarbon volume, these numbers are again multiplied by recovery efficiency factor, Er < 1.0.

5. FORMATION EVALUTION (CLEAN FORMATION)

Only a few petrophysical parameters can be measured directly and majority of them are either derived or inferred through the measurement of other physical properties of the formation. A large number of parameters measured through wireline logs are resistivity, bulk density, transit time, spontaneous potential, hydrogen index and radioactive properties. Log interpretation is the process by which these measurable parameters are translated into desired parameters such as porosity, hydrocarbon saturation, permeability etc. This translation is complicated by the drilling process itself, which results into invasion process thereby disturbing the reservoir conditions immediately in the vicinity of well bore. The extent or depth of the flushed or invaded zone depends on the filtration characteristics of mud, formation porosity, permeability, differential pressure and time since the formation was first drilled. The basic assumption in log interpretation is that formation matrix is nonconducting, the only conductor is being the formation water in the pore space. The conductivity of rocks therefore is electrolytic in nature i.e. it is produced by the movement of ions in the formation water. Following are the main factors which influence the rock resistivity. (a) Formation water resistivity (Rw) Formation water resistivity depends upon: Salinity; greater the salinity more ion available for conduction and therefore more conductivity . Higher temperature results in more dissociation of NaCl, so more conductivity. Therefore, RT = F * Rw

Knowledge of formation water resistivity is very important in formation evaluation and Rw be computed by following methods: By direct measurement on formation on formation water produced during testing . By measurement of dissociated ions in the formation water produced during testing . From SP log From ratio method. Resistivity-Porosity cross plots techniques. Rwa method. (b) Infuence of rock structure on rock resistivity Resistivity Rt of rock varies not only with formation water resistivity Rw but it also depends upon the way pores are interconnected even if the pore space remains the same. For a clean water bearing formation the resistivity is directly proportional to resistivity of brine with which it is fully saturated and the constant of proportionality is called Formation factor, F = Ro / Rw It is important to note that formation factor F is not only the function of porosity but it also depends upon tortuosity of the rock i.e. the manner in which pores are interconnected. For a given porosity and tortuosity, the ratio Ro/Rw remains nearly constant for all values of Rw below 1 ohm-m. For more resistive waters, the value of F may decrease as Rw increases. This phenomenon is attributed to a greater proportionate influence of surface conductance of the rock matrix. This effect will be discussed in detail later on. Archie in 1942 was the first who gave the relation between Formation factor F and porosity. F = a/Phi ** m Where m is known as cementation factor which varies between 1.3 to 2.8. For Limestones and Dolomites, F=1/Phi**2 For Sandstones, F= 0.62/Phi**2.15 or 0.81/Phi**2 Main reasons for observed variation in cementation factor m are: Degree of cementation Type of core system intergrainular, vuggy etc. Tortuosity of pore system Shape, sorting and packing of particles system Compaction due to over burden pressures Formation factor F is also affected by change in Temperature and pressure in deeper wells. (c) Influence of hydrocarbons on rock resistivity We have seen that in clean water bearing formations F = Ro / Rw or Ro = F*Rw

When oil or gas replaces the water in rock pores, the resistivity of rock increases. Since most rocks are water wet, the continuous coating of water on the rock surface will provide a conductive path even when large amounts of oil and gas are present. We define: I = Resistivity Index Resistivity of Rock containing oil or gas = ------------------------------------------------------------Resistivity of some rock containing water only = Rt / Ro Experimetal work by Archie in 1942 indicated that 'I' is related to water saturation as: I = Rt / Ro = Sw-n Log I = -n log Sw where n is the saturation exponent. Sw-n = Rt / Ro = Rt / F.Rw Swn = FRw / Rt = aRw / Rt. Phi**m So, Swn =a.Rw / Rt. Phi**m This is called Archie's relationship. Magnitude of saturation Exponent n depends on: Wettability of rock surface Rock texture Presence of clay Measurement technique Nature of displacing liquid However, the rock wettability has the greatest influence on the value of n and this value can be determined by number of ways. For flushed zone, Sxon = a.Rmf / Rxo. Phi**m

(d) Effect of clay on rock resistivity Presence of clay reduces the formation resistivity and this will be dealt in detail under the heading 'shaly sands'.