Tenses To Paragraphs

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR
TENSES TO PARAGRAPHS
UNIT
ONE
TENSES
Lesson I. Simple Present Tense
DEFINITION: Simple Present Tense is used to describe an action that actually takes place at the present time. FORMULA: Subject + Verb (Present) + Object ...
1. USES OF SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

A. Simple Present Tense is used to describe an action which happens at present time or at the moment of speaking.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. I want a cup of coffee with, milk, please. She looks happy today. The Prime Minister waves at the crowd. My father does not work this morning. They speak very laugh in the meeting room.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe a habit but the beginning and ending are unknown or unimportant.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I get up every morning at 6 Oclock. He speaks English very well. My daughter works for International Consultant Office Company. My watch keeps good time. Our children sing the song very sweetly.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe a repeated action. It is often used with adverbs of Frequency or Time.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. My daughter, Neary Roth, goes to school everyday. She goes to pagoda twice a year. I often hear my neighbors arguing. You always borrow your brothers money.
COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(1)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!
D.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe the general truth or facts.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. E. The sun rises in the East and sets in the West. Honey is sweet. Fortune favors the brave. Water boils at 100 Degree Celsius (100 C). Children need loves.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe Timetable.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My office starts working at 7:15 am and closes at 5:30 pm. The train starts at 7:45 am every morning. The English class starts at 6:30 pm. The plan lands at 2:10 pm in the afternoon. The football match between Brazil and Germany begins at 13:55 pm and lasts 2 hours.
F.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe in Exclamatory Sentence. Mostly beginning with here and there to show what is actually taking place in the present time.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. G. How comes the bus! How nice you are today! Here she is now! There goes your husband! There goes our bus! We will have to wait for the next one.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe instruction, especially to give directions and instructions.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. H. Go straight on the traffic lights, then turn left and turn right. Could you tell me how to get to the National Museum? How do I get to the Post Office? Turn at the corner and go straight about two blocs. Please go to this way to the Consultant Room.
Simple Present Tense is used to describe or say special verbs as to swear, to agree, to deny, to promise, to understand... in Present Time because these verbs have never been used in Continuous
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I promise never to smoke again. I swear that I will tell the truth. I agree with your proposed plan. He suggests we should go now. They understand that she will get married.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The Passive of an Active Simple Present Tense is formed by putting the verb To Be into the same tense as the active verb and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. Active Voices in Present Simple My wife grows the trees. The cat catches the mouse. I receive a letter from my girlfriend everyday. My daughter always takes her brother to school. Passive Voices in Present Simple The trees are grown by her. The mouse is caught by the cat. A letter is received from my girlfriend everyday. Her brother is always taken to school by her. Subject + Be (is, am, are) + P.P + By + Agent...
Lesson II. Present Continuous (Progressive Tense)4

DEFINITION: Present Continuous Tense is used to express an action that is happening at the time of speaking. FORMULA: Subject + To Be + Verb (Present) + ing + Object...
1. USES OF PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE4

A. Present Progressive Tense is used to describe an action that is going on at the moment of speaking and not yet complete. To stress this, they like to use Adverbs such as: now, just, at the moment, still, in this time...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. I am teaching English now. Children are watching television at the neighbors house. She is still working at a private company. We are talking about the business. A clerk is typing the computer in this time.
Present Progressive Tense is used to describe an action that will take place in the near future time. It is mostly used with Adverbs of time such as: tomorrow, next week, this month, next month, next year, next two weeks, next day, next three months...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. She is cooking food for the party tonight. I am leaving for Canada tomorrow. Due to the severe flood, most people are starving on a diet. You are going to cry if you meet such miserable life like her. Who are you speaking to in the next seminar?
Present Progressive Tense is used to describe a change, even if there are very long lasting.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Those children are getting bigger and bigger from day to day. The diet food price is being higher. The inflation is worsening the economic problem. The village is changing but it is still undisturbed. The economy is rapidly increasing since the Royal Government has carried out the free market.
D.
Present Progressive Tense is used to describe the physical feelings.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. How are you feeling today? My hand is hurting. My head is not aching. Many poor people are suffering from starvation. I am keeping on well after resting an hour.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE5

The Passive of an Active Present Progressive tense is formed by putting the verb To Be and Being and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by BY and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. Active Voices in Present Progressive We are drinking wine too much. You are deceiving her to have another one. She is leaving her job temporarily because of her health reason. Are you finding a way of resolving any problem? Passive Voices in Present Progressive The wine is being drunk so much by us. She is being deceiving to have another one. Her job is being left temporarily because of her health reason. Is a way of resolving any problem being found by you? Subject + Be (is, am, are) + Being + P.P + By + Agent...
Lesson III. Present Perfect (Participle) Tense6

DEFINITION: Present Perfect Tense is used to express an action that occurred before Present Time and denote an action that has just been complete. FORMULA: Subject + Have/Has + Verb (P.P) + Object...
1. USES OF PRESENT PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) TENSE6

A. Present Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that began in the past and continued up to now by using the words such as: since, for, never, before, ever... Sometimes it may be continued into the future time.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. I have been in Phnom Penh since 1980. She has worked for English Japanese Khmer Training School. It is the most interesting book I have never read before. Have you ever visited Angkor Wat Temple? My son, Svay Vanna, has bought a new car.
Present Perfect Tense is used to describe an action in fresh condition by using Adverbs such as: lately, recently, freshly, just, already...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. I have just finished my homework. He has not received my reply from you yet. Have you passed your 12 grade examination yet? Mr. Kimhong has recently completed his book, Tenses to Paragraphs Book.
C.
Present Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that connects with current events. The action in the past, but has a result now.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. D. I dont know because I have lost it. He used to tell me his name but I have forgotten. She has just gone out. I cannot find my wallet. Have you seen it?
Present Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that used with Adverbs of time such as: it is the first time/second time, that is the first time/second time...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It is the first time I have arrived in the Kingdom of Cambodia. It is the second time she has driven a car. This is the third time Dara has lost his ID Card. It is the first good meal they have had forages. That is the fifth time he has phoned his girlfriend.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PRESENT PARTICIPLE TENSE7

The Passive of an Active Present Participle Tense is formed by putting the verb have/has and been and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Active Voices in Present Perfect Two robbers have killed a motorbike owner. Have you ever spoken English with the foreigners? She has seen her friends in Park Way Club. We have just heard the news about a coup. I have just mailed your letter. Passive Voices in Present Perfect A motorbike owner has been killed by two robbers. Has English ever been spoken with foreigners by you? Her friends have been seen by her in Park Way Club. The news has been heard by us about a coup. Your letter has been just mailed by me. Subject + Have/Has + Been + P.P + By Agent...
Lesson IV. Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense8

DEFINITION: Present Perfect Progressive Tense is used to express an action that happened in the past until now and it may continue to the future time. FORMULA: Subject + Have/Has + Been + Verb + ing + Object...
USES OF PRESENT PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) TENSE8

A. Present Perfect Progressive Tense is used to describe an action that happened in the past, prolonged until now, and it is connected to each other without stopping. This may stop right after the moment of speaking.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. I have been expecting this matter to happen again. They have been playing card since 9 Oclock. She has been waiting for you about 30 minutes. I have been living in Phnom Penh for over 10 years. We have just been talking bout you.
Present Perfect Progressive Tense is used to describe an action that happened in the past, prolonged until and continuing now and may prolonged into the future time
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. How long have you been learning English? He has been thinking of changing his job for several times. The victims who wounded by accident have been fainting for 10 hours. I have been waiting for my girlfriend for 2 hours, but she still has not come yet. It has been snowing for a long time.
Lesson V. Simple Past Tense9

DEFINITION: Simple Past Tense is used to express an action that happened in the past with definite time. FORMULA: Subject + Verb (Past Tense) + Object + Adverb of Time
1. USES OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE9

A. Simple Past Tense is used to describe an action that began and ended at a very clear time in the past. It is always used with adverbs of time such as: yesterday, this morning, a day before yesterday, last week, a month ago, a year ago...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. He served in the army for one year ago. It was terribly hot the day before yesterday. I went to visit my mother-in-law last week. They started learning Chinese last month. We met that beggar once at Phsar Thom Thmei.
Simple Past Tense is used to describe the repeated actions in the past such as: used to, would or should. It means that they show the past habits.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I used to fight each other on the street when I was a child. My brother used to have a motorbike, but he sold it. They never used to eat so much. Mov Dara used to wake up very early. We used to live in the countryside.
Simple Past Tense is used to reporting speech what somebody said. The verbs in this statement consists of said, told, asked, commanded, ordered, inquired...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. He told me that he has known clearly about Poo Pots history. The police ordered a suspect to bring the competent authorities to catch his fellow. Mov Dara said that he saw a strange man walking across the garden. They ask him that when would they be released. She asked me to assist her in case of misunderstanding.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN SIMPLE PAST TENSE10

The Passive of an Active Simple Past Tense is formed by putting the verb To Be in the Past Tense (was, were) and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Active Voices in Simple Past We booked a ticket to Australian last week. His father did not hit his mother yesterday. I did not eat lunch and dinner after playing card a whole day. My sister took these photos. They carried the umbrellas. Passive Voices in Simple Past A ticket was booked to Australia by me last week. His mother wasnt hit by his father yesterday. Lunch and dinner werent eaten by my after playing card a whole day. These Photos were taken by my sister. The umbrellas were carried by them. Subject + Were/Was + P.P + By + Agent...
Lesson VI. Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense11

DEFINITION: Past Continuous Tense is used to express an action that was in progressive (going on) in the past time. FORMULA: Subject + to be (was/were) + Verb + ing + Object...
1. USES OF PAST CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE11

A. Past Progressive Tense is used to describe a temporary action which was in progressive in the past.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. This time last year I was walking together with my sweetheart along the riverside. She was feeling much better. Mr. Dy was writing a novel last time that I was him. It was raining hard at 7 Oclock this morning. Rath and Rith were working in the lab last night.
Past Progressive Tense is used to express two past in progressive events that were happening at some times, by using when, while, as, at the time of, at that time...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. Just as I was leaving the house, the phone rang. The sun was shining when I got up this morning. The good idea came to me while I was riding to work. As Sina and Samphors walked down the street, they were singing. A suspect was shooting the President at the front door at that time.
When the Past Progressive Tense is used with were or was going to, it means have or has intended to.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I was going to call Choranay, but I fell asleep. He was going to go to the party, but he got sick. They were going to marry, but her mother disapproved. We were going to open a Consultant Office, but we are lack of money. I was going to have two or three wives, but I am poor.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE12

The Passive of an Active Past Progressive Tense is formed by putting the verb To Be in the Past Tense (was, were), then being and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. Active Voices in Past Progressive They were remembering the old times. She was indulging herself with sinking into his trap. He was loathing anyone who turns a deaf ear to his instruction. We were loving our vacation. You were turning a blind eye to this matter. Passive Voices in Past Progressive The old times were being remembered by them. Herself was being indulged with sinking into his trap. Anyone who turns a deaf ear to his instruction was being loathed by him. Our vacation was being loved by us. A blind eye was being turned to this matter by you Subject + Were/Was + being + P.P + By + Agent...
4. 5.
Lesson VII. Past Perfect (Participle) Tense13

DEFINITION: Past Perfect Tense is used to express an action that happened in the past before another action in the past occurred without definite time. FORMULA: Subject + Had + Verb (P.P) + Object...
1. USES OF PAST PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) TENSE13

A. Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that was completed before another action in the past.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. My parents had already eaten lunch when I got home. After the guests had left, I went to bed. I realize that we had met her before. Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened. The patient had died as the doctors arrived.
Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that happened in the past time with indefinite time.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I had not spent so much money to but clothes. The meeting of Board of Director had begun after his coming here. A burglar had broken into the house. You had obeyed the orders to carry out this work. She had known him.
Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that showed an earlier past by using the adverbs of time such as: already, as soon as, before, not yet, scarily, finally, hardly...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. He had hardly begun his speech during the interview. They had never seen this article before. We cleared up as soon as our guests had left. Voleak failed the exam because he hadnt studied. I had already had time to catch the bus.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PAST PERFECT TENSE14

The Passive of an Active Past Perfect Tense is formed by putting the verb had, then been and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Active Voices in Past Perfect She had asked somebody for advice. We had found him earlier. Mr. Boty had analyzed the marketing plan. He had finished that work by himself. My wife had forgotten to lock the door. Passive Voices in Past Perfect Somebody had been asked by her for advice. He had been found earlier by us. The marketing plan had been analyzed by Mr. Boty. That work had been finished by himself. The door had been forgotten to lock by my wife. Subject + Had + Been + P.P + By + Agent...
Lesson VIII. Past Perfect Continuous Tense15

DEFINITION: Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to express an action that happened in the past time without definite time and the action was going on. FORMULA: Subject + Had + Been + Verb + ing + Object...
USES OF PAST PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) CONTINUOUS TENSE15

A. Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to describe an action that occurred in the past before another, but this Progressive form emphasizes the continuous nature of the activity before another action in the past.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. They had been corresponding regularly for many years before his death. At that time I had been writing three English books. The Cambodian English Teacher, Mr. Nora, had been teaching English for 8 years. When I found a widow, she had been crying for several time. When Sokchan got home, her hair was still wet because she had been swimming.
B.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to describe an action a repeated action in the Past Perfect tense can sometimes be expressed as a continuous action by the Past Perfect Continuous.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. He had been trying to get her on the phone. She had been cooking all evening when I went to visit her house. I knew that Mr. Phanith had been waiting for his girlfriend for two months. In the rainy reason, it had been raining hard.
Lesson IX. Simple Future Tense16

DEFINITION: Simple Future Tense is used to express an action that will happen in the future time. FORMULA: Subject + Will/Shall (Be Going To)+ Verb + Object...
1. USES OF SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE SHALL OR WILL16

A. Shall or Will is used to show a prediction or intention that will occur in the future with Adverbs of time such as: tomorrow, next week, next month, next year...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. My assistant will assist you to post this letter. I shall fly to California for Universal New year next month. We promise that we shall be there in time. Who will be at the meeting tomorrow? They will let me know the exact schedule to the Kingdom of Cambodia.
Shall or Will is used to show the future time with some Adverbs such as: probably, perhaps, possibly, maybe, supposedly, surely...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It will probably be cool this afternoon. She doubts that the house will have a ghost. Perhaps we shall find him at any hotel in Phnom Penh. I am afraid that I shall not come to meet her again. I think that she will leave her husband for a new life in the United States of America.
C.
Shall or Will is used to express a polite request or giving an offer, invitation, promise, or willingness.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. I shall not do the best I can do to help you. Will you tell me what your name is? You will open the window for me, please. Will she be so kind to move aside, please? How soon will they know their exam dates. I will do it.
2. USES OF SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE BE GOING TO17

A. Be Going To is used to express a prior plan. It mean you decided already in the past time. It also means that you will exactly do that because it is decided and your intention is to do it by all means.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. I am going to keep asking her out until she says YES. What are you going to wear to attend the party next weekend? When is he going to get his hair cut? We are going to meet a book writer at the library at 10:30 am. A lady is going to see a doctor for blood examination.
Be Going To is used to show that the future action or event is on the way or starting to happen base on present evidence.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I am going to sleep with her soon. Mrs. Kunthea is going to have another baby in April. It is going to rain today. I am going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. He is going to buy a car.
Present Progressive can also be used as the future action when they have already planned to do something or intended to do. It always in the near future and in a definite arrangement.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. After lunch I am meeting with my friend in the sitting room. Are you coming to take part in a seminar next week? He is sleeping with another girl on the beach. They are leaving for Thailand as soon as possible. What are we having for dinner at this evening?
3. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE17

The Passive of an Active Simple Future Tense is formed by putting the verb will or shall (be going to), then be and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: Subject + Will or Shall (Be going to) + Be + P.P + By + Agent...
EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Active Voices in Simple Future I shall open the door. They will see him at his house. We are going to smoke cigar at the party. She is going to change her job. Cambodians will destroy all Communist styles. Passive Voices in Simple Future The door will be opened by me. He will be seen by them at his house. Cigar is going to be smoked by us at the party. Her job is going to be changed by herself. All Communist styles will be destroyed by the Cambodians.
Lesson X. Future Progressive Tense19

DEFINITION: Future Progressive Tense is used to express an action that is happening in the future time. FORMULA: Subject + Will/Shall (Be Going To) + Be + Verb + ing + Object...
1. USES OF FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE19

A. Future Continuous Tense is used to describe an action that is in progress in the future. We can use the Future Continuous Tense to say that something will be in progress at a particular moment in the future.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. This time tomorrow I shall be lying on the beach. You will be hearing from my aids about the news concerning the assassination. They will be still cooking the meal in that restaurant. I expect that I will be seeing you once of these days. When We arrive home, our children will be playing with the dog.
Future Continuous Tense is used with To Be Going To to show something has already planned or arranged.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I am going to be working a whole day tomorrow. My children are going to be studying at the library of their university. Are you going to be staying at the guesthouse? She is going to be catching this story again this time. They are going to be listening to a tape after finishing their work.
Future Continuous Tense is also used for the future events that are planned or arranged already.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. He will be meeting us next week. I will be helping my fellows at their houses at the weekend. They will be visiting my daughter and son. We shall be taking our exams next month. I shall be working at house tomorrow.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE20

The Passive of an Active Future Continuous Tense is formed by putting the verb will or shall (be going to), then being and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA:Subject + Will or Shall (Be going to) + Being + P.P + By + Agent... EXAMPLES: N 1. Active Voices in Future Continuous Tense They will be reading the foreign news for their test this time tomorrow. I shall be meeting my siblings next holiday. She is going to be watching a film. You are going to be stopping eating food in the working time. We will be knowing everything tonight. Passive Voices in Future Continuous Tense The foreign news will being used by them for their test this time tomorrow. My siblings will being met by me next holiday. A film is going to being watched by her. Food is going to being stopped eating by you in the working time. Everything will being known by us tonight.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Lesson XI. Future Perfect Tense21

DEFINITION: Future Perfect Tense is used to express an action that will happen in future time before another action will happen. FORMULA: Subject + Will/Shall (Be Going To) + Have + P.P + Object...
1. USES OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE21

Future Perfect Tense is used to indicate the completing of an action by a certain future time. It is also used for an action that will just finished and to show an action that will be completed before another time or event in the future. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I shall have written my books by that time. The builders say they will have finished the roof by Thursday. I save $50 in a month and I started in December 2009, so that by the end of the year 2010, I shall have saved $600. By the end of next month, she will have been here for 8 years. Before going to see him, he is going to have left the place.
2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN FUTURE PERFECT TENSE21

The Passive of an Active Future Perfect Tense is formed by putting the verb will or shall (be going to), then have been and adding the verb in Past Participle of the active verb. The Subject of the active verb becomes the Agent of the passive verb. The Agent is very often not mentioned. But when it is mentioned, it is preceded by By and placed at the end of the clause. FORMULA: Subject + Will or Shall (Be going to) + Have Been + P.P + By + Agent... EXAMPLES: N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Active Voices in Future Perfect Phanith will have completed his exams by then. You will have changed you mind tomorrow. We shall have finished our affairs in five minutes later. I shall have built a garage. You and you brothers will have took care of your mom Passive Voices in Future Perfect His exams will have been completed by Phanith by then. You mind will have been changed tomorrow by you. Our affairs will have been finished in five minutes later by us. A garage will have been built by me. You mom will have been took care of by you and you brothers.
Lesson XII. Future Perfect Continuous Tense22

DEFINITION: Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used to express an activity that will be completed before another time or event in the future. FORMULA:Subject + Will/Shall (Be Going To) + Have Been + V ing + Object..
USES OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE23

Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used to express an activity that will be completed before another time or event in the future. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. I will graduate in June. I will see you in July. By the time I see you, I will have graduated. I will have finished my homework by the time I go out on a date tonight.
UNIT
TWO
THEPASSIVE
1. FORMING THE PASSIVE23
EXAMPLES:
subject verb object
Active Passive
: :
(a) (b)
Mary helped
subject
the
verb
boy. by Mary.
The boy was helped
In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: the boy in (a) becomes the subject of the passive verb in (b). Notice that the subject of an active verb follows by in a passive sentence. The noun that follows by is called the agent. In (b): Marry is the agent. (a) and (b) have the same meaning. EXAMPLES: Active Passive : : (c) (d) An accident happened. (none)
Only transitive verbs (verbs that can be followed by an object) are used in the passive. It is not possible to use intransitive verbs (such as happen, sleep, come, seem) in the passive.
2. FORM OF THE PASSIVE23

FORMULA: EXAMPLES: Active
simple present present progressive present perfect simple past past progressive past perfect simple future be going to future perfect Mary Mary Mary Mary Mary Mary Mary Mary Mary helps is helping has helped helped was helping had helped will help is going to help will have help the boy. the boy. the boy. the boy. the boy. the boy. the boy. the boy. the boy. The boy The boy The boy The boy The boy The boy The boy The boy The boy is is being has been was was being had been will be is going to be will have been
Be + Past Participle
Passive
helped helped helped helped helped helped helped helped helped by Mary. by Mary. by Mary. by Mary. by Mary. by Mary. by Mary. by Mary. by Mary.
3. USING THE PASSIVE24

EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) : : : Rice is grown in India. Our house was built in 1980. This oil was imported from Cambodia.
Usually the passive is used without a by-phrase. The passive is most frequently used when it is not known or not important to know exactly who performs an action. In (a): Rice is grown in India by people, by farmers, by someone. It is not known or important to know exactly who grows rice in India. (a), (b), and (c) illustrate the most common use of the passive... without the byphrase. EXAMPLE: (d) : Life on the Mississippi was written by Mark Twain.
The by-phrase is included only if it is important to know who performs an action, as in (d), where by mark Twain is important information. EXAMPLE: (e) : My aunt made this rug. (active)
If the speaker knows who performs an action, usually the active is used, as in (e). EXAMPLE: (f) : This rug was made by my aunt. That rug was made by my mother.
Sometimes, even when the speaker knows who performs an action, s/he choose to use the passive with the by-phrase because s/he wants to focus attention on the subject of a sentence. In (f): The focus of attention is on two rugs.
4. INDIRECT OBJECTS AS PASSIVE SUBJECTS24

EXAMPLES:
I.O. D.O.
(a) (b)
: :
Someone gave Mrs. Lee an award. Mrs. Lee was given an award.
Either an indirect object or a direct object may become the subject of a passive sentence. (a), (b), (c), and (d) have the same meaning.
EXAMPLES:
D.O. I.O.
(c) (d)
: :
Someone gave an award to Mrs. Lee. An award was given to Mrs. Lee.
Notice in (d): When the direct object become the subject, to is usually kept in from of the indirect object. Note: The omission of to is more common in British English than American English: An award was given Mrs. Lee.
5. STATIVE PASSIVE25
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) : : : The door is old. The door is green. The door is locked.
In (a) and (b): old and green are adjectives. They describe the door. In (c): locked is a past participle. It is used as and adjective. It describes the door. (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) : : : : : : I locked the door five minutes ago. The door was locked by me five minutes ago. Now the door is locked. Ann broke the window yesterday. The window was broken by Ann. Now the window is broken.
When the passive form is used to describe an existing situation or state, as in (c), (f), and (i), it is called the stative passive. In the stative passive: EXAMPLES: (j) (k) (l) : : : I dons know where I am. I am lost. I cant find my key. It is gone. I am done with my work no action is taking place; the action happened earlier. there is no by-phrase. the past participle functions as an adjective.
(j) through (l) are examples of idiomatic usage of the passive form in common, everyday English. These sentences have equivalent active sentences.
6. THE PASSIVE WITH GET26

FORMULA - 1: EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) : : : I am getting hungry. Lets eat soon. You shouldnt eat so much. You will get fat. I stopped working because I got sleepy. Get + Adjective
Get may be followed by certain adjectives. Get gives the idea of change the idea of becoming, beginning to be, growing to be. In (a): I am getting hungry = I was not hungry before, but now I am beginning to be hungry. FORMULA - 2: EXAMPLES: (d) (e) (f) : : : I stopped working because I got tired. They are getting married next month. I got worried because he was two hours late. Get + Past Participle
Get may also be followed by a past participle. The past participle functions as an adjective; it describes the subject. The passive with get is common in spoken English, but is often not appropriate in normal writing.
7. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE26
EXAMPLES: : : : : The problem confuses the students. It is a confusing problem. The students are confused by the problem. They are confused students.
(a) (b)
The present participle serves as an adjective with an active meaning. The noun it modifies performs an action. In (a): The noun problem does something; it confuses. Thus, it is described as a confusing problem.
UNIT
THREE
THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Lesson I. Nouns
DEFINITION: Noun is used to modify or put the names of person, place, animal or thing. Noun may be singular (it names one person, thing, animal or place) or many be plural (more than one). It is divided into four kinds such as: Common Noun, Proper Noun, Collective Noun and Abstract Noun.
1. KINDS OF NOUN 1.1. Common Noun

Noun that is used not for individual, animal, place or thing, especially in general term is called Common Noun. They are as following: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The table is in the classroom. Our boss gives a staff the book. The meeting will be held on 29th December 1997. Some horses eat grass in the field. A shark is a dangerous fish. table newspaper boy car man pig watch calendar monk
1.2.
Proper Noun
Proper Noun is a word that named a specific person, animal, place or thing and begun with a Capital Letter. They are following: Cambodia Wat Phnom Pochentong English December Khmer Siemreap Friday Monivong
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Phnom Penh is the capital of Cambodia. Mr. Sopheak is a writer. EJKTS company was set up in 2004. They will come to visit us in December.
1.3.
Collective Noun
Collective Noun is used to put the names of a group of people, thing or animal considered as a unit and it can be used with a singular and plural. They are following: army group member family crowd commission flock parliament community
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A crowd is gathering in front of the cinema. My family fled to live in United States of America. A committee examines the expense and income statement. May I have a dozen of orange, please. European community will donate $5,000,000.00 for restoration and construction in agriculture field.
1.4.
Abstract Noun
Abstract Noun is usually used to put the names of quality, action, or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs. In short, it cannot be touched. They are following: beauty belief honesty family crowd freedom holiday speech decision
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. We have never doubted her honesty. Most of men love a girl on the account of her beauty. The competent forces extremely try to prevent the robbers. The children enjoyed their freedom during their holiday. People in the world live in peace and happiness.
2. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 2.1. Countable Noun

Countable Noun includes everything that can be counted and it is used with many and few. Some of countable nouns are listed below: generator watch letter eraser book envelop house camera computer girl pen umbrella paper person desk
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Our company requires a receptionist. There are many computers in the conference room. I have few watches on the table. Pass me the pen, please. I hope you wont forget to bring me back the book.
2.2.
Uncountable Noun
Uncountable Noun includes everything that cannot be counted. Some given uncountable nouns are listed as below: Money opinion beer furniture water advice suggestion powder vegetable meat news music salt blood luck
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) : : I bought some chairs, tables, and desks. In other words, I bought some furniture. I put some sugar in my coffee
Many uncountable nouns refer to a whole that is made up of different parts. In (a): furniture represents a whole group of things that is made up of similar but separate items. In (b): sugar and coffee represent whole masses. EXAMPLE: (c) : I wish you luck.
Many uncountable nouns are abstractions. In (c): luck is an abstract concept, an abstract whole. It has no physical form; you cant touch it. You cant count it. EXAMPLE: (d) : Sunshine is warm and cheerful.
A phenomenon of nature, such as sunshine, is frequently used as an uncountable noun, as in (d).
EXAMPLES: (e) (f) : : Ann has brown hair. Tom has a hair on his jacket.
Many nouns can be used as either uncountable or countable nouns, but the meaning is different.
3. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ARTICLE USAGE

EXAMPLE: (a) : : : : The sun is bright today. Please hand this book to the teacher. Please open the door. Omar is in the kitchen
Guideline: Use the when you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and thinking about the same specific thing or person you are talking bout. EXAMPLE: (b) : Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse. The mouse ran into a hole. The hole was very small.
Guideline: Use the for the second mention of an indefinite noun. In (b): first mention = some dogs, a cat, a mouse, a hole; second mention = the dogs, the cat, the mouse, the hole. EXAMPLES: (c) (d) : : : : Apples are my favorite fruit. The apples are my favorite fruit. Gold is a metal. The gold is a metal. - (correct) - (incorrect) - (correct) - (incorrect)
Guideline: Do not use the with a plural countable noun or a uncountable noun when you are making a generalization. EXAMPLES: (e) (f) : : : I drove a car./ I drove that car. I drove the car./ I drove his car. I drove car. - (correct) - (correct) - (incorrect)
Guideline: A singular count noun is always preceded by: an article (a/an or the); OR this/that; OR a possessive pronoun.
4. COMPOUND NOUN
Compound Noun is used to combine two nouns or more together but the first noun functions as an adjective because it modifies the next noun.
4.1.
Noun + Noun
English P.Penh television boy law Khmer business singular + + + + + + + + teacher = city = program = friend = faculty = book = discussion = noun = English teacher Phnom Penh city television program boyfriend law faculty Khmer book business discussion singular noun
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I invite them for business discussion. Most of people like living in Phnom Penh city. Which television program does she prefer? My brother studied at Medicine Faculty. You have to learn by this grammar book.
4.2.
Common Noun / Gerund + Noun

appreciation + manufacturing+ implementing + working + packing + accounting + banking + education + irrigation + letter capacity measure group list statement system field project = = = = = = = = = appreciation letter manufacturing capacity implementing measure working group packing list accounting statement banking system education field irrigation project
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I offer you the registration date of our company. The custom agent inspects the packing list. The working group will arrive in Cambodia soon. Thank you for you sending me the appreciation letter. Dont forget to copy you identification card.
4.3.
Noun, Noun... + and Noun

If there are two nouns using together in a sentence, the conjunction and can appear between them, but if there are more nouns in your sentences, you have to put comma after the first noun or other, then conjunction and.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Many buildings, restaurants, and hotels are built nearly every where in Phnom Penh city. We will receive a packing list and commercial invoice tomorrow. Vireak and I are friend. This conversation book contains daily activities, word studies, and vocabularies.
Some people do not use the comma before the word and that joins the last items in a series. But it is a good idea to use it to avoid mistakes. Here is an example of how dropping the final comma may cause confusion. EXAMPLE: 5. This year my school subjects are the following: math, geography, English literature and history.
Without the comma, the sentence is confusing. Are the last two subjects English literature and English history? Or are they English literature and another kind of history? Is the person taking three or four school subjects? Is English literature and history one subject? Here is the same sentence with the comma added. In this case, the person is studying English literature and some kind of history, and the person is studying four separate subjects: EXAMPLE: 6. This year my school subjects are the following: math, geography, English literature, and history.
5. FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS 5.1. Noun is used as Simple Subject

Simple Subject tells what the sentence is about and it is a noun or pronoun that functions as subject of sentence. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mr. Raksmey wants to visit me today. The view is not as good as we expect. The boy are playing card. Miss Mony Roth looks up the tree. Theara is good student.
5.2.
Noun is used as Subject

Subject of a sentence is who or what is doing something or who or what is being spoken about.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ms. Kunthea remains a bosss secretary. Phnom Penh is the capital of Cambodia. Mr. Bun Theth becomes a construction designer. Mr. Vibol is an English teacher. Pisey feel her friends come here.
5.3.
Noun is used as Direct object

Direct Object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb. It answers the question what or whom after an action verb.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. We chopped the firewood. I saw you yesterday. A bird eats a lot of seed. Mr. Dara killed the victim. My daughter always watches television.
5.4.
Noun is used as Indirect Object

Indirect Object is a noun or pronoun that comes before the direct object in a sentence. It tell to what, to whom, for what or for whom the action of the verb is done.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The waitress makes her guest a cup of tea. My mother wrote the company a letter yesterday. I send the world bank my credit card. All my fellows have bought my daughter the souvenir things at her birthday. Children always bring their parents many matters.
5.5.
Noun is used as Object of Preposition
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. The waitress makes a cup of tea for her guest. My mother wrote a letter to the company. I sent my credit card to the world bank. Children always bring many matter to their parents.
5.6.
Noun is used as Appositive

An Appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed near another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. Sothea and Minear, my sons, are studying for their final examination. We members voted to increase the annual dues to ten Dollars. Three topics, clubs, careers, and sports, are covered regularly in Sophals column for the school newspaper.
Lesson II. Adjectives

DEFINITION: A word used with a noun to describe, point out, or modify the person, animal, place or thing which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called Adjective. The Adjective is divided into five kinds such as: Possessive Adjective, Demonstrative Adjective, Numeral/Quantitative Adjective, Interrogative Adjective and Qualitative Adjective.
1. KINDS OF ADJECTIVE 1.1. Possessive Adjective

Possessive Adjective is used to modify or point to the possession of a noun. It consists of My, Your, Our, Their, His, Her and Its. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. She is my brother-in-law. You are carrying their luggage. No one can touch his table. He wants to love your daughter. It will bite you if you take its meat I hope you will stay at her home for a few days. Our lives always have a good fortune.
1.2.
Demonstrative Adjective
Demonstrative Adjective is used to point out the name of person, thing, animal or place such as: This, That, These, and That. A. This and That This and That are used with singular noun. This is used to point out the noun that is near or nearer in place, time, thought..., but that is far from place, time, thought... EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Could you lend me this dictionary? Could you lend me that dictionary? We cannot do this work at the same time. We cannot do that work at the same time. This decision is unacceptable. That decision is unacceptable. This meeting leads us to the agreement. That meeting leads us to the agreement. Pass me this pen, please. Pass me that pen, please.
B.
These and Those These and Those are used with plural noun. These is used to point out the nouns in plural that are near or nearer in place, time, thought..., but those is far from place, time, thought...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. She always uses these impolite words. She always uses those impolite words. No touching these offices materials. No touching those offices materials. I have never broken these promises. I have never broken those promises. These reasons make me clear. Those reasons make me clear.
1.3.
Numeral / Quantitative Adjective

Numeral Adjective is used to show how much of or how many person or thing stands for. It is divided into three classes as below: A. Definite Numeral Adjective Definite Numeral Adjective is an adjective which denotes an exact or real number. Here are: one, two, three, four, five, six... (Cardinals) and first, second, third, fourth... (ordinal). EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I have two pens in my pocket. I have the second pen in my pocket. There is one applicant coming to interview. There is the first applicant coming to interview. Three suspects walked in the garden last night. The third suspect walked in the garden last night. Businessman and women are staying for four weeks in Cambodia. Businessman and women are staying the fourth week in Cambodia.
B.
Indefinite Numeral Adjective Indefinite Numeral Adjective is an adjective which does not denote an exact number such as: all, no, many, few, some, little, any, several, different, whole...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I have called him several times. All men stand outside the building. Please let us know the exact schedule to Cambodia. You have no rights to copy any part of my book. There are various books written by Kimhong.
Distributive Numeral Adjective Distributive Numeral Adjective is an adjective which refers to each one of a number such as: each, both, every, none, along...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Each student must take an entrance exam. The boss expects every staff to do his duty. Either pen can write well. Neither accusation is true. None is arrested during his robbery.
1.4.
Descriptive / Qualitative Adjective

Descriptive Adjective is used to show the kind or quality of a person or thing. The words like fat, thin, thick, good, red, beautiful, light, expensive, black, rainy, dry...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. These clothes are expensive. She is a beautiful girl in the world. This story makes us shock. If you are free, please come to visit me. English is difficult for me.
1.5.
Interrogative Adjective
Interrogative Adjective is used to modify a noun of person, place, animal or thing to ask questions. The interrogative adjective consists of which, what, whose...
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Which way shall we go? Whose book is this? What reasons have I attracted you? How beautiful you are! What a nice day! What a blessing! - (head question) - (head question) - (head question) - (exclamatory sentence) - (exclamatory sentence) - (exclamatory sentence)
2. ARTICLES
Three words that we use hundreds of times a day are the adjectives a, an, and the. These three adjectives are also known as articles. A and an are called indefinite articles. They modify singular nouns that refer to one member of a category but do not specify which member; for example, a player or an island. A is used before a word that begins with a consonant sound. An is used before a word that begin with a vowel sound. The is called the definite article. It modifies nouns that refer to persons or things that specifically identified or are clearly understood. For example: I am sitting next to the girl with the red hair. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I ate a banana. I saw a bird. The teacher made an announcement. Thank you for the banana. Thank you for the fruit.
3. NOUN AS ADJECTIVE
Sometimes a noun is used as an adjective to modify another noun. EXAMPLES: Noun Texas beef movie office Used as Adjective Texas school beef seller movie screen office building
4. VERB FORM AS ADJECTIVE

The present participle and the past participle of a verb often appear in verb phrases. However, they can also serve as adjectives in sentences. When a verb is used as something other than a verb, it is called a verbal. Here are some example of verbal adjective. EXAMPLES: Present Participle conflicting jumping Used as Adjective conflicting land jumping bear
Past Participle predicted polished
Used as Adjective predicted result polished glass
In each example, the verbal adjective precedes the noun it modifies. In the examples below, each verbal adjective follows a linking verb. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. The witness seemed frightened. This case is extremely confusing, admitted the detective.
Lesson III. Pronouns

DEFINITION: Pronoun is a small group of words that takes the place of nouns in sentence. It allows us to refer to the same person, thing again and again without repeating the noun that names the person or thing. Pronoun is divided into five finds such as Personal Pronoun, Interrogative Pronoun, Demonstrative Pronoun, Quantitative Pronoun and Relative Pronoun.
1. PERSONAL PRONOUN
Subject Object Possessive Pronoun Pronoun Pronoun I me mine you you your she her hers he him his it it its we us ours you you yours they them theirs Reflexive Pronoun myself yourself herself himself itself ourselves yourselves themselves Possessive Adjective my name your name her name his name its name our name your name their name
Singular
Plural
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) : : I read a book. It was good. I read some books. They were good.
A pronoun is used in place of a noun. The noun it refers to is called the antecedent. In (a): The pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun book. A singular pronoun is used to refer to a singular noun, as in (a). A plural pronoun is used to refer to a plural noun, as in (b).
1.1.
Subject Pronoun
Subject Pronoun is used to take place of nouns and tell who or what the sentence is about and it is used for subject of the sentences.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. She has never spoken English. I dealt with difficult situation very well. He does not give up the struggle although in despair. We dont want the money earned by dishonest means. You cannot abide seeing such cruelty.
1.2.
Object Pronoun
Object Pronoun is used to take place of nouns and function as Direct Object, Indirect Object and Object of Preposition. A. Direct Object Direct Object is used to tell how the subject and the action of the verb are affecting something else and follows the transitive verbs. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. This song does not attract me at all. No one believes him but in fact, what he said is true. You ought to explain it in details. These lessons make us attractive. Let us accompany them to the police station.
Indirect Object Indirect Object is used to tell who or for whom something is done and it always come before the direct object.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C. I pass him the dictionary. The broker offers them the price. The company will pay her much salary. The teacher teaches us English Language. We have to build it a small house.
Object of Preposition Object of Preposition always follows with the preposition.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dont be shy talking with them. Its hardly necessary for me to explain. He worries about it. A man with a gun had pointed at us. His parent blame at him.
1.3.
Possessive Pronoun
Possessive Pronoun may be used alone to show possessions in all noun positions. Possessive pronoun are not followed immediately by a noun.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. You television is not as good as mine. The idea of those people is always against with ours. That book is hers. Yours is over there. That book is hers. - (incorrect)
In (5): Possessive pronouns do not take apostrophes.
1.4.
Reflexive Pronoun
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) : : : Larry was in the theater. I saw him. I talked to him. I saw myself in the mirror. I looked at myself for a long time. I saw me in the mirror. - (incorrect)
Compare (a) and (b): Usually an object pronoun is used as the object of a verb or preposition, as him in (a). A Reflexive Pronoun is used as the object of a verb or preposition when the subject of the sentence and the object are the same person, as in (b). I and myself are the same person. EXAMPLES: : : : : : Did someone fax the report to Mr. Lee? Yes. Are you sure? Yes. I myself faxed the report to him. I faxed the report to him myself.
(d) (e)
Reflexive Pronoun are also used for emphasis. In (d): The speaker would say I myself strongly, with emphasis. The emphatic reflexive pronoun can immediately follow a noun or pronoun, as in (d), or come at the end of the clause, as in (e). EXAMPLE: (f) : Dara lives by himself.
The expression by + a reflexive pronoun means alone.
1.5.
Possessive Adjective
Possessive Adjective are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Her book is here. Your book is over there. I like your car. Your explanation is attractive. My computer is expensive.
2. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
Interrogative Pronoun who, which, when, what, how, why, where, whom, whose allow us to ask question about person, thing, place or animal. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Whose is this book? When will you remit the money? Where does she live? What will all the neighbors say? Which do the guests prefer, tea or coffee?
3. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
Demonstrative Pronoun may replace nouns in some sentences, and they function as determiner in other sentences. A. B. This and That are used with singular noun and something is near (here). These and Those are used with plural noun and something is far (there or over there) which refers to specific thing, person or place.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Those will hang in the house. What was that? This house is better that. I bought these for research. That is my hand-phone.
4. QUANTITATIVE PRONOUN
Quantitative Pronoun is used to replace a noun and show how much / many of thing stands. It is divided into three kinds as follow:
4.1.
Indefinite Pronoun
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Somebody has stolen my engaged ring. Nobody help him during the robberies. We didnt see any of products you need. Everybody should come to the office in time. If anybody knows the truth, let him tell it.
4.2.
Definite Pronoun
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. Two of suspects were arrested to put in the prison. One of them will be absent in the next meeting. Two are assassinated during the general meeting.
4.3.
Distributive Pronoun
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Each of the boys gets a prize. Neither of accusation is true. Both are taking a trip to Singapore. Either you can make an agreement. None will keep his promise.
5. RELATIVE PRONOUN
Relative Pronoun is used to combine or connect two sentences together by referring or relating to some nouns going before, which is called antecedent. In short, the relative pronoun should be place as near as possible to its antecedent.
5.1.
Relative Pronoun and Its Antecedent
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The boy who was lazy was punished. The flowers which they grow in our garden are not for sale. I thanked the woman who helped me. The book which is on the table is mine. The man that I saw was Mr. Borey.
5.2.
Use of Relative Pronoun

who which that = = = used for people used for things used for both things and people
Lesson IV. Verbs

DEFINITION: Verb is a word that tells or asserts something about person or thing. The verb is very important word that used in a sentence. There are three kinds of verbs in English: transitive verb, intransitive verb, and linking verb.
1. TRANSITIVE VERB
Transitive Verb expresses action that affects someone or something mentioned in the sentences. It always need a direct object. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The boy cuts his hand with knife. The traffic policeman blew his whistle. Time changes all things in the world. I shall bring a camera with me for our picnic. Our new watch doesnt keep good time. The farmers plant their winter wheat in the fall.
In (6): The action of the transitive verb plant affects the wheat. Transitive means carrying across, and we say that the action of plant is carried across to wheat. The or pronoun that receives the action of the verb is called the direct object of verb.
2. INTRANSITIVE VERB
Intransitive Verb may express either action or simple existence. Even if expresses action, however, it does not take a direct object. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The house stands on top of a hill. I jumped aside. He ran a long distance. Your books lie on the table and fall down on the floor. I and my family live in Phnom Penh city. They speak too loudly.
In (1): The verb in this sentence, stands, means is or is located. It express existence. Stands is an intransitive verb. In (2): The verb in this sentence, jumped, express action but is not followed by any direct objects, They are intransitive verb.
3. LINKING VERB
A number of verbs can be functioned as linking verb. They are called the Linking Verbs because the adjective following the verb describes the subject or the noun following the verb renames the subject.
3.1.
Linking Verb is Followed by Nouns
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. I am a writer. He remains the director of the company. She became a scientist. He is a teacher.
3.2.
Linking Verb is Followed by Adjectives
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. He is reliable and efficient. The food and drinks taste good. The crowd becomes silent. George seems unhappy.
Lesson V. Adverbs
DEFINITION: Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
1. ADVERBS ARE USED TO MODIFY A VERB, AN ADJECTIVE, AND AN ADVERB

Transitive Verb expresses action that affects someone or something mentioned in the sentences. It always need a direct object.
1.1.
Adverb May Modify a Verb
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. He gradually saves money. They run quickly. You have to come to the office immediately. I have recently written a grammar book. Your kind assistance in this case will be greatly appreciated.
1.2.
Adverb May Modify an Adjective
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. I am extremely pleased to receive your letters today. The revised book is very good. A company needs a highly skilled worker. I am so glad to hear it.
1.3.
Adverb May Modify an Adverb
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. His saving account is growing very slowly. Next year cannot come soon enough. Do not walk so fast. Miss Phanith reads quite well.
2. KINDS OF ADVERB 2.1. Adverb of Time

Adverb of Time is used to show an action in the sentence happens when. Here are some of adverb of time: always, often, occasionally, sometimes, ever, never, meanwhile, frequently, before, rarely, usually, ago, soon, daily, recently, currently, yesterday, next year, since, already and some others.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I have heard that story before. We shall now begin to work. He spoke to her yesterday. He called a few minutes ago. They come here daily.
2.2.
Adverb of Number or Degree

Adverb of Number or Degree is used to show an action which points how often or how many. They are like the Adverbs: once, twice, lonely, again, only, carelessly, fully, completely, absolutely, entirely, enough, altogether, partly, quietly, almost... etc.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I came lonely. He has told you not to do so twice. I have not seen him once. The police called me again. You are partly right.
2.3.
Adverb of Place
Adverb of Place is used to show an action in the sentence which points to the place. They are the Adverbs like: anywhere, somewhere, here, there, inside, outside, far, in, out, within... etc.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. My brother is out and come in. My daughter followed my sister-in-law everywhere. The horse ran away. A small boy is looking up.
2.4.
Adverb of Manner
Adverb of Manner is an adverb which shows how or in what manner. They are: delightfully, clearly, bravely, well, hard, sadly, surely, happily, properly, secretly, angrily, carefully, reluctantly, and some others.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Mrs. Heng Kunthea reads clearly. These Grammar Book is well written. All employees in this company work hard. I reluctantly agreed.
2.5.
Adverb of Reason
Adverb of Reason is an adverb which shows in what reason, or why. The adverb of reason doesnt have so many here such as: therefore, hence, consequence, so that, thats why and a few others.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. They therefore left I go to visit my aunt thats why I come late. You have to respect the rules, otherwise you will be stopped from working here.
3. POSITION OF ADVERBS 3.1. When an Adverb Modifies an Intransitive Verb, It Usually Follow It
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All the boys in this class work well. My friends live there. He spoke fluently. They died peacefully. We arrived late.
3.2.
When a Verb is transitive Verb with an Object Following, an Adverb Follows the Object
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. He performed his duty well. She does her homework carefully. Counselor approves the visa immediately. I speak English fluently.
3.3.
Adverbs of Time Such As: Always, Ever, Often... Are Place Before the Verb They Modify
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. He never confessed his fault. I frequently visit my girlfriend while she is in school. They never make a mistake. She always speaks the truth. I sometimes feel depressed.
3.4.
When a Verb is Made up of an Auxiliary Verb and a Main Verb, the Adverb is Usually Placed Between Them
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I have often told him to write neatly. We shall certainly miss her. I did not know their address. I am greatly appreciated for your help. They must carefully do it.
3.5.
Adverbs Standing at the beginning of Sentences, Sometime Modify the whole sentence
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Unfortunately no one was present here. Luckily he escaped unhurt. Eventually the figures are in correct. Probably he is mistaken. Certainly you are wrong.
Lesson VI. Prepositions

DEFINITION: Preposition is a word that expresses a relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another word in a sentence.
1. PREPOSITION
Notice how the different prepositions below change the meanings of the sentences: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Dara stood with his dog. Dara stood without his dog. Dara stood like his dog. Dara stood on his dog.
The following list contains the prepositions that are used most frequently: along among around at before behind below beneath beside between beyond despite down during except for from in off on out outside over past since through till to toward under without until up upon with within
2. COMPOUND PREPOSITION
A Compound Preposition is a preposition that consists of more than one word. Frequently used compound prepositions are in the list that follows: according to as of because of in addition to in place of in regard to in spite of on account of prior to with respect to aside from as well as by means of in front of in respect to instead of out of with regard to
3. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A preposition is always followed by a noun or pronoun. This word is called the object of the preposition. The preposition and its object form a grouping called the prepositional phrase. Here are some prepositional phrases. The objects of the prepositions are in boldface type: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. under the stars after you below the surface
3.1.
Prepositional Phrases Used as Adjectives

A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective when it modifies a noun or a pronoun. Such prepositional phrases are sometimes called adjective phrases.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. Who designed the building across the street? He found his wallet under the small wooden table.
3.2.
Prepositional Phrases Used as Adverbs

A prepositional phrase functions as an adverb when it modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Such prepositional phrases are sometimes called adverb phrases.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. Regional interests sometimes conflict (verb) with national interest (prepositional phrase) ? The service mechanic was suspicious (adjective) of the sound (prepositional phrase) ? You must look further (adverb) behind the building (prepositional phrase) to find the painting materials.
4. ADVERB OR PREPOSITION?
As you may remember, many adverbs also tell where. But unlike prepositions, adverbs do not take objects. Compare these sentences: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. He came in. He was carrying some flowers in a car. We looked around. We looked around the park. - (adverb) - (preposition) - (adverb) - (preposition)
3. 4.
They sat down. They sat down the street. He is hanging around. He is hanging around the house.
- (adverb) - (preposition) - (adverb) - (preposition)
When you are trying to decide whether a word is an adverb or a preposition, you look to see if the word is followed by a noun or a pronoun that is its object. If it has an object, it is a preposition.
Lesson VII. Conjunctions

If you live in New York City, you probably know that the Brooklyn Bridge connects the island of Manhattan to Brooklyn. If you have studied the geography of Central America, you know that the Panama Canal connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. And everyone knows that an operator can connect you to almost anyone in the world who owns a telephone. There is one part of speech that acts as a kind of connector. But it doesnt connect bridges, oceans, or places. It connects words or groups of words. This part of speech is called a conjunction. DEFINITION: Conjunction is a word that is used to connect words or groups of words.
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTION
Coordinators (Coordinating Conjunctions): You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FANBOYS: for or and yet nor so but
1.1.
Parallelism
Parallelism is an important element in English writing, especially when you are listing and comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means that each item in a list or comparison follows the same grammatical pattern. If you are writing a list and the first item in your list is a noun, write all of the following items as nouns also. If the first item is an infinitive verb phrase, make all of the others infinitive verb phrases; if it is a dependent clause, make all of the others dependent clauses. If you are making a comparison or contrast, make sure that the items you are comparing or contrasting are the same.
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) : : : : : : : : Steve and his friend are coming to dinner. Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers. He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us. These shoes are old but comfortable. He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music. Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner. Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and asked a question. Steve, and Joe are coming to dinner. - (incorrect)
FORMULA: In (a) In (b) In (c)

+ : noun and + noun + : verb and + verb + : verb and + verb The second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the same as the fist auxiliary. + : adjective but + adjective + + : infinitive or infinitive The second to is usually omitted.
In (d) In (e)
In (f): A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series, commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional; also correct: Steve, Joe and Alice are coming to dinner. No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure, as in (h). Notice how the rule of parallelism is followed in the second sentence in each of the following sets. Not parallel Parallel Not parallel Parallel Not parallel Parallel : : : : : : My English conversation class is made up of Chinese, Spaniards, and some are from Bosnia. My English conversation class is made up of Chinese, Spaniards, and Bosnians. The students who do well attend class, they do their homework, and practice speaking English. The students who do well attend class, do their homework, and practice speaking English. The teacher wanted to know which country we came from and our future goals. The teacher wanted to know which country we came from and what our future goals were.
1.2.
Combining Independent ClauseswithCoordinating Conjunctions

.
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) : : It was raining hard. There was a strong wind. (Incorrect punctuation) It was raining hard, there was a strong wind.
Example (a) contains two independent clauses. Notice the Punctuation. A period, NOT A COMMA, is used to separate two independent clauses. The punctuation in (b) is not correct. EXAMPLES: (c) (d) (e) : : : It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind. It was raining hard and there was a strong wind. It was raining hard. And there was a strong wind.
A conjunction may be used to connect two independent clauses. Punctuation: Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction, as in (c). In short sentences, the comma is sometimes omitted, as in (d). In informal writing, a conjunction sometimes begins a sentence, as in (e).
2. PAIRED CONJUNCTION / CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION

Paired Conjunction is a conjunction which expresses a choice between two alternatives like: both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also . EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) FORMULA: In (f) In (g) In (h) In (i) : : : : both not only either neither
+ + + +
: : : : : : : : :
Both my mother and my sister are here. Not only my mother but also my sister is here. Not only my sister but also my parents are here. Neither my mother nor my sister is here. Neither my sister nor my parents are here. The research project will take both time and money. Yesterday it not only rained but also snowed. Ill take either chemistry or physics next quarter. That book is neither interesting nor accurate.
noun verb noun adjective
+ + + +
and but also or nor
+ + + +
noun verb noun adjective
Two subjects connected by both ... and take a plural verb, as in (a). When two subjects are connected by not only ... but also, either ... or, or neither ... nor, the subject that is closer to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.
3. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION
The Subordinating Conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning. The subordinating conjunction may be classified according to their meaning. Subordinators (Subordinating Conjunctions): after which whenever unless until as soon as so that before although while where wherever what that even though as who whom whether when though how if since whose
3.1.
Subordinating Conjunction of Time
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. I would die before I lied. Many things have happened since I saw you. I returned home after she had gone. As he was not here, I spoke to his brother.
3.2.
Subordinating Conjunction of Reason/Cause
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. My strength is as the strength of ten, because my heart is pure. He ran away because he is afraid. I did this work because they asked me to do it. The reason why we were late is that it was raining hard.
3.3.
Subordinating Conjunction of Condition
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Miss Thavy will go if Ms. Sokha goes. He talks as if he knew all about it. You will fail unless you worker harder. If you ask him, he will help you.
3.4.
Subordinating Conjunction of Comparison
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. He is stronger than Miss Ratana. Hari is more stupid than Ramy. I am taller than him They like us better than they like him.
Lesson VIII. Interjections

The seven parts of speech that you have to work with are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunction. You may be saying to yourself, But I thought there were eight parts of speech. You are rightthere are interjections, too. However, an interjection is not really part of the sentence. It is an expression, like oh or hey, that is tacked on the sentence. It shows how the speaker or writer feels, but it has no grammatical connection with the other words in the sentence. Nevertheless, in this unit you will study interjections along with the seven important parts of speech. DEFINITION: Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feelings or emotion. Interjection may express all below:
1. INTERJECTION MAY EXPRESS AS JOY

EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hurrah! We have won the game. Huzza! I have a good luck. Ah! You come early. Good gracious! Is she your daughter. Well done! I choose you to work for my company.
2. INTERJECTION MAY EXPRESS AS GREETING

EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hello! What are you dong there? Good morning! It is very nice to see you again. Good night! I got to my bedroom. Good afternoon! How are you getting on? Hi! What I can I do for you?
3. INTERJECTION MAY EXPRESS AS GRIEF

EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hush! Dont make a noise. Ah! Have they died? Allash! You lost a hundred US Dollar. Hush! He is a thief. Ah! Why does she stay with the robbers?
4. INTERJECTION MAY EXPRESS AS SURPRISE

EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ah me! Go to abroad. What! He shall be chosen a General Manager. Oh! I go such a fright. What! You will be given a prize. Oh! There is a lot of dried fish in the refrigerator.
5. INTERJECTION MAY EXPRESS AS APPROVAL EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Well! I support your idea. Right! Please continue to do your work. Good! She will be encouraged his accomplishment. Bravo! They wrote 100% correctly. Alright! We go with them.
UNIT
FOUR
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Lesson I. Clauses
DEFINITION: Clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.
1. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
An independent person is someone who doesnt rely on anyone else for help or support. A person who is independently wealthy does not have to rely on anyone else for money. Independent people can stand alone, and so can independent clause. An Independent Clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Students normally spend four years in college. I will declare my major now. Sue lives in Tokyo. Where does Sue live? Many international students experience culture shock.
2. DEPENDENT CLAUSE
Not all clauses express complete thoughts even though they have subjects and verbs: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ... if I dont see you everyday... ... when she left the house... ... who wait for the bus... ... when they come to the Cambodia... ... that the party was a success...
These are examples of groups of related words that contain both subjects and verbs. But they dont make any sense; they cannot stand alone as sentences. These kinds of clauses are called dependent or subordinate clauses because they depend on an independent clause to complete their meaning.
A Subordinate or Dependent Clause is a clause that does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate Clauses begin with such words as while, if, that, since, because, when, who, which, although, after... Here are the subordinate clauses from above joined with independent clauses: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. I feel sad if I dont see you everyday. When she left the house, Barbara walked to dance alone. People who wait for the bus are patient. Many international students experience culture shock when they come to the Cambodia.
Guideline: An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. But both kinds of clauses have a subject and verb. There are three kinds of dependent clauses: noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses.
Lesson II. Complements

A bride and groom cant make a wedding by themselvesthey need a member of the clergy or a justice of the peace. A floor and four walls arent enough to make a roomthey must be finished off with a ceiling. The cares cant go anyw here unless they have a driver. Some subjects and verbs need help, too: by themselves, they do not make a complete sentence. They need a complement to complete their meaning. DEFINITION: A Complement is a word or group of words that adds to or completes the thought begun by the subject and verb. In this lesson you will learn about four kinds of complements: direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, and predicate adjectives.
1. OBJECTS
Object are nouns or pronouns that follow action verbs in the active voice. There are two kind of objects: direct objects and indirect objects.
1.1.
Direct Objects
A Direct Object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb in the active voice. It answers the question what or whom after an action verb. Verbs that take direct objects are called transitive verbs. Modifiers are not part of the object.
EXAMPLES: (a) : Suzanne learned her lesson. What did Suzanne learn? Lesson is the direct object of the action verb learned. The vampire bit him. Whom did the vampire bite? Him is the direct object of the action verb bit.
(b)
Direct Objects, like subjects and verbs, can be compound. Here are some examples. Only the nouns, pronouns, and conjunctions are in boldface type. Modifiers are not included in these compound direct objects. EXAMPLES: (c) (d) : : Elena read a poem and a story. A poem and a story are what Elena read. The man questioned you and me. You and me are whom the man questioned.
Guideline: A direct object never follows a linking verb. A direct object is never part of a prepositional phrase. EXAMPLE: (e) : Liza sings with a band.
Band is a noun that follows the action verb sings. But it is not a direct object. With a band is a prepositional phrase. Band is the object of the preposition with. Dont confuse a direct object with the object of a preposition.
1.2.
Indirect Objects
If a friend of yours said to you, Ive just written a letter, you might say, Oh, really? To whom did you write the letter? If the reply is, I have written Bozo a letter, your friend has used a complement. The kind of complement your friend used is an indirect object. An Indirect Object is a noun or pronoun that comes before the direct object in a sentence. It tells to what, to whom, for what, or for whom the action of the verb is done. An indirect object follows an action verb in the active voice. In most cases an indirect object is used with a direct object.
EXAMPLE: (a) : I have written Bozo a letter.
I is the subject and have written is the verb phrase. Letter tells what the person has written, so it is the direct object. Bozo tells to whom it was written. It is, therefore, the indirect object. EXAMPLE: (b) : The gorilla tosses me a coconut.
You know that the subject of the sentence is gorilla. You know that tossed is an action verb. Coconut is the direct object of the sentence. It tells what the gorilla tossed. But what about the other word in the sentence, me? Me answers the question to whom the coconut was tossed. It was tossed to me. The part of the sentence that comes before the direct object and tells to whom the action of the verb is done is an indirect object. Me is the indirect object of the sentence.
EXAMPLES: (c) : Ira gave the horse some carrots? To what did Ira give some carrots? The indirect object is horse.
Guideline: Remember that an indirect object always comes before a direct object in a sentence and it is never part of a prepositional phrase.
2. SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
You learned that the direct object and indirect object are complements that follow action verbs. In the next two points, you will learn about the kind of complement that follows a linking verbthe subject complement. DEFINITION: A Subject Complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective that follows a linking verb. It refers to, describes, or explains the subject.
2.1.
Predicate Nominatives
Predicate Nominative is a noun or pronoun that refers to, describes, or explains the subject of the sentence. It follows a linking verb.
EXAMPLES: (a) : Wyatt Earp was a police in the Old West.
Police is a noun that refers to the subject Wyatt Earp. It follows the linking verb was. Therefore, police is a predicate nominative. (b) : That cat is a devil.
Devil is a noun that describes the subject cat. It follows the linking verb is. Therefore, devil is a predicate nominative. Guideline: Both a direct object and a predicate nominative complete the idea begun by the subject and the verb. But a direct object follows an action verb. A predicate nominative follows a linking verb. EXAMPLES: (c) (d) (e) : : : The baby becomes a problem on a trip. Sovan Reach and Preab Sovath are singers. Frank is a good dancer.
Guideline: Predicate Nominative can be compound. (f) (g) : : I will become a lawyer or a writer. Three winter months are December, January, and February.
2.2.
Predicate Adjectives
One kind of subject complement is a predicate nominative. The other kind of subject complement is a predicate adjective. Predicate Adjective is an adjective that modifies the subject of the sentence. It follows a linking verb.
EXAMPLES: (a) : This coffee is bitter.
Bitter is a predicate adjective modifying the subject coffee. (b) : I am exhausted.
Exhausted is a predicate adjective modifying the subject I. (c) : This film is becoming exciting.
Exciting is a predicate adjective modifying the subject film. Guideline: Predicate Adjective can be compound. (d) (e) (f) : : : They are either right or wrong. Our classroom is airy and sunny. The message is loud and clear.
You have just learned all about complement. You deserve a compliment. Congratulations! Now you never have to worry about writing incomplete sentences again. Every time a sentence needs a complement, youll be able to supply a direct object, an indirect object, a predicate nominative, or a predicate adjective.
Lesson III. Sentence Elements

Sentences are groups of words arranged to express complete thoughts. In this part of the book you will review the basic elements of every sentence. In addition, you will learn to recognize sentence purposes and kinds. This knowledge will help you use and punctuate sentences correctly. Sentences are composed of subjects and predicates. In addition, sentences must make sense. When any of these elements is missing, readers or listeners are confused. To help you better understand the structure of sentences, you will learn to distinguish between simple and complete subjects and predicates.
1. SUBJECTS
DEFINITION: The Subject of a sentence is who or what is doing something or who or what is being spoken about.
1.1.
Simple Subjects
Every Sentence has a subject and a predicate. The Simple Subject is a noun or pronoun that names the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. The simple subject does not include modifiers.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. John is coming to town. Big, bad John is coming to town. The book in the middle was the least expensive. The new manager of the office received our cooperation.
1.2.
Complete Subjects
The Complete Subject includes the simple subject and all the nearby words that give more information about it.
EXAMPLES: (a) : A heavy, gray fog settled over the city.
The complete subject is a heavy, gray fog. The simple subject is fog. (b) : Twenty talented tailors took a trip.
The complete subject is twenty talented tailors. The simple subject is tailors.
Every sentence has a simple subject. Here are the above two sentences without simple subjects: EXAMPLES: (c) (d) : : A heavy, gray settled over the city. Twenty talented took a trip.
These groups of words dont make sense. Without simple subjects, the sentences become fragments. In some sentences, the simple subject and the complete subject are the same. EXAMPLE: (e) : Dara is not a good student.
Dara is the simple subject. Since there are no nearby words to describe him in the sentence, Dara is the complete subject, too.
1.3.
Compound Subjects
The Compound Subject is a simple subject that consists of two or more nouns or pronouns sharing the same verb. The term compound subject refers to a compound simple subject. The subject are usually joined by the connecting word and or or.
EXAMPLES: (a) (b) (c) (d) : : : : Bonnie and Clyde robbed many banks. Frankie and Johnny were sweethearts. Laverne and Shirley live in California. Black cats, gray dogs, and yellow tigers frighten her.
In (d): Only the nouns in boldface type are compound subjects. Modifiers, such as black, gray, and yellow are not included in these compound subjects.
2. PREDICATES
DEFINITION: The Predicate tells what the subject is, what the subject is doing, or what is being done to the subject.
2.1.
Simple Predicates
The verb or verb phrase that describes the action or states the condition of the subject is the simple predicates. The simple predicate does not include modifiers and words that complete the meaning of the verb.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Chanthy tried hard to control her temper. Perhaps you should adopt a new strategy. A bee stung me. Veasna dropped all of his books.
Note: In this book, the simple predicate will be called the verb.
2.2.
Complete Predicates
The Complete Predicate consists of the simple predicate and all of the words that modify it or complete its meaning.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. The first two runners crossed the finish line. A bee stung me. Daras mother plays tennis well. Nenes mother was happy.
2.3.
Compound Predicates.
The Compound Predicate is a simple predicate that consists of two or more verbs or verb phrases. The term compound predicate refers to a compound simple predicate.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. We tilled the earth, planted several kinds of seeds, and watered our new garden. Young Kangaroos run and jump all day. We read or listen to music in the evening.
Lesson IV. Adjective Clauses / Relative Clauses

DEFINITION: Relative Clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a noun or pronoun. For this reason, relative clauses are also called adjective clauses.
1. RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS

Object are nouns or pronouns that follow action verbs in the active voice. There are two kind of objects: direct objects and indirect objects. A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun or relative adverb: who, whom, whose, that Pronouns which, that, whose when where refer to humans refer to nonhumans and things Adverbs refer to a time refer to a place
2. POSITION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

An Adjective Clause closely follows the noun it modifies. The noun that it modifies is called the antecedent of the relative clause. EXAMPLES: I saw the man. who/that closed the door I saw the man who/that closed the door. - (independent clause) - (adjective clause)
1.
2. 3.
The movie was not very good. - (independent clause) which we saw last night. - (adjective clause) The movie which we saw last night wasnt very good. The movie wasnt very good which we saw last night. - (incorrect) He left the gift in his friends car. - (independent clause) that he had just bought - (adjective clause) He left the gift in his friends car that he had just bought. - (confusing) He left the gift in his friends car. - (independent clause) that he had just bought - (adjective clause) He left the gift that he had just bought in his friends car. - (corrected)
4.
5.
In (1): I saw the man = an independent clause; who/that closed the door = an adjective clause. The adjective clause modifies the noun man. Man is an antecedent of the adjective clause. In (2): The movie was not very good = an independent clause; which we saw last night = an adjective clause. The adjective clause modifies the noun movie. Movie is an antecedent of the adjective clause. In (4): It is not clear whether the relative clause modifies car or gift. In (5): The relative clause clearly modifies gift. Guideline: Occasionally, a prepositional phrase comes between the antecedent and the relative clause. EXAMPLE: Nara was visited by a friend. - (independent clause) from Phnom Penh - (Prepositional Phrase) Nara was visited by a friend from PP. - (independent clause) who was touring the country - (adjective clause) Nara was visited by a friend from Phnom Penh who was touring the country.
6.
3. RELATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS THE SUBJECT

A Relative Pronoun may be the subject of its own clause. Subject pattern relative clauses are formed as follows: FORMULA: used for people used for thing used for both people and thing EXAMPLES: I thanked the woman. She helped me. who which that
+ + +
verb verb verb
+ + +
complement complement complement
1. 2.
I thanked the woman I thanked the woman
who that
helped me. - (formal) helped me. - (informal)
In (1): I thanked the woman = an independent clause; who helped me = an adjective clause. The adjective clause modifies the noun woman. Woman is an antecedent of the adjective clause.
In (1): who is the subject of the adjective clause. In (2): that is the subject of the adjective clause. Note: (1) and (2) have the same meaning. EXAMPLES: People save time and energy. They use microwave ovens.
3.
People
who
use microwave ovens save time and energy. - (formal) use microwave ovens save time and energy. - (informal)
4.
People
that
In (3): People save time and energy = an independent clause; who use microwave ovens = an adjective clause. The adjective clause modifies the noun people. People is an antecedent of the adjective clause. In (3): who is the subject of the adjective clause. In (4): that is the subject of the adjective clause. Note: (3) and (4) have the same meaning.
4. RELATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECTS

A Relative Pronoun may be an object in its own clause. Object pattern relative clauses are formed as follows: FORMULA: used for people used for thing used for both people and thing EXAMPLES: The man was Mr. Borey. I saw him. who / whom which
+ +
subject subject
+ + +
verb verb verb
+ + +
complement complement complement
that (optional) + subject
1. 2. 3.
The man The man The man
who(m) that
I saw was Mr. Borey.
I saw was Mr. Borey. I saw was Mr. Borey.
Notice in the example: The adjective clause pronouns are placed at the beginning of the clause. In (1): who is usually used instead of whom, especially in speaking. Whom is generally used only in very formal English. EXAMPLES: The movie wasnt very good. We saw it last night. we saw last night wasnt very good. we saw last night wasnt very good. we saw last night wasnt very good.
4. 5. 6.
The movie The movie The movie
which that
In (3) and (6): An object pronoun is often omitted from an adjective clause. (A subject pronoun, however, may not be omitted.) EXAMPLE: 7. 8. 9. The man who(m) I saw him was Mr. Borey. - (incorrect) The man that I saw him was Mr. Borey. - (incorrect) The man I saw him was Mr. Borey. - (incorrect)
In (7), (8), and (9): The pronoun him must be removed. It is unnecessary because who(m), that, or functions as the object of the verb saw.
5. RELATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS

A Relative Pronoun may be the object of a preposition in its own clause. These relative clauses are formed in two ways, the formal way and the informal way. FORMULA:
+
whom + subject + verb which

+
+ +
complement complement
Formal
preposition
+
subject + verb verb verb verb verb

+ + + +
whom which Informal that
+ + + +
subject + subject + subject + subject +
com2 + com2 + com

2
preposition
+
com2 +
In the formal pattern, the preposition comes before the relative pronoun. In the informal pattern, the preposition comes at the end of the clause. EXAMPLES: She is the woman. I told you about her.
1. 2. 3. 4.
She is the woman about She is the woman She is the woman She is the woman
whom
I told you.
who(m) that
I told you about.
I told you about. I told you about.
The music was good. We listened to it last night.
5. 6. 7. 8.
The music to The music The music The music
which which that
we listened last night was good. we listened to last night was good.
we listened to last night was good. we listened to last night was good.
In very formal English, the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, as in (1) and (5). Usually, however, in everyday usage, the preposition comes after the subject and verb of the adjective clause, as in the other examples. Guideline: If the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only whom or which may be used. A preposition is never immediately followed by that or who. EXAMPLES: 9. 10. She is the woman about who I told you. - (incorrect) The music to that we listened last night was good. - (incorrect)
6. USUAL PATTERNS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

EXAMPLES: 1. I like the people who live next to me. I like the people that live next to me. - (usual) - (less usual)
In everyday informal usage, often one adjective clause pattern is used more commonly than another. In (1): As a subject pronoun, who is more common than that. 2. I like books that have good plots. I like books which have good plots. - (usual) - (less usual)
In (2): As a subject pronoun, that is more common than which. 3. 4. I liked the people I met last night. I liked the book I read last week. - (usual) - (usual)
In (3) and (4): Object pronouns are commonly omitted especially in speaking.
7. POSSESSIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES

In this clauses, which show possession, the relative pronoun whose replaces a possessive word such as Marys, his, our, their, the companys, or its. Possessive relative clauses can follow the subject or the object pattern.
7.1.
Subject Pattern
FORMULA: whose EXAMPLES: I know the man. His bicycle was stolen. + noun
+
verb
complement
1.
I know the man
whose
bicycles was stolen.
Mr. Boty has a painting. its value is inestimable.
2.
Mr. Boty has a painting
whose
value is inestimable.
Opportunity for college graduates are increasing. College graduates engineering. degrees are in computer
3.
Opportunities for college graduates
whose
degrees are
in computer engineering are increasing. Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other possessive pronouns used as adjectives: his, her, its, and their. Like his, her, its, and their, whose is connected to a noun: his bicycle its value whose bicycle whose value
Both whose and the noun it is connected to are placed at the beginning of the adjective clause. whose cannot be omitted.
7.2.
Object Pattern
FORMULA: whose EXAMPLES: The student writes well. I read her composition. + noun + subject + verb + complement
1.
The student
whose
composition I read writes well.
The citizens could do nothing. The government had confiscated their property.
2.
The citizens
whose
property the government had
confiscated could do nothing.
8. ADVERBIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

A Relative Pronoun may also be introduced by the relative adverbs when and where. Adverbial relative clauses refer to a time or a place. They are composed of: FORMULA: where when EXAMPLES: The building is very old. He lives there (in that building). The building where he lives The building in which he lives The building which he lives in The building that he lives in The building he lives in
+ +
subject subject
+ +
verb verb
+ +
complement complement
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
is very old. is very old. is very old. is very old. is very old.
The city where we spent our vacation was beautiful. That is the restaurant where I will meet you. The town where I grew up was small.
Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place (city, country, room, house...). If where is used, a preposition is NOT included in the adjective clause, as in (1). If where is not used, the preposition must be included, as in (2), (3), (4), and (5). EXAMPLES: I will never forget the day. I met you then (on that day). I will never forget the day when I met you. Monday is the day when we will come. 7:05 is the time when my plane arrives. July is the month when the weather is usually the hottest. 1960 is the year when the revolution took place. Relative Adverbs for Time and Place when where refer to a time refer to a place The lives of thousands of Germans suddenly changed on the night when East German soldiers began building the Berlin wall. The city where citizens had lived worked, and shopped was suddenly divided.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
9. PUNCTUATING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses are classified as restrictive (necessary) or nonrestrictive (unnecessary).
9.1.
Restrictive Clause
Restrictive Clause is necessary because it identifies its antecedent for the reader. Do not use commas with restrictive clause.
EXAMPLES: 1. The professor who teaches my English class won a Nobel Prize two years ago. (Which professor won a Nobel Prize two years ago? The clause who teaches my English class is necessary to identify the professor.) 2. He won the prize for research that might lead to a cure for AIDS. (For which research did he win the prize? We need the clause that might lead to a cure for AIDS to tell us) 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. People who use microwave ovens save time and energy. The address that he gave me was incorrect. The professor whom you should see is chair of the English Department. The book that the professor translated was written in German. I thanked the woman who helped me. The book which is on the table is mine. The man that I saw was Mr. Pisith. The movie which we saw last night wasnt very good. I like the people who live next to me. I like the books that have good plots. I like the people that I met last night. Students whose native language is English do not study here. The girl who won the race is happy. The student who sits next to me is from China. We are studying sentences that contain adjective clauses. I am using a sentences that contain an adjective clause. The book that I read was good. I liked the woman whom I met at the party last night. The people whom we visit yesterday were very nice. The man that Ann brought to the party is standing over there.
9.2.
Nonrestrictive Clause
Nonrestrictive Clause is not necessary to identify its antecedent; it merely gives the reader some extra information. Because it can be omitted without loss of meaning, separate it from the rest of the sentence with commas. Use commas if the adjective clause simply gives additional information and is not necessary to identify the noun it modifies..
EXAMPLES: 1. Professor Wilson, who teaches Chemistry 101, is an excellent lecturer.
In (1): Commas are used. The adjective clause is not necessary to identify Professor Wilson. We already know who he is: he has a name. The adjective clause simply gives additional information. 2. Hawaii, which consists of eight principal islands, is a favorite vacation spot.
Use commas, as in (2), if an adjective clause modifies the name of a specific place. 3. 4. The man who(m)/that/ I met teaches chemistry. Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry.
In (3): if no commas are used, any possible pronoun may be used in the adjective clause. Object pronouns may be omitted. In (4): When commas are necessary, the pronoun that may not used (only who, whom, which, whose, where, and when may be used), and object pronouns cannot be omitted. Guideline: Here are a few guidelines that you can follow to help you distinguish between restrictive and non restrictive adjective clauses. When a noun has modifiers preceding it the adjective clause is not necessary. My teacher gave me a disappointed look, which made me feel very uncomfortable. The name of a specific place does not usually require a necessary adjective clause. Denver, which is a beautiful city, has two universities. The name of a person an unnecessary adjective clause. Dany and Neary, who did not come to class yesterday, explained their absence to the teacher.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Professor Jones, who teaches my biology class, won a Nobel Prize two years ago. He won the prize for his research into the structure of T-cell, which might lead to a cure for AIDS. Football, which is the most popular American sport, began at Harvard University. Dr. White, whom you met in my office, is an economist. Environment science, which Dr. Veasna teaches, is one of the most popular courses in the college. Princess Diana, whose life ended suddenly in a Paris car crash, was the most photographed woman in the world. Maya Angelou, whose poetry we have been reading in our English class, is one of Americas most famous female poets. The lives of thousands of Germans changed during the night of August 13, 1961, when East German soldiers began building the Berlin Wall. Berlin, where citizens had lived, worked, and shopped freely, was suddenly divided.
8.
9.
10. REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASES 10.1. Introduction

Nonrestrictive Clause is not necessary An Adjective Phrase is a reduction of an adjective clause. It modifies a noun. It does not contain a subject and verb. EXAMPLES: : : : : ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The girl who is sitting next to me is Maria. ADJECTIVE PHRASE The girl sitting next to me is Maria.
(a)
(b)
The adjective clause in (a) can be reduced to the adjective phrase in (b). (a) and (b) have the same meaning. : : : : ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The boy who is playing the piano is Ben. ADJECTIVE PHRASE The boy playing the piano is Ben.
(c)
(d)
Only Adjective clauses that have a subject pronounwho, which, or thatare reduced to modifying adjective phrases.
(e)
: : : :
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The boy whom I saw was Tom. ADJECTIVE PHRASE (none)
(f)
The adjective clause in (e) cannot be reduced to an adjective phrase.
10.2. Changing an Adjective Clause to an Adjective Phrase

There are two ways in which an adjective clause is changed to an adjective phrase. If the adjective clause contains the be form of a verb, omit the pronoun and the be form, as in examples below.
EXAMPLES: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The man who is talking to John is from Korea. ADJECTIVE PHRASE The man talking to John is from Korea. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The idea which are presented in that book are good. ADJECTIVE PHRASE The idea presented in that book are good. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Ann is the woman who is responsible for the error. ADJECTIVE PHRASE Ann is the woman responsible for the error.. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The books that are on the table are mine. ADJECTIVE PHRASE The books on the table are mine.
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
If there is no be form of a verb in the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its ing form, as in examples below.
EXAMPLES: : : : : : : : : ADJECTIVE CLAUSE English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters. ADJECTIVE PHRASE English has an alphabet consisting of 26 letters . ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome. ADJECTIVE PHRASE Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r)
If the adjective clause requires commas, as in (s), the adjective phrase also requires commas, as in (t). (s) : George Washington, who was the first president of the United States, was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army. George Washington, the first president of the United States, was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army. Paris, the capital of France, is an exiting city.
(t)
(u)
Adjective phrases in which a noun follows another noun, as in (t) and (u), are called appositives. If an adjective clause that contains be + a single adjective is changed, the adjective is moved to its normal position in front of the noun it modifies. : : : : : : ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Fruit that is fresh tastes better than old fruit. CORRECT PHRASE Fresh fruit tastes better than old fruit. INCORRECT PHRASE Fruit fresh tastes better than old fruit.
(v)
(w)
(x)
REVIEW
A relative clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a noun or pronoun in the independent clause. For this reason, relative clauses are also called adjective clause. The modified noun or pronoun is called the antecedent. A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. Place a relative clause after its antecedent and as close to it as possible to avoid confusion of meaning. Relative clauses are either restrictive (necessary) or nonrestrictive (unnecessary). Add commas before and after nonrestrictive clause. Relative Pronouns refer to humans refer to humans refer to humans, nonhumans, and things; shows possession refer to nonhumans and things refer to nonhumans and things The professor who teaches my biology class won a Nobel Prizes two year ago. Professor Jones, who teaches my biology class, won a Nobel Prize two years ago. She loaned her car to someone whom she didnt know. Professor Jones, whom I have for biology, won a Nobel Prize two years ago. I studied English from a professor whose name I have forgotten. Students whose native language is English do not study here. She teaches biology, which is my favorite subject. Her husband teaches Japanese, which I enjoy the least. The subject that I enjoy the most is English. The subject I enjoy the most is English. Relative Adverbs when where refer to a time refer to a place I work full time on days when I dont have classes. I didnt work last week, when I had my final exams. She has never returned to the city where she was born. First City Bank, where I have a checking account, was robbed last week.
who
whom
whose
which
that
Lesson V. Noun Clauses

DEFINITION: Noun Clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun. It can be a subject, object, or subject complement. However, in this chapter you will study the noun clause only as an object. Because a noun clause is dependent, it must be connected to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. A noun clause used as an object is preceded by an independent clause called an introductory clause. The noun clause is the object of the introductory clause verb, which is often a verb of speaking (say, tell, report) or mental activity (know, believe, wonder).
1. SEQUENCE OF TENSE
The verb in the introductory clause controls the tense of the verb in the noun clause. If the introductory clause verb simple present, present perfect, or future, the verb in the noun clause is in whatever tense expresses the meaning that the introductory clause intends. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. The prime ministers agree that global warming is a serious world problem. They hope that all nations will be responsible for solving this serious problem. Measurements have indicated that the average temperature of the earth has risen in the past on hundred years. Scientists believe that atmospheric warming has already begun.
However, when the verb in the introductory clause is in the past tense, the verb in the dependent clause is usually in the past form. EXAMPLES: 5. 6. 7. 8. The prime ministers agreed that global warming was a serious world problem. They hoped that all nations would be responsible for solving this serious problem. Measurements indicated that the average temperature of the earth had risen in the past on hundred years. Scientists believed that atmospheric warming had already begun.
2. TYPES OF NOUN CLAUSES 2.1. That-Clauses

That-clause are made from statements and are introduced by the subordinator that. The word that is often omitted if the meaning is clear without it. A that-clause is composed of: FORMULA:
+ that + subject verb + complement ... that global warming is a serious problem. ... that she is beautiful.
EXAMPLES: 1. I think. - (independent clause) that the study of the brain is fascinating - (that-clause) I think that the study of the brain is fascinating. 2. The professor explained. - (independent clause) that the brain is the master control for both mind and body - (that-clause) The professor explained that the brain is the master control for both mind and body.
Here are more examples: STATEMENT He is a good actor. NOUN CLAUSE (3): I think that he is a good actor. (4): I think he is a good actor.
(5): We know that the world is round. (6): We know the world is round. In (3): that he is a good actor is a noun clause. It is used as the object of the verb think. The world is round. The word that, when it introduces a noun clause, has no meaning in itself. It simply marks the beginning of the clause. Frequently it is omitted, as in (4) and (6), especially in speaking. She doesnt (7): That she doesnt understand understand spoken spoken English is obvious. English In (7): The noun clause (that she doesnt understand spoken English) is the subject of the sentence. The word that is not omitted when it introduces a noun clause used as the subject of a sentences, as in (7).
QUOTED SPEECH / DIRECT SPEECH QUOTED SPEECH / DIRECT SPEECH
(a): She said, My brother is a student. (b): My brother is a student, she said. (c): My brother, she said, is a student. In (a): Use a comma after she said. Capitalize the first word of the quoted sentence. Put the final quotation marks outside the period at the end of the sentence. Quoting One Sentence In (b): Use a comma, not a period, at the end of the quoted sentence when it precedes she said. In (c): If the quoted sentence is divided by she said, use a comma after the first part of the quote. Do not capitalize the first word after she said. (d): My brother is a student. He is Quoting More attending a university, she said. Than One (e): My brother is a student, she said. Sentence He is attending a university. In (d): Quotation marks are placed at the beginning and end of the complete quote. Notice: There are no quotation marks after student. In (e): If she said comes between two quoted sentences, the second sentence begins with quotation marks and a capital letter. (f): She asked, When will you be here? Quoting a Question (g): When will you be here? she asked. In (f): The question mark is inside the quotation marks. In (g): If a question mark is used, no comma is used before she said. (h): My brother is a student, said Anna. My brother, said Anna, is a student. In (h): The noun subject (Anna) follows said. A noun subject often follows the verb when the subject and verb come in the middle or at the end of a quoted sentence. (Note: A pronoun subject almost always precedes the verb. Very rare: My brother is a student, said she. Quoted Speech is also called direct speech. In British English, Quotation marks are called inverted commas and can consist of either double marks () or a single mark (): She said, My brother is a student.
REPORTED SPEECH / INDIRECT SPEECH QUOTED SPEECH AND REPORTED SPEECH

QUOTED SPEECH / DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH / INDIRECT SPEECH
(a): (b): (c): (d): (e):
I watch TV every day. I am watching TV. I have watched TV. I will watch TV. I can watch TV.
She said she watched TV every day. She said she was watching TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she would watched TV. She said she could watched TV.
Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotation marks are used. If the reporting verb (the main verb of the sentence, e.g., said) is simple past, the verb is the noun clause will usually also be in a past form, as in the examples.
(f):
I should watch TV. I ought to watch TV. I might watch TV.
She said she should watch TV. She said she ought to watch TV. She said she might watch TV.
In (f): should, ought to, and might do not change to a past form.
(g):
(h):
Immediate reporting: What did the teacher just say? I didnt hear him. He said he wants us to read Chapter Six. Later reporting: I didnt go to class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones make any exercise? Yes. He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.
Changing verbs to past forms in reported speech is common in both speaking and writing. However, sometimes in spoken English, no change is made in the noun clause verb, especially if the speaker is reporting something immediately or soon after it was said.
(i):
The world is round.
She said the world is round.
Also, sometimes the present tense is retained even in formal English when the reported sentence deals with a general truth, as in (i).
(j): (k): (l):
I watch TV every day. I watch TV every day. I watch TV every day.
She says she watches TV every day. She has said that she watches TV everyday. She will say that she watches TV every day.
When the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future, the noun clause verb is not changed.
2.2.
Wh-Word Clauses
Wh-Word Clause is a dependent noun clause in which the subordinator is a wh-word such as who, what, where when, why, how much, which, etc.
FORMULA:
+ subject + verb + complement wh-word ... who the president of South Africa is. ... how many citizens voted in the election.
or (When the wh-word and the subject of the clause are the same word)
+ + wh-word verb complement ... who made the error. ... what happened at the student body meeting.
The word order in these clauses sometimes causes problems for learners of English as a second language. It may seem strange not to follow words such as who and when with a verb. However, just remember that the word order in a noun clause is like a statement, not like a question. EXAMPLES: QUESTION
(a): (b): (c): (d):
NOUN CLAUSE
I dont know where she lives. I couldnt hear what he said. Do you know when they arrive? Do you know when do they arrive? (incorrect)
Where does she live? What did he say? When do they arrive? When do they arrive?
In (a): Where she lives is the object of the verb know. In a noun clause, the subject precedes the verb. Do not use question word order in a noun clause. Notice: does, did, and do are used in questions, but not in noun clauses: Do you know when do they arrive? (incorrect)
(e): (f): (g):
Who lives there? What happened? Who is at the door?
I dont know who lives there? Please tell me what happened. I wonder who is at the door?
In (e): The word order is the same in both the question and the noun clause because who is the subject in both.
(h): (i):
Who is she? Who are those men?
I dont know who she is. I dont know who those men are.
In (h): She is the subject of the question, so it is placed in front of the verb be in the noun clause.
(j): (k):
What did she say? What should they do?
What she said surprised me. What they should do is obvious.
In (j): What she said is the subject of the sentence. Notice in (k): A noun clause subject takes a singular verb. To change a wh-question into a wh-word clause: Notice that wh-word clauses always use normal SV statement word order. Also, since they are not questions, the helping verbs do, does, and did disappear. Change the word order to SV statement word order if necessary. Delete do, does, and did. EXAMPLES:
INTRODUCTORY CLAUSE
WH-WORD CLAUSE SUBORDINATOR+SUBJECT
VERB started the band. have sung with the group?

VERB
(l): (m):
I dont know Can you tell us
who which vocalists

SUBOR... SUBJECT
(n): (o):
I cant remember We asked
how often the group who the leader
perform. was.
2.3.
If / Whether-Clauses
If/Whether-Clause are dependent noun clauses that are formed from yes/no question and are introduced the subordinator whether or if. An if/whether-clause is composed of:
FORMULA: whether or if + subject + verb + complement ... whether the president will win reelection. ... if the airplane landed safely. To change a yes/no question into an if/whether-clause: Notice that wh-word clauses always use normal SV statement word order. Also, since they are not questions, the helping verbs do, does, and did disappear. Change the word order to SV statement word order if necessary. Delete do, does, and did. Add subordinator if or whether. Whether is more formal than if. (Optional) Add or not at the end of the clause or immediately after the subordinator whether. Add or not at the end of a clause beginning with if.
EXAMPLES: YES/NO QUESTION

(a): (b):
IF/WHETHER-CLAUSE
I dont know whether she will come. I dont know if she will come. I wonder whether he needs help. I wonder if he needs help.
Will she come? Does he need help?
When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to introduce the clause. (Note: Whether is more acceptable in formal English, but if is quite commonly used, especially in speaking.)
(c): (d):
Will she come? Will she come?
I wonder whether or not she will come. I wonder whether she will come or not.
(e):
Will she come?
I wonder if she will come or not. Whether she comes or not is unimportant to me.
In (c), (d), and (e): Notice the patterns when or not is used.
(f):
Will she come?
In (f): Notice that the noun clause is in the subject position.
REVIEW
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun as a subject, a subject complement, or an object. A noun clause used as an object of an introductory clause verb.
EXAMPLES: 1. I know that the people have different opinion about capital punishment. (noun clause as an object) Whether he has signed the contract or not doesnt matter. (noun clause as a subject) It is what you want to know. (noun clause as a complement)
2.
3.
Do not use a comma with noun clause. When writing a complex sentence with a noun clause, follow the sequence of tense rules. If the introductory clause verb is in the present, present perfect, or future tense, the verb in the noun clause can be in any tense. If the introductory clause verb is in a past tense, the verb in the noun clause must be in a past tense. Exception: If the noun clause states a general truth, then use simple present tense.
Relative clauses are either restrictive (necessary) or nonrestrictive (unnecessary). Add commas before and after nonrestrictive clause.
TYPE OF NOUN CLAUSES formed from statement introduced by subordinator that that can be omitted Ex: The Russian president and his wife told the press (that) they were enjoying their visit. formed from wh-question; wh-words are the subordinators: wh-word clauses: who, where, which, how, etc. use SV statement word order do, does, did disappear Ex: Do you know who the interpreter for the Russian leader was? The reporter asked which companies planned to do business in Russia. formed from yes/no questions introduced by subordinator if or whether. Whether is more formal if/whether clauses: than if. or not may be added use SV statement word order do, does, did disappear Ex: The question is whether (or not) American and European companies understand the Russian business environment (or not). No one knows if the experiment will succeed (or not).
that-clauses:
NOUN CLAUSE SUBORDINATORS SUBORDINATOR Included Statement that who whoever whom whomever whose what whatever which whichever Included Wh-question where wherever when whenever why how however how much how many how long/how often, etc Included Yes/No Question whether (or not) if any time any place anything/everything Whatever person MEANING
Lesson VI. Adverbial Clauses

DEFINITION: Adverbial Clause is a dependent clause introduced by an adverbial subordinator. It is used to modify the verb of the independent clause and tells when (time), where (place), why (reason), for what purpose, how, how long, or how far. It is also used to show contrast. FORMULA:
+ subject + verb + subordinator Because scientists are interested in the planets, ... ... because he was sleepy.
complement
ADVERBIAL SUBORDINATORS
SUBORDINATOR when whenever while as soon as after since as before until where anywhere wherever everywhere as + adverb + as as as if as though because as since so that in order that although even though though while whereas MEANING a point in time at any time at the same time
immediately at or the time that
Time
from that time while / when
Place Distance/Frequency Manner
anyplace anyplace everyplace comparison in the way or manner that
Reason Purpose Concession (unexpected result) Contrast (direct opposition)
for the reason that for the purpose of unexpected result direct opposition
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the adverbial clause is a dependent clause, it cannot stand alone. It must be combined with an independent clause to form a complex sentence. An adverbial clause can come either or after an independent clause. If it comes before an independent clause, a comma is placed after it. If the adverbial clause comes after the independent clause, no comma is necessary.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. When we were in New York, we saw several plays. We say several plays when we were in New York. Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. He went to bed because he was sleepy. When we were in New York. We saw several plays. He went to bed. Because he was sleepy.
Guideline: Adverb clauses are dependent clauses. They cannot stand alone as a sentence in written English. They must be connected to an independent clause.
2. TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 2.1. Time Clauses
EXAMPLES: after before

(a): (b): (c): (d): (e): (f):
when
(g):
while as since
(h): (i): (j): (k):
After she graduates, she will get a job. I will leave before he comes. I left before he came. When I arrived, he was talking on the phone. When I got there, he had already left. When it began to rain, I stood under a tree. (If a sentence contains when and has the simple past in both clauses, the action in the when clause happens first.) When Mrs. Chu heart a strange noise, she got up to investigate. While I was walking home1, it began to rain2. As I was walking home, It began to rain. I havent seen him since he left this morning. I have known her since I was a child.
We stayed there until we finished our work. (m): We stayed there till we finished our work (n): As soon as it stops raining, we will leave. as soon as once (o): Once it stops raining, we will leave. as soon as, once = when one event happens, another event happens soon afterward. I will never speak to him again as long as I live. (p): as long as I will never speak to him again so long as I live. (q): so long as as long as, so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end. (r): Whenever I see her, I say hello. whenever (s): Every time I see her, I say hello. every time until till
(l):
2.2.
Place Clauses
An adverbial place clause tell where the action described by the main verb took place. A place clause is introduced by the subordinators where, wherever, everywhere, and anywhere.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Most people prefer to shop where they can be sure of quality. Consumers usually prefer to do business wherever credit cards are accepted. Everywhere I shop, I use my credit card. I usually stop for lunch anywhere that is conveniently located.
2.3.
Manner, Distance, and Frequency Clauses

Adverb clauses of manner, distance, and frequency are introduced by : as + adverb + as as as if / as though
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. The demonstrators left as the police had ordered. (manner) The students completed the experiment as quickly as they could. (manner) Pat jogs on the beach as far as she can. (distance) Pat jogs on the beach as often as she can. (frequency)
2.4.
Reason Clauses
EXAMPLES: Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. (b): He went to bed because be was sleepy. An adverb clause may precede or follow the independent clause. Notice the punctuation in (a) and (b). because
(a): (c): Now that the semester is over, Im going to rest a few days and often take a trip. Jack lost his job. Now that hes unemployed, he cant pay his bill.
now that
(d):
Now that mean because now. In (c): Now that the semester is over means because the semester is now over.
(e): Since Monday is a holiday, we dont have to go to work. Since Youre a good cook and Im not, you should cook the dinner.
since
(f):
When since is used to mean because, it expresses a known cause; it means because it is a fact that or given that it is true that. Cause and effect sentence with since say: Given the fact that X is true, Y is the result. In (e): Given the fact that Monday is a holiday, we dont have to go to work. Note: Since has two meanings. One is because. It is also used in time clauses: e.g., Since I came here, I have met many people.
2.5.
Purpose Clauses
An Adverbial Purpose clauses states the purpose of the action in the independent clause. The purpose clause is introduced by the subordinators so that or in order that. The modals may/might, can/could, will/would, or have to usually occur in a purpose clause. In order that is formal.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. Farmers use chemical pesticides so that they can grow bigger harvests. Farmers also spray their fields in order that consumers might enjoy fresh fruits and vegetables.
Note: When the subjects of the two clauses are the same, purpose is often expressed by an infinitive phrase (to grow bigger harvests), or by an infinitive phrase with in order to (in order to grow bigger harvests), instead of by an adverbial clause. The structure is possible in the first example above but not in the second.
2.6.
Concession (Unexpected Result) Clauses

An Adverbial clauses of Concession are used to express ideas or actions that are not expected. The information in the independent clause indicates a concession or an unexpected result of something described in the dependent clause. Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the subordinators although, even though, and though.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Although I studied all night, I failed the test. I failed the test although I studied all night. Because the weather was cold, I didnt go swimming. Even though the weather was cold, I went swimming.
Because is used to express expected results. Even though is used to express unexpected results. Like because, even though introduces an adverb clause.
2.7.
Contrast (Direct Opposition) Clauses

In this type of adverbial clause, the information in the first clause is the direct opposite of the information in the second clause of the sentence. Use the subordinators while or whereas to introduce the clause. Place a comma between the two clauses. (This is an exception to the rule.)
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. San Francisco is very cool during the summer, whereas San Juan is extremely hot. While San Juan is extremely hot during the summer, San Francisco is very cool. Mary is rich, while John is poor. John is poor, while Mary is rich. Mary is rich, whereas John is poor. Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor.
Guideline: While and whereas have the same meaning. A comma is usually used even if the adverb clause comes second.. 7. While I was studying, the phone rang.
While is also used in time clause and means during the time that, as in (7).
3. REDUCTION OF ADVERB CLAUSES TO MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES 3.1. Introduction

We discussed changing adjective clauses to modifying phrases. Some adverb clauses may also be changed to modifying phrases, and the ways in which the changes are made the same: Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb. If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to ing. EXAMPLES:
(a): ADVERB CLAUSE: (b): MODIFYING PHRASE: While I was walking to class, I ran into an old friend. While walking to class, I ran into an old friend. Before I left for work, I ate breakfast. Before leaving for work, I ate breakfast.
(c): ADVERB CLAUSE: (d): MODIFYING PHRASE:
Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb. If there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to ing.
CHANGE POSSIBLE:
(e):
While I was sitting in class, I fell asleep. While sitting in class, I fell asleep. While Ann was sitting in class, She fell asleep. While sitting in class, Ann fell asleep.
(f):
CHANGE POSSIBLE:
An adverb clause can be changed to a modifying phrase only when the subject of the adverb clause and the subject of the main clause are the same. A modifying adverbial phrase that is the reduction of an adverb clause modifies the subject of the main clause.
(g): NO CHANGE POSSIBLE: While the teacher was lecturing to the class, I fell asleep. While we were walking home, a frog hopped across the road in front of us.
(h): NO CHANGE POSSIBLE:
No reduction is possible if the subjects of the adverb clause and the main clause are different, as in (g) and (h).
(i): (j):
INCORRECT: INCORRECT:
While walking home, a frog hopped across the road in front of us. While watching TV last night, the phone rang.
In (i): While walking home is called a dangling modifier or a dangling participle, i.e., a modifier that is incorrectly hanging alone without an appropriate noun or pronoun subject to modify.
3.2.
Changing Adverb Clauses to Modifying Adverbial Phrases
EXAMPLES: While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. (b): While walking down the street, I ran into while an old friend. (c): Walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. Sometimes while is omitted but the ing phrase at the beginning of the sentence gives the same meaning. (a), (b), and (c) have the same meaning. (c): Because she needed some money to buy a book, Srey Roth cashed a check. (d): Needing some money to buy a book, Srey Roth cashed a check. because (e): Because I have seen that movie before, I dont want to go again. (f): Having seen that movie before, I dont want to go again. Often an ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the meaning of because. (c) and (d) have the same meaning. (g): Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. (h): Being unable to afford a car, she bought because a bicycle. (i): Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle. A form of be in the adverb clause may be changed to being. The use of being make the cause and effect relationship clear.
(a):
Upon reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance. (k): When I reached the age of 21, I received when / upon my inheritance. (l): On reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance. Modifying adverbial phrases beginning with upon + -ing usually have the same meaning as adverb clauses introduced by when. (j) and (k) have the same meaning.
(j):
Upon can be shortened to on. (j), (k), and (l) all have the same meaning.
REVIEW
An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that answers such questions as where, when, why, how, for what purpose. Place an adverbial clause either before or after an independent clause. If the adverbial clause comes before an independent clause, it is followed by a comma. If it comes after an independent clause, do not use a comma (except with whereas/while). There are different types of adverbial clauses, each with its own subordinators.
ADVERBIAL SUBORDINATORS
SUBORDINATOR when whenever while as soon as after since as before until where anywhere wherever everywhere as + adverb + as as as if as though because as since so that in order that although even though though while whereas EXAMPLES
Time
Whenever I had to speak in front of people, I was paralyzed by fear.
Most people prefer to shop where they can be sure of quality.
I tried as hard as I could to calm myself.

Since I need to make speeches for career advancement, I enrolled in a speech class. I took a speech class so that I could overcome my fear.
Even though I am a politician, I still dont enjoy speaking in public. Mary is rich, while John is poor.
Lesson VII. Kinds of Sentences

A Sentence is a group of words that you use to communicate your ideas. Every sentence is formed from one or more clauses and expresses a complete thought. There are basically four kinds of sentences in English: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. The kind of sentence is determined by the kind of clauses used to form it.
1. SIMPLE SENTENCES
EXAMPLES: 1. I enjoy playing tennis with my friends every weekend. (Simple Sentence) I enjoy playing tennis and look forward to it every weekend. (Compound Predicates Sentence) My friends and I play tennis and go bowling every weekend. (Compound Subjects and Predicates Sentence) She has a big house. (Simple Sentence) Anna and I went to a restaurant last night. (Compound Subjects Sentence) He saw Mr. Chet along the road and talked with him for 2 hours. (Compound Predicates Sentence)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, enjoy and look forward to. This is called a compound verb. Because there is only one clause, this is a simple sentence. The third sentence has a compound subject as well as a compound verb, but it is still a simple sentence because it has only one clause.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCES
A Compound Sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. Ther are three ways to join the clauses: 1. 2. 3. With a coordinator With a conjunctive adverb With a semicolon I enjoy tennis, but I hate golf. I enjoy tennis; however, I hate golf. I enjoy tennis; I hate golf
2.1.
Compound Sentences with Coordinators
FORMULA: Independent Clause, + coordinator + Independent Clause Notice that there is a comma after the first independent clause. The following sentences illustrate the meanings of the seven FAN BOYS coordinators. EXAMPLES: Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their health. (The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.) Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more often. (The two clauses express equal, similar ideas.) Women dont smokes as much as men do, nor do they drink much alcohol. (Nor means and not. It joins two negative independent clauses. Notice that question word order is used after nor.) Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as women do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.) Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, or they risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express alternative possibilities.) Women used to be known as the weaker sex, yet in some ways, they are stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprise or unexpected contrast to the first clause.) Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in accident. (The second clause is the result of the first clause.)
for
and
nor
but
or
yet
so
2.2.
Compound Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs
FORMULA: Independent Clause; + conjunctive adverb,

+
Independent Clause
Notice the punctuation: a semicolon follows the first independent clause, and a comma follows the conjunctive adverb. Also, just like the FAN BOYS coordinators, conjunctive adverbs express relationships between the clauses. The following chart shows the coordinators and conjunctive adverbs that express similar meanings. COORDINATOR CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS besides furthermore moreover also however nevertheless nonetheless otherwise accordingly consequently hence therefore thus EXAMPLES
Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations; moreover, they prepare students to transfer to a four-year college. Many community colleges do not have dormitories; however, they provide housing referral service. Students must take final exams; otherwise, they will receive a grade of incomplete. Native and nonnative English speakers have different needs; therefore, most schools provide separate English classes for each group.
and
but yet or
so
2.3.
Compound Sentences with Semicolons
FORMULA: Independent Clause; Independent Clause EXAMPLES: 1. 2. My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies economics. Poland was the first eastern European countries to turn away from communism; other soon followed.
This kind of compound sentence is possible only when the two independent clauses are closely in meaning. If they arent closely related, they should be written as two simple sentences.
3. COMPLEX SENTENCES
A Complex Sentence contains one independent clause and one (or more) dependent clause(s). In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other one. The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea is placed in the dependent clause. There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and noun. DEPENDENT CLAUSES ADVERB CLAUSES A dependent adverb clause begins with an adverbial subordinator such as when, while, because, although, if, so that, etc. Although women in the United States could own property, 1. they could not vote until 1920. In the United States, women could not vote until 1920 2. although they could own property. Notice that there are two possible positions for an adverb clause: before or after the independent clause. If it comes before the independent clause, it is followed by a comma. If it comes after the independent clause, no comma is used. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES A dependent adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, which, whose, or that, or with a relative adverb such as when or where. An adjective clause functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a noun or pronoun. Men who are not married are called bachelors. 1. A cure for the common cold, which is caused by a virus, 2. has not been found. The house, where shakespear lived, has been visited by millions 3. people He is the man that I told you about. 4. A person whose blood pressure is high may have 5. heart disease. NOUN CLAUSES A dependent noun clause functions as a noun and begins with a whquestion word, whether, or sometime if. A dependent noun clause can be either a subject or an object. No commas are used. 1. That there is a hole in the ozones layer of the earths atmosphere is well known. He said that it would be difficult. 2. What she wears is exciting. 3.
4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
Compound-Complex Sentences are fairly advanced. This type of sentence is a combination of two (or more) independent clauses and one (or more) dependent clause(s). In other words, a complex sentence can be joined to another sentence with a coordinator. Many combinations are possible, and their punctuation requires careful attention. EXAMPLES: 1. I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to go to work immediately.
2.
After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to work immediately.
3.
I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work immediately because I had to support my family.
4.
I could not decide where I should work, so I did nothing.
5.
Many students drive their cars to college, but other prefer to take public transportation because free parking area is not available.
6.
If you wish to learn abroad, you should learn English, or you cannot catch up with the foreign students.
Punctuate the compound part of a compound-complex sentence like a compound sentence; that is, use a semicolon/comma combination (sentence 1), or put a comma before a coordinator joining two clauses (sentence 2, 3, and 4). Punctuate the complex part like a complex sentence. With adverb clauses, put a comma after a dependent adverb clause (sentence 2) but not before them (sentence 3). With noun clauses, use no commas (sentence 4).
Lesson VIII. Appositives and Appositive Phrases 1. APPOSITIVES

An Appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed near another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. EXAMPLES: 1. Theara and Theary, my sons, are studying for their final examination. We members voted to increase the annual dues to ten dollars. Three topics, clubs, careers, and sports, are covered regularly in Sophals column.
2. 3.
2. APPOSITIVE PHRASES
An Appositive Phrase includes all the words or phrases that modify an appositive. Like an appositive, the appositive phrase explains or identifies a noun or a pronoun. EXAMPLES: 1. The Riverside, the site of the annual boat racing during Water Festival, is a popular tourist destination. You students with completed exams may hand them in.
2.
Guideline: In some sentences the appositive or appositive phrase precedes the word that it identifies. EXAMPLE: 3. A man of courage, Sok Uttara expressed the sentiment of many overworked but underpaid local teachers A city of Cambodia, Phnom Penh is beautiful.
4.
3. ESSENTIAL AND NONESSENTIAL APPOSITIVE(S) PHRASES 3.1. Essential Appositive(s) Phrases

An essential appositive or an essential appositive phrase is one that is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. You should not use commas to separate this kind of appositive from the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLES: 1. Steven Spielbergs film E.T is very famous. (Steven Spielberg directed more than one film. The appositive is essential to identify which film.) A public university RUPP is famous. A cinema Lux is popular for adults.
2. 3.
3.2.
Nonessential Appositive(s) Phrases

A nonessential appositive or a nonessential appositive phrase is one that is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. You should use commas to separate this kind of appositive from the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLES: 1. Alfred Hitchcock directed Englands first sound film, Blackmail. (Only one film could have been the first English film with sound. Thus, the appositive is not essential in identifying the film.) The furniture belongs to Svay Vannak, our neighbor who just moved here from Battambang.
2.
Lesson IX. Participial Phrases 1. PARTICIPLES

A Participle is a word that is formed from a verb and used as an adjective to modify nouns. Even when it functions as an adjective, a participle keeps some of the properties of a verb; it expresses action or being, and it may take a complement. There are two kinds of participles: present participle and past participles. EXAMPLES: 1. Police investigating the crime are looking for three men. (present participle) The boy injured in the accident was taken to hospital. (past participle)
2.
1.1.
Present Participles
You form a present participle by adding ing to the verb. Notice how an active voice verb is changed to a present participle by adding the ing to the verb. An active voice verb (present, past, or future tense) becomes a present participle. CHANGING ACTIVE VERBS TO PARTICIPLES VERBS 1. The custom fascinates me. 2. The hostages will return
soon.
PRESENT PARTICIPLES
The fascinating custom interest me. The returning hostages were treated like heroes.
1.2.
Past Participles
You form a past participle in one of two ways, depending on whether the verb is regular or irregular. REGULAR VERBS: To form the past participle of a regular verb, add either d or ed to the infinitive form of the verb. INFINITIVE 1. 2. 3.
demonstrate talk spot
PAST PARTICIPLES
demonstrated talked spotted
IRREGULAR VERBS: To form the past participle of an Irregular verb, use a special form of the verb. You have to memorize the past participles of irregular verbs INFINITIVE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
break wear throw cut build
PAST PARTICIPLES
broken worn thrown cut built
CHANGING PASSIVE VERBS TO PARTICIPLES VERBS 1. The steak was burned. 2. My heart was broken. PAST PARTICIPLES
The burned steak tasted terrible. My broken heart will never heal.
Note: The terms present and past participle are misleading because these forms have nothing to do with present tense or past tense. Rather, they are based on active or passive voice. The present participle comes from an active voice verb, and the past participle comes from a passive voice verb. There are also perfect and continuous forms of participle, as shown in the following chart. FORMS The general forms do not indicate time: time is determined by the main clause verb The continuous form emphasizes action going on right now The perfect form emphasizes that the action happened before the time of the main clause verb
having + past participle
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
verb + ing
verb + ed, en, t, d
being + past participle
having been + past participle
2. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Participial Phrases are groups of words that contain participles + other modifiers. They are used to modify nouns and pronouns as follows: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. A car, speeding the wrong way down the street, struck a man. Speeding the wrong way down the street, a car struck a man. While crossing the street, a man was struck by a car.
Participial phrases can be formed by reducing relative clause and adverbial clauses.
2.1.
Participial Phrases from Relative Clauses

A. Participial phrases are formed by reducing subject pattern relative clauses. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 1. The man, who was
bleeding from several wounds , waited for someone to help him.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
The man, bleeding from several wounds , waited for someone to help him.
2. An ambulance that was An ambulance summoned

summoned by a bystander came quickly. by a bystander came quickly.
To form a participial phrase from a relative clause, delete the relative pronoun (who, which, or that) and change the verb to a participle. B. Position and Punctuation of Participial Phrases: Participial phrases, like relative clauses, can be restrictive (necessary) or nonrestrictive (unnecessary). If the original clause was nonrestrictive, the phrase will be also. Nonrestrictive phrases are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Restrictive phrases use no commas. The position of a participial phrase in a sentence depends on whether it is restrictive or nonrestrictive. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. There are twelve students receiving awards this year. Teresa, hurrying to catch a bus, fell. Hurrying to catch a bus, Teresa fell.
A restrictive participial phrase follows the noun it modifies. There are twelve students receiving Restrictive: awards this year.
A nonrestrictive participial phrase may precede or follow the noun it modifies. Nonrestrictive: Teresa, hurrying to catch a bus, fell.
Hurrying to catch a bus, Teresa fell. Caution!

When you use an introductory participial phrase one that appears at the beginning of a sentence make certain that it modifies the noun immediately following it (which should be the subject of the sentence) . If it does not, your sentence is incorrect. Hoping for an A, my exam grade disappointed me. (The participial phrase Hoping for an A cannot modify my exam grade . A grade cannot hope.)
Incorrect:
Correct:
Hoping for an A, I was disappointed in my exam grade. Sometimes the participial phrase modifies an entire independent clause . In this case, it follows the clause and requires a comma . The team won the championship, shocking the opponents .
C.
General Form ParticiplesActive Voice The general form participle in the active voice ends in ing: crying, living, not knowing, etc. It may come from present, past, or future tense verbs. SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
Many students who study at this university are from foreign countries. Students wh2o are taking calculus must buy a graphing calculator. The team members, who looked happy after their victory , were cheered by the fans. The crowd, which was cheering wildly as the game ended , wouldnt leave the stadium. Everyone who will take the TOEFL next month must preregister.
VERB TENSE
SENTENCE WITH PARTICIPIAL PHRASE

Many students studying at this university are from foreign countries. Student taking calculus must buy a graphing calculator.
Simple present
Present continuous
Simple past
The team members, looking happy after their victory , were cheered by the fans.
Past Continuous
Cheering wildly as the game ended , The crowd wouldnt leave the stadium.
Future
Everyone taking the TOEFL next month must preregister.
D.
General Form ParticiplesPassive Voice The general form participle in the passive voice is the past participle or third form of a verb: opened, spoken, cut. This form is made from both present and past tense verbs. SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
Lab reports that are not handed in by Friday will not be accepted. The prisoner, who was surrounded by guards , walked calmly to his execution.
VERB TENSE

Lab reports not handed in by Friday will not be accepted.
Simple present
Simple past
The prisoner, surrounded by guards , walked calmly to his execution. Surrounded by guards , the prisoner walked calmly to his execution.
E.
Continuous Form Participles Using the continuous form participle emphasizes that the action is happening now. Make the continuous form with being + a past participle: being shown, being held. SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
A law that is currently being debated concerns abortion rights. The signs that were being posted around campus support abortion rights.
VERB TENSE

A law currently being debated concerns abortion rights. The signs being posted around campus support abortion rights.
Present continuous
Past Continuous
F.
Perfect Form Participles Participle in perfect forms emphasize the completion of an action that takes place before the main verb. There are both active forms (having + a past participle) and passive forms (having been + a past participle). Both present perfect or past perfect verb can be changed into perfect participles. ACTIVE FORM: having + a past participle having discovered PASSIVE FORM: having been + a past participle having been discovered SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
The secrets of the universe, which have fascinated people for centuries , are slowly being revealed. The film, which had been shown too often in movie theaters , did not attract a large television audience.
VERB TENSE

The secrets of the universe, having fascinated people for centuries , are slowly being revealed.
Present perfect (active)
Past perfect (Passive)
The film, having been shown too often in movie theaters , did not attract a large television audience.
2.2.
Participial Phrases from Adverbial Clauses

A. Introduction Participial Phrases can also be formed from adverbial clauses. Time and reason clauses introduced by the subordinators after, while, when, before, since, because, and as can be reduced to participial phrases if the subjects of both the adverbial and independent clauses are the same. To change an adverbial clause to a participial phrase, follow these steps: STEP 1: Make sure that the subject of the adverbial clause and the subject of the independent clause are the same. While technology creates new jobs in some sectors of the economy, it takes away jobs in others. STEP 2: Delete the subject of the adverbial clause. If necessary, move it to the subject position in the independent clause. While technology creates new jobs in some it takes away jobs in
sectors of the economy, others.
STEP 3: Change the adverbial clause verb to the appropriate participle. While creating new jobs in some sectors of the economy, technology takes away jobs in others. STEP 4: Delete or retain the subordinator according to the following rules: Retain before, and retain since when it is a time subordinator. Delete all three reason subordinators because, since, and as. Delete as when it is a time subordinator. Retain after, while, and when if the participial phrase follows the independent clause. When the phrase is in another position, you may either retain or delete these subordinators.
A participial phrase from an adverbial clause may occupy several positions in a sentence. If a participial phrase from a reduced adverbial clause comes in front of the independent clause, punctuate it with a comma. If it comes after the independent clause, do not use commas. The following examples show you some of the possible variations of this structure. Note: There are many instances in which the rules given in the four steps above do not apply. The rules are only general guidelines and do not cover every situation. B. Reducing Adverbial Clauses to Participial Phrases
RETAIN
before
Before a student chooses a college , he or she should consider several factors. Before choosing a college , a student should consider several factors. A student should consider several factors before choosing a college .
since
Carlos hasnt been back home since he came to the United States three years ago. Since coming to the United States three years ago , Carlos hasnt been back home. Carlos hasnt been back home since coming to the United States three years ago .
DELETE
because since as (reason)
Because (Since/As) Carlos came from a very conservative family , he was shocked at the American system of coed (shared by men and women) dormitories. Coming from a very conservative family , Carlos was shocked at the American system of coed dormitories.
as (time)
As he gradually got used to American customs, he became less homesick. Gradually getting used to American customs , he became less homesick.
RETAIN OR DELETE
after
After he (had) pass the TOEFL exam, he became a freshman at his college. After passing the TOEFL exam , he became a freshman at his college.
(The perfect form, After having passed the TOEFL exam , is not necessary because the word after already indicates the time relationship)
Having passed the TOEFL exam , he became a freshman at his college. He became a freshman at his college after passing the TOEFL exam .
while
While he was preparing for the TOEFL , he lived with an American family. While preparing for the TOEFL, he lived with an American family Preparing for the TOEFL , he lived with an American family. He lived with an American family while preparing for the TOEFL .
when
When he was asked about his life in the United States, he said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick. When asked about his life in the United States , he said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick.
(Placing the participial phrase at the end of the sentence results in awkwardness: He said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick when asked about
his life in the United States. It sounds as if he is homesick only
when he is asked about his life in the United States. Asked about his life in the United States , he said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick.
Lesson X. Gerunds 1. GERUNDS 1.1. Introduction

A Gerund is the ing form of verb used as a noun. In the previous lesson, you saw that the ing form of a verb (the present participle) can be used in two different ways. It can be the main verb in a verb phrase. I am baking a bread. It can be used as an adjective. The loaf baking in the oven is my bread. The ing form of a verb has a third used: it can be used as a noun. When it is used as a noun, it is called a gerund. EXAMPLES:
(a): (b): (c): Playing(sub) tennis is(verb) fun. We
(sub)
enjoy
(verb)
playing
(obj)
tennis. Hes excited about(prep) playing(obj) tennis.
In (a): playing is a gerund. It is used as the subject of the sentence. In (b): playing is a gerund used as the object of the verb enjoy. In (c): playing is a gerund used as the object of the preposition about.
1.
COMPARE THE USE OF THE ING FORM OF VERB:
Walking is a good exercise.
walking
a gerund used as the subject of the sentence.
2.
Bob and Ann are playing tennis.
playing
a present participle used as part of the present progressive tense.
3.
I heard some surprising news.
surprising =
a present participle used as an adjective.
1.2.
Functions of Gerund
Although it functions as a noun, a gerund has some of the properties of a verb. Like a verb, it expresses action or being, and it may take a direct object, an indirect object, a predicate nominative, or a predicate adjective. Like a noun, a gerund may function as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, a predicate nominative, or an appositive in a sentence. SUBJECT Surveying was the occupation of Ngi Lyna. DIRECT OBJECT An automatic transmission makes driving much easier. INDIRECT OBJECT Raksmey will give surfing a try when she visits Hawaii. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION Please prepare this package for mailing. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE One of lifes little pleasures is conversing(conversation). APPOSITIVE Veasnas greatest interest, singing, may one day lead to a career in the entertainment field.
2. GERUND PHRASES 2.1. How Gerunds Become Phrases

Since a gerund is a verb form, it may have the same kinds of objects and modifiers that verbs can have. A gerund with its objects and modifiers is a gerund phrase. The entire gerund phrase is used as a noun. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. We enjoy playing tennis. We talked about going to Canada for our vacation. I appreciate your making the plans for Daras retirement party. Looking through the newspapers classified ads is one way to find a job.
2.2.
Functions of Gerund Phrase

SUBJECT Walking the dog is an adventure.
(The gerund walking has a direct object, dog. The gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence.)
DIRECT OBJECT I enjoy teaching Kanha English.

(The gerund teaching has an indirect object, Kanha, and a direct object, English. The gerund phrase is the direct object of the verb enjoyed.)
INDIRECT OBJECT All of the candidates have given fighting the high unemployment rate their greatest priority.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION We talked about giving a party while our friends are in town.
(The gerund giving has a direct object, party, and is modified by an adverb clause, while our friends are in town. The gerund phrase is the object of the preposition about.)
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE The clubs main activity is tutoring children in math.

(The gerund tutoring has a direct object, children, and is modified by an prepositional phrase (adverb phrase), in math. The gerund phrase is a predicate nominative.)
APPOSITIVE Neds hobby, collecting license plates from all fifty states, has turned out to be profitable.
Lesson XI. Infinitives 1. INFINITIVES 1.1. Introduction

An Infinitive is a verbal that consists of the first principal part, or dictionary form, of the verb. In a sentence the infinitive form is often preceded by the word to, which is called the sign of the infinitive. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. (to) wash (to) write (to) eat (to) buy
1.2.
Functions of Infinitive
An Infinitive can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
EXAMPLES:
To dance is her greatest pleasure. Dan likes to paint.
(To dance is the subject of the verb is.) (To paint is the direct object of the verb likes.) (To win is a predicate nominative after linking verb was.) (To see modifies the noun movie.)
Infinitive as Noun
His goal was to win.
The movie to see is Return of the Raiders.
Infinitive as Adjective
If you are making a (To buy modifies the summer skirt, cotton is noun material.) the best material to buy. The band has come to rehearse(practice). She seems glad to help. (To rehearse modifies the verb has come.) (To help modifies the adjective glad.)
Infinitive as Adverb
2. INFINITIVE PHRASES 2.1. How Infinitive Become Phrases

Since an infinitive is a verb form, it may have the same kinds of objects and modifiers that verbs can have. An infinitive with all its objects and modifiers is an infinitive phrase. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. To carry all these boxes without a two-wheeled cart will be hard work. The speakers request to listen quietly was heeded(obey) by the audience. Phakdey felt too tired to climb to the top of the mountain.
2.2.

Like an infinitive, an infinitive phrase may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Here are some examples of infinitive phrases: INFINITIVE AS NOUN To answer letters promptly makes me feel businesslike.
(The infinitive to answer has a direct object, letters, and is modified by an adverb, promptly. The whole infinitive phrase is used as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.)
INFINITIVE AS ADJECTIVE Her promise to exercise for an hour daily surprise us.
(The infinitive to exercise is modified by an adverb, daily, and a prepositional phrase, for an hour. The whole infinitive phrase is used an adjective modifying the noun promise.)
INFINITIVE AS ADVERB He is eager to leave as soon as the performance is finished.

(The infinitive to leave is modified by an adverb clause, as soon as the performance finished. The whole infinitive phrase is used as an adverb modifying the adjective eager.)
3. INFINITIVE CLAUSES
An Infinitive Clause is an infinitive phrase that has a subject. If the subject of the infinitive phrase is a pronoun, that pronoun is in the objective case. EXAMPLES: 1. I asked Moniroth to call home when the game is over.
(Moniroth is the subject of the infinitive phrase.)
2.
Will you tell him to give me a call?

(Him is the subject of the infinitive phrase.)
Guideline: Sometimes you use the infinitive without the word to, as in the following: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. Your pillows make me sneeze.
(... make me to sneeze.)
We watched my sister ride her bicycle.

(... watched my sister to ride her bicycle.)
Lesson XII. Phrases

A Phrase is a group of related words that function as a single part of speech and that lacks of a subject, a predicate, or both. There are three common kinds of phrases: prepositional phrase, appositive phrases, and verbal phrases. Depending on which kind of phrase it is, a phrase may be used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.
PREPOSITION AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 1. PREPOSITION

DEFINITION: Preposition is a word that expresses a relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another word in a sentence. Notice how the different prepositions below change the meanings of the sentences: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. Dara stood with his dog. Dara stood without his dog. Dara stood like his dog. Dara stood on his gog.
2. COMPOUND PREPOSITION
A Compound Preposition is a preposition that consists of more than one word. Frequently used compound prepositions are in the list that follows: according to as of because of in addition to in place of in regard to in spite of on account of prior to with respect to aside from as well as by means of in front of in respect to instead of out of with regard to
3. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A preposition is always followed by a noun or pronoun. This word is called the object of the preposition. The preposition and its object form a grouping called the prepositional phrase. Here are some prepositional phrases. The objects of the prepositions are in boldface type: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. under the stars after you below the surface
3.1.
Prepositional Phrases Used as Adjectives

A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective when it modifies a noun or a pronoun. Such prepositional phrase are sometimes called adjective phrases.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. Who designed the building across the street? He found his wallet under the small wooden table.
3.2.
Prepositional Phrases Used as Adverbs

A prepositional phrase functions as an adverb when it modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Such prepositional phrases are sometimes called adverb phrases.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. Regional interests sometimes conflict (verb) with national interest (prepositional phrase) ? The service mechanic was suspicious (adjective) of the
3.
sound (prepositional phrase) ? You must look further (adverb) behind the building (prepositional phrase) to find the painting materials.
4. ADVERB OR PREPOSITION?
As you may remember, many adverbs also tell where. But unlike prepositions, adverbs do not take objects. Compare these sentences: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. He came in. He was carrying some flowers in a car. We looked around. We looked around the park. They sat down. They sat down the street. He is hanging around. He is hanging around the house. - (adverb) - (preposition) - (adverb) - (preposition) - (adverb) - (preposition) - (adverb) - (preposition)
When you are trying to decide whether a word is an adverb or a preposition, you look to see if the word is followed by a noun or a pronoun that is its object. If it has an object, it is a preposition.
APPOSITIVES AND APPOSITIVE PHRASES 1. APPOSITIVES

An Appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed near another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. EXAMPLES: 1. Theara and Theary, my sons, are studying for their final examination. We members voted to increase the annual dues to ten dollars. Three topics, clubs, careers, and sports, are covered regularly in Sophals column.
2. 3.
2. APPOSITIVE PHRASES
An Appositive Phrase includes all the words or phrases that modify an appositive. Like an appositive, the appositive phrase explains or identifies a noun or a pronoun.
EXAMPLES:
1.
The Riverside, the site of the annual boat racing during Water Festival, is a popular tourist destination. You students with completed exams may hand them in.
2.
Guideline: In some sentences the appositive or appositive phrase precedes the word that it identifies. EXAMPLE: 3. A man of courage, Sok Uttara expressed the sentiment of many overworked but underpaid local teachers A city of Cambodia, Phnom Penh is beautiful.
4.
3. ESSENTIAL AND NONESSENTIAL APPOSITIVE(S) PHRASES 3.1. Essential Appositive(s) Phrases
An essential appositive or an essential appositive phrase is one that is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. You should not use commas to separate this kind of appositive from the rest of the sentence. EXAMPLES: 1. Steven Spielbergs film E.T is very famous. (Steven Spielberg directed more than one film. The appositive is essential to identify which film.) A public university RUPP is famous.
4.
3.2.
Nonessential Appositive(s) Phrases

A nonessential appositive or a nonessential appositive phrase is one that is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. You should use commas to separate this kind of appositive from the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLES: 1. Alfred Hitchcock directed Englands first sound film, Blackmail. (Only one film could have been the first English film with sound. Thus, the appositive is not essential in identifying the film.) The furniture belongs to Svay Vannak, our neighbor who just moved here from Battambang.
2.
VERBALS AND VERBAL PHRASES

Verbals are verb forms that functions as nouns, adjective, or adverbs. Although verbals function as other parts of speech, they retain some of the properties of verbs; they express action of being, and they may take complements. There are three kinds of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
I. PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1. PARTICIPLES
A Participle is a word that is formed from a verb and used as an adjective to modify nouns. Even when it functions as an adjective, a participle keeps some of the properties of a verb; it expresses action or being, and it may take a complement. There are two kinds of participles: present participle and past participles. EXAMPLES: 1. Police investigating the crime are looking for three men. (present participle) The boy injured in the accident was taken to hospital. (past participle)
2.
1.1.
Present Participles
You form a present participle by adding ing to the verb. Notice how an active voice verb is changed to a present participle by adding the ing to the verb. An active voice verb (present, past, or future tense) becomes a present participle. CHANGING ACTIVE VERBS TO PARTICIPLES VERBS 1. The custom fascinates me. 2. The hostages will return
soon.
PRESENT PARTICIPLES
The fascinating custom interest me. The returning hostages were treated like heroes.
1.2.
Past Participles
You form a past participle in one of two ways, depending on whether the verb is regular or irregular. REGULAR VERBS: To form the past participle of a regular verb, add either d or ed to the infinitive form of the verb. INFINITIVE 1. 2. 3.
demonstrate talk spot
PAST PARTICIPLES
demonstrated talked spotted
IRREGULAR VERBS: To form the past participle of an Irregular verb, use a special form of the verb. You have to memorize the past participles of irregular verbs INFINITIVE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
break wear throw cut build
PAST PARTICIPLES
broken worn thrown cut built
CHANGING PASSIVE VERBS TO PARTICIPLES VERBS 1. The steak was burned. 2. My heart was broken. PAST PARTICIPLES
The burned steak tasted terrible. My broken heart will never heal.
Note: The terms present and past participle are misleading because these forms have nothing to do with present tense or past tense. Rather, they are based on active or passive voice. The present participle comes from an active voice verb, and the past participle comes from a passive voice verb.
There are also perfect and continuous forms of participle, as shown in the following chart. FORMS The general forms do not indicate time: time is determined by the main clause verb The continuous form emphasizes action going on right now The perfect form emphasizes that the action happened before the time of the main clause verb
having + past participle
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
verb + ing
verb + ed, en, t, d
being + past participle
having been + past participle
2. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Participial Phrases are groups of words that contain participles + other modifiers. They are used to modify nouns and pronouns as follows: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. A car, speeding the wrong way down the street, struck a man. Speeding the wrong way down the street, a car struck a man. While crossing the street, a man was struck by a car.
Participial phrases can be formed by reducing relative clause and adverbial clauses.
2.1.
Participial Phrases from Relative Clauses

A. Participial phrases are formed by reducing subject pattern relative clauses. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 1. The man, who was
bleeding from several wounds , waited for someone to help him.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
The man, bleeding from several wounds , waited for someone to help him.
2. An ambulance that was An ambulance summoned

summoned by a bystander came quickly. by a bystander came quickly.
To form a participial phrase from a relative clause, delete the relative pronoun (who, which, or that) and change the verb to a participle. B. Position and Punctuation of Participial Phrases: Participial phrases, like relative clauses, can be restrictive (necessary) or nonrestrictive (unnecessary). If the original clause was nonrestrictive, the phrase will be also. Nonrestrictive phrases are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Restrictive phrases use no commas. The position of a participial phrase in a sentence depends on whether it is restrictive or nonrestrictive. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. There are twelve students receiving awards this year. Teresa, hurrying to catch a bus, fell. Hurrying to catch a bus, Teresa fell.
A restrictive participial phrase follows the noun it modifies. There are twelve students receiving Restrictive: awards this year.
A nonrestrictive participial phrase may precede or follow the noun it modifies. Nonrestrictive: Teresa, hurrying to catch a bus, fell.
Hurrying to catch a bus, Teresa fell. Caution!

When you use an introductory participial phrase one that appears at the beginning of a sentence make certain that it modifies the noun immediately following it (which should be the subject of the sentence) . If it does not, your sentence is incorrect. Hoping for an A, my exam grade disappointed me. (The participial phrase Hoping for an A cannot modify my exam grade . A grade cannot hope.)
Incorrect:
Correct:
Hoping for an A, I was disappointed in my exam grade. Sometimes the participial phrase modifies an entire independent clause .
In this case, it follows the clause and requires a comma .
The team won the championship, shocking the opponents .
C.
General Form ParticiplesActive Voice The general form participle in the active voice ends in ing: crying, living, not knowing, etc. It may come from present, past, or future tense verbs. SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
Many students who study at this university are from foreign countries. Students wh2o are taking calculus must buy a graphing calculator. The team members, who looked happy after their victory , were cheered by the fans. The crowd, which was cheering wildly as the game ended , wouldnt leave the stadium. Everyone who will take the TOEFL next month must preregister.
VERB TENSE

Many students studying at this university are from foreign countries. Student taking calculus must buy a graphing calculator.
Simple present
Present continuous
Simple past
The team members, looking happy after their victory , were cheered by the fans.
Past Continuous
Cheering wildly as the game ended , The crowd wouldnt leave the stadium.
Future
Everyone taking the TOEFL next month must preregister.
D.
General Form ParticiplesPassive Voice The general form participle in the passive voice is the past participle or third form of a verb: opened, spoken, cut. This form is made from both present and past tense verbs. SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
Lab reports that are not handed in by Friday will not be accepted. The prisoner, who was surrounded by guards , walked calmly to his execution.
VERB TENSE

Lab reports not handed in by Friday will not be accepted.
Simple present
Simple past
The prisoner, surrounded by guards , walked calmly to his execution. Surrounded by guards , the prisoner walked calmly to his execution.
E.
Continuous Form Participles Using the continuous form participle emphasizes that the action is happening now. Make the continuous form with being + a past participle: being shown, being held. SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
A law that is currently being debated concerns abortion rights. The signs that were being posted around campus support abortion rights.
VERB TENSE

A law currently being debated concerns abortion rights. The signs being posted around campus support abortion rights.
Present continuous
Past Continuous
F.
Perfect Form Participles Participle in perfect forms emphasize the completion of an action that takes place before the main verb. There are both active forms (having + a past participle) and passive forms (having been + a past participle). Both present perfect or past perfect verb can be changed into perfect participles. ACTIVE FORM: having + a past participle having discovered PASSIVE FORM: having been + a past participle having been discovered SENTENCE WITH RELATIVE CLAUSE
The secrets of the universe, which have fascinated people for centuries , are slowly being revealed. The film, which had been shown too often in movie theaters , did not attract a large television audience.
VERB TENSE

The secrets of the universe, having fascinated people for centuries , are slowly being revealed.
Present perfect (active)
Past perfect (Passive)
The film, having been shown too often in movie theaters , did not attract a large television audience.
2.2.
Participial Phrases from Adverbial Clauses

A. Introduction Participial Phrases can also be formed from adverbial clauses. Time and reason clauses introduced by the subordinators after, while, when, before, since, because, and as can be reduced to participial phrases if the subjects of both the adverbial and independent clauses are the same. To change an adverbial clause to a participial phrase, follow these steps: STEP 1: Make sure that the subject of the adverbial clause and the subject of the independent clause are the same. While technology creates new jobs in some sectors of the economy, it takes away jobs in others. STEP 2: Delete the subject of the adverbial clause. If necessary, move it to the subject position in the independent clause. While technology creates new jobs in some it takes away jobs in
sectors of the economy, others.
STEP 3: Change the adverbial clause verb to the appropriate participle. While creating new jobs in some sectors of the economy, technology takes away jobs in others. STEP 4: Delete or retain the subordinator according to the following rules: Retain before, and retain since when it is a time subordinator. Delete all three reason subordinators because, since, and as. Delete as when it is a time subordinator. Retain after, while, and when if the participial phrase follows the independent clause. When the phrase is in another position, you may either retain or delete these subordinators.
A participial phrase from an adverbial clause may occupy several positions in a sentence. If a participial phrase from a reduced adverbial clause comes in front of the independent clause, punctuate it with a comma. If it comes after the independent clause, do not use commas. The following examples show you some of the possible variations of this structure. Note: There are many instances in which the rules given in the four steps above do not apply. The rules are only general guidelines and do not cover every situation. B. Reducing Adverbial Clauses to Participial Phrases
RETAIN
before
Before a student chooses a college , he or she should consider several factors. Before choosing a college , a student should consider several factors. A student should consider several factors before choosing a college .
since
Carlos hasnt been back home since he came to the United States three years ago. Since coming to the United States three years ago , Carlos hasnt been back home. Carlos hasnt been back home since coming to the United States three years ago .
DELETE
because since as (reason)
Because (Since/As) Carlos came from a very conservative family , he was shocked at the American system of coed (shared by men and women) dormitories. Coming from a very conservative family , Carlos was shocked at the American system of coed dormitories.
as (time)
As he gradually got used to American customs, he became less homesick. Gradually getting used to American customs , he became less homesick.
RETAIN OR DELETE
after
After he (had) pass the TOEFL exam, he became a freshman at his college. After passing the TOEFL exam , he became a freshman at his college.
Having passed the TOEFL exam , he became a freshman at his college. He became a freshman at his college after passing the TOEFL exam .
while
While he was preparing for the TOEFL , he lived with an American family. While preparing for the TOEFL, he lived with an American family Preparing for the TOEFL , he lived with an American family. He lived with an American family while preparing for the TOEFL .
when
When he was asked about his life in the United States, he said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick. When asked about his life in the United States , he said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick.
(Placing the participial phrase at the end of the sentence results in awkwardness: He said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick when asked about
his life in the United States. It sounds as if he is homesick only
when he is asked about his life in the United States. Asked about his life in the United States , he said that he was enjoying himself, but that he was a little homesick.
II. GERUNDS AND GERUND PHRASES

1. GERUNDS 1.1. Introduction
A Gerund is the ing form of verb used as a noun. In the previous lesson, you saw that the ing form of a verb (the present participle) can be used in two different ways. It can be the main verb in a verb phrase. I am baking a bread. It can be used as an adjective. The loaf baking in the oven is my bread. The ing form of a verb has a third used: it can be used as a noun. When it is used as a noun, it is called a gerund. EXAMPLES:
(a): (b): (c): Playing(sub) tennis is(verb) fun. We(sub) enjoy(verb) playing(obj) tennis. Hes excited about(prep) playing(obj) tennis. In (a): playing is a gerund. It is used as the subject of the sentence. In (b): playing is a gerund used as the object of the verb enjoy. In (c): playing is a gerund used as the object of the preposition about.
1.
COMPARE THE USE OF THE ING FORM OF VERB:
Walking is a good exercise.
walking
a gerund used as the subject of the sentence.
2.
Bob and Ann are playing tennis.
playing
a present participle used as part of the present progressive tense.
3.
I heard some surprising news.
surprising =
a present participle used as an adjective.
1.2.
Functions of Gerund
Although it functions as a noun, a gerund has some of the properties of a verb. Like a verb, it expresses action or being, and it may take a direct object, an indirect object, a predicate nominative, or a predicate adjective. Like a noun, a gerund may function as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, a predicate nominative, or an appositive in a sentence. SUBJECT Surveying was the occupation of Ngi Lyna. DIRECT OBJECT An automatic transmission makes driving much easier. INDIRECT OBJECT Raksmey will give surfing a try when she visits Hawaii. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION Please prepare this package for mailing. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE One of lifes little pleasures is conversing(conversation). APPOSITIVE Veasnas greatest interest, singing, may one day lead to a career in the entertainment field.
2. GERUND PHRASES 2.1. How Gerunds Become Phrases

Since a gerund is a verb form, it may have the same kinds of objects and modifiers that verbs can have. A gerund with its objects and modifiers is a gerund phrase. The entire gerund phrase is used as a noun. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. We enjoy playing tennis. We talked about going to Canada for our vacation. I appreciate your making the plans for Daras retirement party. Looking through the newspapers classified ads is one way to find a job.
2.2.

SUBJECT Walking the dog is an adventure.
(The gerund walking has a direct object, dog. The gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence.)
DIRECT OBJECT I enjoy teaching Kanha English.

(The gerund teaching has an indirect object, Kanha, and a direct object, English. The gerund phrase is the direct object of the verb enjoyed.)
INDIRECT OBJECT All of the candidates have given fighting the high unemployment rate their greatest priority.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION We talked about giving a party while our friends are in town.
(The gerund giving has a direct object, party, and is modified by an adverb clause, while our friends are in town. The gerund phrase is the object of the preposition about.)
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE The clubs main activity is tutoring children in math.

(The gerund tutoring has a direct object, children, and is modified by an prepositional phrase (adverb phrase), in math. The gerund phrase is a predicate nominative.)
APPOSITIVE Neds hobby, collecting license plates from all fifty states, has turned out to be profitable.
III. INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES

1. INFINITIVES 1.1. Introduction
An Infinitive is a verbal that consists of the first principal part, or dictionary form, of the verb. In a sentence the infinitive form is often preceded by the word to, which is called the sign of the infinitive. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. (to) wash (to) write (to) eat (to) buy
1.2.
Functions of Infinitive
An Infinitive can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
EXAMPLES:
To dance is her greatest pleasure. Dan likes to paint.
(To dance is the subject of the verb is.) (To paint is the direct object of the verb likes.) (To win is a predicate nominative after linking verb was.) (To see modifies the noun movie.)
Infinitive as Noun
His goal was to win.
The movie to see is Return of the Raiders.
Infinitive as Adjective
If you are making a (To buy modifies the summer skirt, cotton is noun material.) the best material to buy. The band has come to rehearse(practice). She seems glad to help. (To rehearse modifies the verb has come.) (To help modifies the adjective glad.)
Infinitive as Adverb
2. INFINITIVE PHRASES 2.1. How Infinitive Become Phrases

Since an infinitive is a verb form, it may have the same kinds of objects and modifiers that verbs can have. An infinitive with all its objects and modifiers is an infinitive phrase. EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. To carry all these boxes without a two-wheeled cart will be hard work. The speakers request to listen quietly was heeded(obey) by the audience. Phakdey felt too tired to climb to the top of the mountain.
2.2.

Like an infinitive, an infinitive phrase may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Here are some examples of infinitive phrases: INFINITIVE AS NOUN To answer letters promptly makes me feel businesslike.
(The infinitive to answer has a direct object, letters, and is modified by an adverb, promptly. The whole infinitive phrase is used as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.)
INFINITIVE AS ADJECTIVE Her promise to exercise for an hour daily surprise us.
(The infinitive to exercise is modified by an adverb, daily, and a prepositional phrase, for an hour. The whole infinitive phrase is used an adjective modifying the noun promise.)
INFINITIVE AS ADVERB He is eager to leave as soon as the performance is finished.

(The infinitive to leave is modified by an adverb clause, as soon as the performance finished. The whole infinitive phrase is used as an adverb modifying the adjective eager.)
3. INFINITIVE CLAUSES
The infinitive clause has been included in the section on phrase because it is closely related to the infinitive phrase. An Infinitive Clause is an infinitive phrase that has a subject. If the subject of the infinitive phrase is a pronoun, that pronoun is in the objective case. EXAMPLES: 1. I asked Moniroth to call home when the game is over.
(Moniroth is the subject of the infinitive phrase.)
2.
Will you tell him to give me a call?

(Him is the subject of the infinitive phrase.)
Guideline: Sometimes you use the infinitive without the word to, as in the following: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. Your pillows make me sneeze.
(... make me to sneeze.)
We watched my sister ride her bicycle.

(... watched my sister to ride her bicycle.)
Lesson XIII. Sentence Problems

In this section of the book, you will learn to recognize and correct some common errors in sentence structure. The typical sentence problems are fragment, choppy sentences, comma splices, run-on sentences, and stringy sentences. Good writers eliminate these sentence faults by applying the following advice.
1. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS 1.1. Introduction

Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences or parts of sentences. Remember that a complete sentence must contain at least one main or independent clause. Fragments are groups of words that have been broken off from preceding or succeeding sentences. They cannot function as complete sentences. Avoid fragments by making certain that each sentence contains a subject and a verb and makes sense by itself. In the following examples the fragments are italicized. Notice how they can be revised to make complete sentences. EXAMPLES:
(a): Fragment :
Revision
or
The saleslady told us she would be with us in a minute. But spent ten minutes with another customer. The saleslady told us she would be with us in a minute but spent ten minutes with another customer. The saleslady told us she would be with us in a minute, but she spent ten minutes with another customer. Were looking for a potential manager. An individual who can accept responsibility and supervise other employees. Were looking for a potential manager who can accept responsibility and supervise other employees. You are... of my life... thats why I will... around. You are the sunshine of my life. Thats why I will be around.
(b): Fragment :
Revision
(c):
Fragment : Revision :
Here are more sentence fragments: EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. left for the city Wilma bought if we get there first
These fragments do not give you enough information to understand the writers thoughts. In the first example, you dont know who or what left for the city. In the second example, you dont know what Wilma bought. In the third example, you might wonder what will happen if we get there first. Using fragments can result in writing that is confusing. If writing is confusing, it will not be understood by the reader. Since people write in order to communicate their ideas, its important to write in complete sentence.
1.2.
Methods for Correcting Fragments
EXAMPLES: 1. Because some students work part-time while taking a full load of courses.
PROBLEM : TO CORRECT : This is a dependent clause. Attach it to an independent clause.
Because some students work part-time while taking a full load of courses, they have very little free time. For example, the increase in the cost of renting an apartment.
PROBLEM : TO CORRECT : There is no verb. Rewrite the sentence so that it has a verb.
2.
For example, the cost of renting an apartment increase. Feeling lonely and failing most of his classes.
PROBLEM : TO CORRECT : This is a participial phrase Attach the phrase to an independent clause.
3.
Feeling lonely and failing most of his classes, the student wisely decided to make an appointment with his counselor.
4.
Many young people who leave home at an early age.

PROBLEM
TO CORRECT :
This is a noun phrase + a relative clause. The independent clause is unfinished. Change the relative clause into an independent clause, or complete the unfinished independent clause.
Many young people leave home at an early age. Many young people who leave home at an early age do not manage their money well.
Always check your own writing for sentence fragments. Pay particular attention to your sentences beginning with subordinating conjunctions (although, since, because, if, before, etc.). These are DANGEROUS WORD! Make sure that every subordinate clause beginning with these words is attached to an independent clause.
2. CHOPPY SENTENCES 2.1. Introduction

Choppy Sentences are sentences that are too short. Although short sentences can be effective, overuse of them is considered poor style in academic writing. Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three short sentences to make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make a compound or a complex sentence should be based on whether the ideas in the short sentences are equal or whether one idea is dependent on the other.
2.2.
Methods for Correcting Choppy Sentences

If the sentences express equal ideas, use coordination to combine them.
CHOPPY
Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is an unlimited energy source. Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new. Both wind and water are enduring sources of power. Dams have produced hydraulic power for a long time, but windmills are relatively new.
CORRECTED
If the sentences express unequal ideas, that is, if one sentence expresses a less important idea than the other, use subordinator to combine them.
CHOPPY
We must find new sources of energy. Natural sources of energy are dwindling. Solar energy is a promising new source of energy. Solar energy is energy from the sun. We must find new sources of energy because natural sources of energy are dwindling. Solar energy, which is energy from the sun, is a promising new source.
CORRECTED
3. RUN-ON SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES 3.1. Run-On Sentences

A Run-On Sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written one after another with no punctuation. Notice how the following run-on sentences can be corrected by dividing the two thoughts into separate sentences. (a): Run-on Revision : : The work ethic in America is not dead it is deeply ingrained in most people. The work ethic in America is not dead. It is deeply ingrained in most people. Send an E-mail message to all members of the committee tell them our next meeting is planned for Friday. Send an E-mail message to all members of the committee. Ttell them our next meeting is planned for Friday.
(b): Run-on
Revision
A similar error happens when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction. This kind of error is called a comma splice.
3.2.
Comma Splice
A Comma Splice results when two sentences are incorrectly joined together with a comma. The following sentences show how comma splices could be revised into acceptable sentences. (a): Comma Splice Revision : Let us show you how to improve your mail service, contact our postal service representative. Let us show you how to improve your mail service. Contact our postal service representative. Many applicants responded to our advertisement, however only one had the proper computer training. Many applicants responded to our advertisement; however, only one had the proper computer training.
(b): Comma Splice Revision
3.3.
The Ways to Correct Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices

Run-on Comma Splice : My family went to Australia then they emigrated to Canada. : My family went to Australia, then they emigrated to Canada.
1.
Add a period
: My family went to Australia. Then they emigrated to Canada. : My family went to Australia; then they emigrated to Canada. : My family went to Australia, and then they emigrated to Canada. : My family went to Australia before they emigrated to Canada. or After my family went to Australia, they emigrated to Canada.
2.
Add a semicolon
3.
Add a coordinator
4.
Add a subordinator
4. STRINGY SENTENCES
A Stringy Sentence is a sentence with too many independent clauses, usually connected with and, but, so, and because. It often results from writing the way you speak, going on and on like a string without an end. There is no rule limiting the number of independent clauses allowed in one sentence, but two is a good maximum. To correct a stringy sentence, divide it and /or recombine the clauses, remembering to subordinate when appropriate. Stringy : Many students attend classes all morning, and then they work all afternoon, and they also have to study at night, so they are usually exhausted by the weekend. : Many students attend classes all morning and work all afternoon. Since they also have to study at night, they are usually exhausted by the weekend. or Because many students attend classes all morning, work all afternoon, and study at night, they are usually exhausted by the weekend.
Corrected
UNIT
FIVE
WRITINGAPARAGRAPH
Lesson I. The Process of Academic Writing 1. INTRODUCTION
Academic writing, as the name implies, is the kind of writing that you are required to do in college or university. It differs from other kinds of writing such as personal, literacy, journalistic, or business writing. It differences can be explained in part by its audience, tone, and purpose. Whenever you write, consider your specific audience, that is, the people who will read what you have written. Knowing your audience will help you to communicate clearly and effectively. In academic writing, your audience is primarily your professors or instructors. In addition, you should also consider the tone of your writing, which depends on your subject matter and on your audience. Tone is your style or manner of expression. It is revealed by your choice of words and grammatical structures and even the length of your sentences. The tone of a piece of writing can be, for example, serious or amusing(funny). Academic writing is formal and serious in tone.
2. THE WRITING PROCESS 2.1. Stage I: Prewriting

Writing, particularly academic writing, is not easy. It takes study and practice to develop this skill. For both native speakers and new learners of English, it is important to note that writing is a process, not a product. This means that a piece of writing, whether it is a composition for your English class or a lab report for your chemistry class, is never complete; that is, it is always possible to review and revise, and review and revise again. There are four main stages in the writing process: prewriting, planning, writing, and revising drafts, and writing the final copy to hand in. A. Step 1: Choosing and Narrowing a Topic If you are given a specific writing assignment, then, of course, what you can write about is limited. On the other hand, when you are given a free choice of topics and can write about something you are interested in, then you must
narrow the topic to a particular aspect of that general subject. Suppose you are interested in the environment. It would be impossible to cover such a big topic in a paragraph. You would have to narrow the topic to perhaps environmental pollution, if that is your interest. Environmental pollution, however, is still too broad a topic for a paragraph, so you might even further narrow the topic to a type of environmental pollution, such as pollution of the oceans. However, writing about ocean pollution is still too broad because it would include pollution by oil, chemicals, sewage, and garbage. Therefore, you might decide to write about oil as a source of ocean pollution. Finally, you might make this topic even narrower by writing only about the effects of oil spills on sea life. The point is, you must narrow the subject of your paragraph to a specific focus so that you can write about it clearly and completely. The diagram below illustrates the process of narrowing a general topic to a specific one.
General Topic
Specific Topic Very Specific Topic
B.
Step 2: Brainstorming After you have chosen a topic and narrowed it to a specific focus, the next prewriting step is to generate ideas. This is done by a process called brainstorming. Although this brainstorming activities may seem unnecessary at firs, after doing them a few times, you will realize their usefulness. Brainstorming for ideas can get you started writing more quickly and save you time in the later stages of the writing process. Three useful brainstorming techniques are listing, freewriting, and clustering. Learn how to do each of them and then decide which is the most productive for you.
L ISTING Listing is a brainstorming technique in which you think about your topic and quickly make a list of whatever words or phrases come into you mind. Your purpose is to produce as many ideas as possible in a short time, and your goal is to find a specific focus for your topic. Follow this procedure: Write down the general topic at the top of your paper. Then make a list of every idea that comes into you mind about that topic. Keep the ideas flowing. Try to stay on the general topic; however, if you write down information that is completely off the topic, dont worry about it because you can cross it out later. Use words, phrases, or sentences, and dont worry about spelling or grammar.
Here is an example of the listing technique on the topic of the culture shock experienced by international students in the United States.
CULTURE SHOCK
communication problems poor verbal skills children disrespectful new language American family life lack vocabulary Americans talk too fast they are friendly people are always in a hurry use slang and idioms children are kings lack confidence American food is unhealthy everyone eats fast food American students classroom environment unclear expressions public transportation is bad need a car use first names with teachers college professors wear jeans student ask questions nor formal dress professors role use incomplete sentences poor pronunciation students can challenge professors
Now rewrite your list. Cross out items that dont belong or that are duplications.
CULTURE SHOCK
communication problems poor verbal skills children disrespectful new language American family life lack vocabulary Americans talk too fast they are friendly people are always in a hurry use slang and idioms children are kings lack confidence American food is unhealthy everyone eats fast food American students classroom environment unclear expressions public transportation is bad need a car use first names with teachers college professors wear jeans student ask questions no formal dress professors role use incomplete sentences poor pronunciation students can challenge professors
FREEWRITING Freewriting is a brainstorming activity in which you write freely about a topic because you looking for a specific focus. While you are writing, one idea will spark another idea. As with listing, the purpose of freewriting is to generate as many ideas as possible and to write them down without worrying about appropriateness, grammar, spelling, or organization. Remember, the more you freewrite, the more ideas you will have. Dont despair if your mind seems to run dry. Just keep your pencil moving. Follow this procedure: Write the topic at the top of your paper. Write as much as you can about the topic until you run out of ideas. Include such supporting items as facts, details, and examples that come into you mind about the subject. After you have run out of ideas, reread your paper and circle the main idea(s) that you would like to develop. Take that main idea and freewrite again.
In the following model, the student is supposed to write a paragraph a bout one major problem at his college . The student doesnt have any idea of what to write about, so he starts freewriting about some of the problems that come to mind.
MODEL Freewriting I
PROBLEMS AT EVERGREEN COLLEGE What is the biggest problem at Evergreen College? Well, I really dont know. In fact, I cant think of one particular problem although I know there are many problems. For one thing, the Class rooms are usually overcrowded. At the beginning of this semester, Science Hall 211 had 45 students although there were only 31 desks. A few of the seats attached to the desks were broken, so about 20 students had to sit on the floor. Besides, the classrooms are poorly maintained. In several of my classes, there are broken chairs and litter on the floor. Students even leave their dirty cups and other garbage on the desks. So the rooms are rhessy. The library is too small and always crowded with students. Not all students really study in the library. Sometimes they talk a lot and this is really quite distracting to me and other serious students who want and need a quiet place to study. So the present library should be expanded or a new library should be built. Oh yes, I think that another problem is parking near the campus. The college has a big parking lot across from the west side of campus, but it is always full. So, many times students have to park their cars in the residential areas, which could be so far away from the campus that they have to run to class to make it. Yes parking is a big problem that many students face every day. I have a car, and many of my friends have one. We really have a problem. So, I think the biggest problem at Evergreen College is not enough parking spaces near the college campus...
After he finished freewriting, the student reread his paper and circled the main ideas, one of which he will consider as the major problem at Evergreen College. Let s say that the student has decided to choose parking as a major problem at Evergreen College . Now that the student knows the topic that he wants to write about, he will again brainstorm by freewriting; only this time, the specific topic will be on the parking problem only. His freewriting might look like this.
MODEL Freewriting II
THE PARKING PROBLEM AT EVERGREEN COLLEGE I think finding a parking space close to the campus at Evergreen College is a major problem. There are not enough parking lots for students to park their cars. Therefore, student shave to come early to get a parking space, and even then, sometimes they are unlucky and cant get a good parking space. Once I couldnt find a space in the west-side parking lot, and I had to drive in the streets for a half hour before I found one. So, I was late for class. Some students are late to class almost every time the English class meets. Some even drop the class, not because they cant handle it, but because they cant find a place to park close to the campus. The teacher warns them time and time again not to be late, but they cant help it... What it the solution to the parking problem? Maybe the college should spend some funds to construct a multilevel parking lot that will accommodate three times as many cars as the present parking lot holds... The student can continue freewriting as long as he can generate ideas related to the topic. Then after completing that task, he can reread it and develop certain points, add some more ideas, or even delete others. The student can do this freewriting activity several times until he is satisfied with what he has written.
CLUSTERING Clustering is another brainstorming activity that you can use to generate ideas. Follow this procedure: In the center of your paper, write your topic and draw a balloon around it. This is your center, or core, balloon. Then write whatever ideas come to you in balloons around the core. Think about each of these ideas and make more balloons around them.
For example, suppose you had to describe a person who is close to you in some ways. Using the clustering technique to ideas, you might end up with a paper such as the following.
2.2.
Stage II: Planning (Outlining)

In Stage I, you choose topics and narrowed them, and you generated ideas by brainstorming. Now you are ready for Stage II in the process of writing, the planning stage. In the planning stage, you organize the ideas you generated by brainstorming into an outline. Turn back to the example about culture shock on page 160. The student had developed list of ideas: communication problem. She decided to write a paragraph about communication problems. A. Step 1: Making Sublists The first step toward making an outline is to divide the ideas in the communication problems list further into sublists and to cross out any items that dont belong or that arent useable.
MODEL Sublists
COMMUNICATION PROBLEM
(1) poor verbal skills lack vocabulary new language poor pronunciation lack confidence (2) use incomplete sentences Americans difficult to understand unclear expressions Americans talk too fast use slang and idioms
The ideas listed under communication problems could be divided further into two sublists. Two items, (1) poor verbal skills and (2) Americans difficult to understand, can serve as titles for the sublists. New language and lack confidence didnt fit in either sublist, so they were crossed out. The remaining items could be put under 1 or 2. When you have grouped all of the points into their appropriate sublist, you have created a preliminary outline for a paragraph.
MODEL Preliminary Outline
COMMUNICATION PROBLEM A. poor verbal skills __ lack vocabulary __ poor pronunciation B. Americans difficult to understand __ use incomplete sentences __ use unclear expressions __ talk too fast __ use slang and idioms B. Step 2: Writing the Topic Sentence Finally, write a topic sentence. The topic sentence is the most general sentence in a paragraph, and it expresses the central focus of the paragraph. Therefore, a possible topic sentence might be as follows.
MODEL Preliminary Outline
One problem that many international students face in the United states is communication with Americans. or International students in the United States face communication problems with Americans.
C.
Step 3: Outlining An Outline is a formal plan for a paragraph. In an outline, you write down the main points and subpoints in the order in which you plan to write about them. The following is an example of an outline of topic communication problem.
MODEL Outline
Topic Sentence
Supporting Point Supporting detail Supporting detail Supporting Point Supporting detail Supporting detail Supporting detail Supporting detail
International students in the United States face communication problems with Americans. A. International students have poor verbal skills. 1. 2. lack vocabulary poor pronunciation
B. Americans are difficult to understand. 1. 2. 3. 4. use incomplete sentences use unclear expressions talk too fast use slang and idioms
With this outline in front of you, it should be relatively easy to write a paragraph about international students communication problem with American. There is a topic sentence, two main supporting points, two supporting details for the first main point, and four supporting details for the second main point.
2.3.
Stage III: Writing and Revising Drafts

Stage III in the writing process, after prewriting (Stage I) and planning (Stage II) is writing and revising drafts until you have produced a final copy to hand in. Remember that no piece of writing ever perfect the first time. Each time you write a new draft, you will refine and improve your writing.
A.
Step 1: Writing the First Rough Draft The first step in this stage is to write a rough draft from your outline. Follow this procedure: Write down the topic sentence and underline it. Doing this will remind you of the focus of your paragraph. Skip one or two lines per line of writing and leave margins of one inch on both sides of the paper. These blank spaces will allow you to add more details , information , examples , etc. in order for you to fully develop your points. Write your paragraph, following your outline as closely as possible. Try writing steadily. Dont hesitate to add ideas that arent in your outline. Dont worry about grammar , punctuation , or spelling . This first rough draft does not have to be perfect ; in fact, it wont be because your main goal is to write down as much information as you can, following the points in your outline.
While you are writing, you may not be able to think of a word or phrase, or you may be unable to complete a thought. Dont worry just leave a space or a line. You can fill in it later. Also, while you are writing about one major point, you might come up with an idea for another major point . Dont risk forgetting it! write it down in the margin of your paper near where it belongs. Above all, remember that writing is a continuous process of discovery . Therefore, as you are writing, you will think of new ideas that may not be on your brainstorming list or in your outline. you can add new ideas or delete original ones at any time in the writing process. Just be sure that any new ideas are relevant! B. Step 2: Revising Content and Organization After you write the rough draft, the next step is to revise it. When you revise, you change what you have written in order to improve it. During the first revision, do not try to correct grammar, sentence structure, spelling, or punctuation; this is proofreading(to read and correct piece of written work), which you will do later. During the firs revision, be concerned mainly with content and organization.
Follow this procedure: Read over your paragraph carefully for a general overview. Focus on the general aspects of the paper and make notes in the margins so that you can rewrite parts that need to be improved. Check to see that you have achieved your stated purpose. Your audience should be able to follow your ideas easily and understand what you have written. Check to make sure that your paragraph has a topic sentence and that the topic sentence has a central focus. Cross out any sentence that does not support the topic sentence. Check to make sure that the topic sentence is developed with sufficient supporting details. Be certain that each paragraph gives the reader enough information to understand the main idea. If the main point lacks sufficient information, make notes in the margin such as add more details or add an example. Check your use of transition signals . Finally, does your paragraph have or need a concluding sentence ?
Now rewrite your paragraph, incorporating all of the necessary revisions. This is your second draft. C. Step 3: Proofreading the Second Draft The next step is to proofreading your paper to check for grammar, sentence structure, spelling, and punctuation. Follow this procedure: Check over each sentence for correctness and completeness: no fragments and no choppy or run-on sentences. Check over each sentence for a subject and a verb , correct verb tenses , etc. Check the punctuation, spelling, capitalization, typing errors , etc. Change vocabulary words as necessary.
D.
Step 4: Writing the final Copy Now you are ready to write the final copy to hand in. Your instructor will expect it to be written neatly(carefully done) and legibly(clear enough to read) in ink or typed. Be sure that you make all the corrections that you noted on your second draft. After rereading the final copy; dont be surprised if you decide to make a few minor or even major changes. Remember that writing is a continuous process of writing and rewriting until you are satisfied with the final product. The following models show you how one student worked through the process of writing and revising drafts before arriving at the final copy. Follow this procedure: Check over each sentence for correctness and completeness: no fragments and no choppy or run-on sentences. Check over each sentence for a subject and a verb, correct verb tenses, etc. Check the punctuation, spelling, capitalization, typing errors, etc. Change vocabulary words as necessary.
After writing the first draft, the writer checked her paragraph for organization. First, she checked to make sure that her paragraph matched the assignment. The assigned topic was culture shock. Although her second sentence mentions culture shock, her topic sentence does not, so she decided to combine the two sentence. She decided that sentence 7 was off the topic, so she crossed it out. Next, she checked to see if there were enough supporting details, and she decided that there werent. She decided to add examples of poor pronunciation, and incomplete sentence, and an idiom. She couldnt think of an example of an unclear expression, so she crossed out her reference to unclear expressions in sentence 9 . She also decided to add transition signals such as first of all , for example , and also to make her paragraph more acceptable. Finally, she decided to add a concluding sentence .
meant.(14)I
Next, the writer proofread her paragraph for sentence structure, grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, etc, and vocabulary. These are the corrections she made: This student knows that one of her writing problems is sentences that are sometimes too short, so she tried to find ways to lengthen her short sentence in this paragraph. She added When they first arrive in the United States to sentence 2. She combined sentences 3 and 4. She combined sentences 11 and 12.
She crossed out three words in sentence 1 and changed sitting in his car driving up a wall to driving his car up a wall in sentence 14 to improve these sentences. It was not clear who they referred to in sentence 7 (Americans or international students?) , so she changed it to international students . This student knows that she occasionally makes mistakes with verbs and omits subjects, so she checked carefully for these problems. sentence in this paragraph. She need to correct doesnt in sentence 4 and have in sentence 6. She need to add they in sentence 7 and it in sentence 8. She combined sentences 11 and 12.
In sentence 10 , because catch their meaning is not standard English, she changed the phrase to understand them . In sentence 11 , slang is uncountable, so she crossed out the s . In sentence 12 , people is not very specific. Nonnative speaker is more appropriate. In the concluding sentence, she didnt want to repeat the phrase verb skills, so she wrote verbal abilities instead.
Then she wrote the final copy to hand in.
MODEL The Final Copy
One kind of culture shock faced by international students in the United States is difficulty communicating with Americans. When they first arrive in the United States, they soon realize that their verbal skills are poor. First of all, they lack vocabulary, and they have poor pronunciation, so American people dont understand them. For example, a few days ago, I asked an American student how to get to the library, but because I have trouble pronouncing rs and ls , the student didnt understand me. I finally have to write it on a piece of paper. International students also speak too softly because they are shy. It is difficult for foreign people to understand Americans, too. Americans use incomplete sentences, such as Later to mean Ill see you later, and Coming? to mean Are you coming? Also, Americans talk too fast, so it is often impossible to understand them. In addition, Americans also use a lot of slang and idioms whose nonnative speakers do not know. For example, the other day someone said to me, That drives me up the wall, and I could not imagine what he I had a picture in my mind of him driving his car d riving up a wall. It didnt make sense to me. In short, communication is probably the first problem that international students face in the United States. After a while, however, their ears get used to the American way of speaking, and their own verbal abilities improve.
Lesson II. What Is a Paragraph? 1. INTRODUCTION

A Paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly. A paragraph may stand by itself. In academic writing, a paragraph is often used to give answer a test question such as the following: Define management by objectives, and give one example of it from the reading you have done for this class. A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as a chapter of a book or an essay.
2. PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
The following model contains all the elements of a good paragraph. Read it carefully two or three times, and try to analyze its structure. GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous (soft and shining) beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental (used for decorative) purpose. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished (unchanged in color) today as the day it was minted twentythree centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated (cover a metal with another metal) heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
A paragraph has three major structural parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. A. The Topic Sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one areas that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the controlling idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the model states both the topic and the controlling idea:
EXAMPLE:
TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics . B. The Supporting Sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain the topic sentence by giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and quotations. Some of the supporting sentences that explain the topic sentence about gold are:
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts suit.
3.
4. C.
The Concluding Sentences signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to remember:
EXAMPLE: In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
2.1.
The Topic Sentence

Every good paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph. It is a complete sentence. It is usually (but not always) the first sentence in the paragraph. A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. It briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss. For this reason, the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can see what information to include (and what information to exclude). The reader can see what the paragraph is going to be about and is, therefore, better prepared to understand it. There are three important points to remember about a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains a subject, a verb, and (usually) a complement. The following are not complete sentences: Driving on freeways. The importance of gold. How to register for college classes.
A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea. It names the topic and then limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph. The following examples show how a topic sentence states both the topic and the controlling idea in a complete sentence: Driving on freeways requires skill and alertness. Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristic. Registering for college classes can be a frustrating experience for new students.
A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the main idea. It does not give any details.
The following is an example of a general statement that could serve as a topic sentence: The Arabic origin of many English is not obvious. The following sentence, on the other hand, is too specific: The slang expression so long (meaning good by) is probably a corruption of the Arabic salaam.
A.
The Two Parts of a Topic Sentence A topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and controlling idea. The topic names the subject, or main idea, of the paragraph. The controlling idea makes a specific comment about the topic, which indicates what the rest of the paragraph will say about the topic. It limits or controls the topic of a specific aspect of the topic to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.
EXAMPLES:
TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA
Convenience foods
are
easy to prepare .
In this example, the topic is named: convenience foods. A specific comment is then made bout the topic: They are easy to prepare. From this sentence, the reader immediately knows that the supporting sentences in the remainder of the paragraph will explain or prove how quick and easy it is to prepare convenience foods and perhaps give some examples (frozen dinner, canned soups, etc.). B. How to Write a Title Single paragraphs do not usually have titles. Giving your practice paragraph titles, however, may help you to organize and limit your thoughts. For longer essays or reports, though, the use of titles will become more necessary. A title tells the reader what the topic of the paragraph is. It is usually a word or phrase, not a sentence. It should be brief, but not so brief that it doesnt tell the reader what to respect. Remember these points when writing a title: The first, last, and all important words in a title are capitalized. Prepositions and articles are not considered important words in a title. Prepositions of more than five letters, however, may be capitalized. Articles that begin the title, of course, are capitalized. The title of a paragraph or essay is not underlined. The title is not enclosed in quotation marks, nor is it ended with a period.
EXAMPLES: 1. 2. 3. 4. C. My Greatest Culture Shock How to Choose a Good Used Car The Effects of Inflation Riding the Subway in New York
Writing Topic Sentences When you write a sentence, remember these two points: A topic sentence should be neither too general nor too specific . If it is too general, the reader cannot tell exactly what the paragraph is going to discuss, or if it is too specific, the writer may not have anything left to write about in the rest of the paragraph. Think of a topic sentence as being like the name of a particular course on the restaurant menu. When you order food in a restaurant, you want to know more about a particular course than just meat or soup or salad. You want to know generally what kind of salad it is. Potato salad? Mixed greed salad? Fruit salad? However, you do not necessarily want to know all of its ingredients. Similarly, the reader of a paragraph wants to know generally what to expect in a paragraph, but he/she does not want to learn all of the specific details in the first sentence. EXAMPLES:
T OO GENERAL T OO SPECIFIC
: :
American food is terrible. American food is tasteless and greasy because Americans use too many canned and frozen foods and because everything fried in oil or butter. American food is tasteless and greasy(cooked with too much oil).
GOOD
Do not include too many unrelated ideas in your topic sentence; if you do, your paragraph will not be unified.
EXAMPLES:
TOO MANY IDEAS
San Francisco if famous for its temperate climate, its many tourist attractions, and its cosmopolitan atmosphere. San Francisco is famous for its cosmopolitan atmosphere.
GOOD
2.2.
The Concluding Sentence

Now that you know how to write a good topic sentence for a paragraph, you should also learn how to write a good concluding sentence. A concluding sentence is not absolutely necessary; in fact, a concluding sentence is not necessary for every paragraph in a multiparagraph essay. However, for single paragraphs, especially long ones, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader because it signals the end of the paragraph and because it is a reminder of the important points. A concluding sentence serves three purposes: It signals the end of the paragraph. It summarizes the main points of the paragraph. It gives a final comment on the topic and leaves the reader with the most important ideas to think about.
END-OF-PARAGRAPH SIGNAL:
THESE ARE FOLLOWED BY A COMMA THESE ARE NOT FOLLOWED BY A COMMA
Finally, In conclusion, In summary, Therefore,
As a result, In brief, In short, thus,
We can see that... It is clear that... These example show that... The evidence suggests that...
The examples that follow demonstrate two different types of concluding sentences. GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics . First of all, gold has a lustrous (soft and shining) beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental (used for decorative) purpose. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished (unchanged in color) today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated (cover a metal with another metal) heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility . SYNONYMS Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning . For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean careful with money. However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive meaning. Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny , and aggressive but not pushy . Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many synonyms are not really synonymous at all .
Lesson III. Transition Signals 1. INTRODUCTION

Transition Signals are words such as first, second, next, finally, therefore, and however, or phrase such as in conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result. Think of transition signals as traffic signs that tell your reader when to go forward, turn, slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell the reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly, moreover, furthermore, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, however, in contrast), an example (for example), a result (as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion).
2. TYPES OF TRANSITION SIGNALS

Transition Signals can be categorized into three groups by grammatical function. In the chart shown on page 181, the three groups are sentence connectors (including transition phrases and conjunctive adverbs), clause connectors (including coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions), and a mixed group called others. As you study the chart and the examples that follow it, pay particular attention to the punctuation used with each group.
2.1.
Sentence Connectors
A. Transition Phrases The phrases in this group usually appear at the beginning of sentences. They may also appear in the middle (normally following the subject) or at the end of sentences. They are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Hence, these three patterns are possible. EXAMPLES: 1. For example, the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline(containing salt) as the Red Sea in the Middle East. The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe, for example, is only one-fourth as saline(containing salt) as the Red Sea in the Middle East. The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline(containing salt) as the Red Sea in the Middle East, for example.
2.
3.
TRANSITION SIGNALS FOR GENERAL USE:

SENTENCE CONNECTORS MEANING FUNCTION TRANSITION PHRASES CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS CLAUSE CONNECTORS COORDINATOR
SUBORDINATORS
OTHERS
To introduce an additional idea
in addition
furthermore moreover besides also too
and
another (+ noun) an additional (+ noun)
To introduce an opposite idea
on the other hand in contrast
however nevertheless instead still nonetheless
but yet
although though even though whereas while
in spite of (+ noun) despite (+ noun)
To introduce a choice or alternative
otherwise
or
if unless
To introduce an explanation
in fact indeed
that is
To introduce an example
for example for instance
an example of (+ noun) such as (+ noun)
To introduce a conclusion or summary
in conclusion in summary in brief in short indeed
To introduce a result
accordingly as a result as a consequence
therefore consequently hence thus
so
B.
Conjunctive Adverbs Conjunctive adverbs (except too) may also appear at the beginning , in the middle , or at the end of sentences , and are separated by commas .
EXAMPLES: 1. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute(mix) the saline sea water. The runoff created by melting snow , furthermore, adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute(mix) the saline sea water. My parents want me to become an engineer , however .
2.
3.
Conjunctive adverbs are also often used with a semicolon and a comma to join two independent clauses to form a compound sentence .
EXAMPLES: 1. In warm climate zones, water evaporates (disappear) rapidly; therefore, the concentration (a lot of sth in one place) of salt is greater. The companys sales increased last year ; nevertheless, its net profit declined.
2.
2.2.
Clause Connectors
A. Coordinating Conjunctions The five coordinating conjunctions in the chart (plus two additional ones, for and nor ) are used with a comma to join two independent clauses to form a compound sentence .
EXAMPLES: 1. In a matriarchy (the social system that gives power to women) , the mother is the head of the family, and all of the children belong to her clan (a very large family) . In warm climate zones, water evaporates (disappear) rapidly, so the concentration (a lot of sth in one place) of salt is greater. The companys sales increased las t year , yet its net profit declined.
2.
3.
Yet and but have similar meanings: They both signal that an apposite idea is coming, Yet is preferred when the second clause is an unexpected or surprising contrast to the first clause. When the two clauses are direct opposites, but is preferred.
EXAMPLES: 1. Thomas Edison dropped out of school at age twelve , yet he became a famous inventor. I want to study art , but my parents want me to become an engineer.
2.
Yet is similar in meaning to nevertheless , and but is similar to however .
B.
Subordinating Conjunctions These words (and many others including because, when, and so that) introduce a dependent clause, which is joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. There are two possible positions for the dependent clause. If the dependent clause comes before the independent clause, use a comma .
EXAMPLES: 1. Although the companys sales increased last year, its net profit declined. Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. When we were in New York, we saw several plays.
2. 3.
If the independent clause comes first, do not use a comma .
EXAMPLES: 1. The companys net profit declined last year although its sales increased . He went to bed Because he was sleepy . we saw several plays when we were in New York .
2. 3.
2.3.
Others
The transition signals in this group include adjectives such as additional , prepositions such as in spite of , and nouns such as example . There are no special punctuation rules for this group.
EXAMPLES: 1. The companys net profit declined last year in spite of increased sales. Despite increased sales, the companys net profit declined last year. (The comma is necessary because the prepositional phrase comes before the subject of the sentence.) 3. An additional reason for the companys bankruptcy was the lack of competent management.
2.
UNIT
SIX
PUNCTUATION
Lesson I. End Punctuation
You are already familiar with end punctuation. As you remember, end punctuation lets the reader know when a sentence ends. It also tells other things about a sentence: A. A period (.) follows a statement. B. Hot Springs is a city in Arkansas. I am hungry.
A question mark (?) follows a question. Is that really your brother? Where is Pakistan on the map?
C.
An exclamation point (!) follows a sentence of strong emotion. What a terrible experience! Look out for that bus!
D.
A period (.) or an exclamation point follows a command or a request. Please turn off that radio. Leave me alone!
Use an exclamation point if the sentence expresses some kind of strong emotion. Use a period if the sentence expresses a mild request.
Lesson II. Commas

Commas warn a reader to slow down a little. The rules for the uses of commas (,) are given below. A. A comma is used to separate three or more items in a series. The items may be single word, groups of words, or phrases. Dara, Raksmey, Bora, and Veasna sing the songs. They sang, danced, joked, and played all day. Mony Roth brushed her teeth, washed her face, and put on her clothes.
Some people do not use the comma before the word and that joins the last items in a series. But it is a good idea to use it to avoid mistakes. B. A comma is used to separate two or more adjectives that come before a noun and modify the same noun. C. Electricity is a powerful, necessary force. Big, bad John is coming to town.
A comma is used before the conjunction for, and, but, or, yet, nor, or so when it joins the independent clauses of a compound sentence. Linda likes to swim, but she is afraid to dive (jump into water) . The lion is loose, yet no one is going indoors.
D.
A comma is used to set off words in direct address. Veasna, get down from there! I th ink, Borey, that youre wrong.
E.
A comma is used in dates and address. Langley, Virginia 54 North Cumberland, Harrison, Vermont June 21, 1961
F.
A comma is used after the salutation of a social letter and after the closing of all letters. Dear Abby, Sincerely,
Dont use commas unless they belong. Your sentences will be clear and understandable if you use commas correctly.
Lesson III. Semicolons

The semicolon (;) has two basic uses: A. A semicolon may be used between the independent clauses of a compound sentence if they are not joined by coordinators. The temperature is below freezing; your nose is turning blue. Rangsey always forgets where he parks his car; he will have to walk home again.
B.
A semicolon may be used to separate parts of a compound sentence if there are commas within the parts. Look at this sentence: Meryl, Sally, and Diane are working as actresses, but Liza, Faye, and Suzanne are still waiting on the tables. Because there are so many commas, it might be better to remove the but and replace it with a semicolon . Meryl, Sally, and Diane are working as actresses; Liza, Faye, and Suzanne are still waiting on the tables. Sometimes you may wish to separate such a long compound sentence into two separate sentences: Meryl, Sally, and Diane are working as actresses. Liza, Faye, and Suzanne are still waiting on the tables.
Lesson IV. Colons

A colon (:) tells the reader that something will follow. Here are the three basic rules for the use of the colon: A. A colon is used before a list of items. She had the following in her truck: a book, three chickens, and two pigs. Lets talk about these countries: Greece, Turkey, Scotland, and Libya.
Never use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition. Incorrect : Correct : My teachers are: Mr. Cerone, Ms. Kimberly, and Dr. Rather. I have three teachers this term: Mr. Cerone, Ms. Kimberly, and Dr. Rather. I take my vitamins with: water, milk, or orange juice. I take my vitamins with one of the following: water, milk, or orange juice.
Incorrect : Correct :
B.
A colon is placed between the hour and the minute when you write the time. 9:12 p.m. 4:06 a.m.
C.
A colon is used after the salutation of a formal letter or business letter. Dear Representative Dara Rith: Dear Ms. Kunthea:
Lesson V. Hyphens
A. A hyphen (-) is used to tell the reader that a word is broken at the end of a written or typed line. Have you gone golfing this morning? I cant hear you over the music. We will celebrate this morning.
Never divide words of one syllable: B. jump, half, urge, you
A hyphen is used with compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine. thirty-three people twenty-second day sixty-seven candles eighty-fourth time
C.
A hyphen is used in some compound words, such as son-in-law and iceskating.
PRACTICE
READINGS
Reading 1. CAMBODIA LACKS READING CULTURE, EXPERTS SAY
Participants in a forum in Phnom Penh organized by the National Library of Cambodia and the Australian Embassy said yesterday that Cambodia lacks a culture of reading. Cambodia society is a society whose people do not like reading very much, and we have some reasons for this problem , said Pal Vannarirak, director of the Federation for the Development of the Book Sector in Cambodia, a local NGO. Ms Vannarirak also cited illiteracy as a stumbling block. Literacy has risen sharply since 1998, but Cambodia still trails most of its neighbors in Southeast Asia, according to the results of the governments 2008 census, the most recent data available. The number of literate Cambodians jumped from 62.8 percent in 1998 to 78.35 percent in 2008. In a telephone interview after his talk at yesterdays forum, Heng Sreang, a lecturer with the Royal University of Phnom Penhs Department of Philosophy, agreed that Cambodia lacks a culture of reading. Young people, even academic students, they do not read much, he said, adding, I have observed the quality of Cambodian students at the university level is poorer and poorer.
Reading 2. LIGHTNING CLAIMS 94TH VICTIM OF 2010

Lightning killed a woman in Banteay Meanchey provinces Malai district Monday, bringing the total number of lightning deaths in Cambodia for the year so far to 94, according to the National Committee for Disaster Management. Koy Vy, 37, was struck by lightning at about 6 pm while carrying rainwater to a house located in a cornfield in OSampoar commune, deputy district police chief Duong Tum said yesterday. Right now the lightning is very powerful and dangerous, he said. We told the villagers not to go out when it rains, but its hard for them to get out of the rain because they are farmers. Last year, Mr Tum noted, four people were killed by lightning while transporting corn from their farm. To prevent deaths from lightning strikes, local police and district officials have tried to educate villagers on how to protect themselves, Mr Tum said. He said that officials have advised villagers to turn off appliances like radios, TVs and mobile telephones during thunderstorms. He added that lightning was hard to avoid when villagers are in rice fields, where most lightning strikes occur.
Reading 3. GOVT, RCAF DIFFER ON ANLONG VENG GUNFIRE

Military and government officials yesterday gave conflicting accounts of gunfire on the Thai border in Oddar Meanchey provinces Anlong Veng district. Tith Sothea, spokesman for the Council of Ministers press and quick reaction unit, said yesterday that a five-minute exchange of fire had occurred Wednesday afternoon between Thai and Cambodian forces but that no injuries were recorded. At around 1:40 pm, there was accidental shooting which was close to Oddar Meanchey provinces Choam border checkpoint during a patrol of Cambodian and Thai soldiers, said Mr Sothea, noting that both sides had about five to six men each.
Reading 4. HUN SEN WELCOMES NEW INDONESIAN AMBASSADOR

Prime Minister Hun Sen met yesterday at the Council of Ministers with the new Indonesian ambassador to Cambodia, Suhardjono Sastromihardjo. After the meeting, the premiers assistant Eang Sophalleth told reporters the two leaders had discussed topics including trade and tourism. Mr Hun Sen said that Cambodia and Indonesia are still strengthening cooperation on economics, commerce, tourism, agriculture, and cooperation on fighting terrorism, drug smuggling and human trafficking, Mr Sophalleth said. Samdech Hun Sen supports and expects that his mission will make both countries cooperation even closer, he added. Kong Sophearak, director of the Tourism Ministrys statistics department, said that the number of tourists from Indonesia was expected to rise in the second half of the year.
Reading 5. HUN SEN CALLS FOR AN END TO ILLEGAL CHECKPOINTS

In a speech dealing with rice exports, Prime Minister Hun Sen briefly warned officials to make sure no illegal checkpoints impede the transport of the grain or any other product. For all the relevant agencies, make sure... that illegal checkpoints are not taking place, Mr Hun Sen said. Regarding illegal checkpoints, not only for the rice, paddy or others. It should not be taking place. Finance Minister Keat Chhon made similar comments before Mr Hun Sens roughly two-hour speech in the capital. The comments echoed a call made by Mr Hun Sen in December 2004, when he ordered provincial officials to eliminate the police practice of demanding payments from taxi and truck drivers on major roads. Reached by telephone yesterday, human rights workers from Adhoc said illegal checkpoints continued to plague Cambodias roads while provincial officials denied their existence. Soum Chankea, Adhoc coordinator for Banteay Meanchey province, said authorities regularly asked for bribes of 3,000 riel, or about $0.75, at numerous checkpoints along the border.
Reading 6. A WEEK ON, SVAY RIENG MURDERS CONTINUE TO SHCOK

A week had passed, but relatives and officials were still at a loss yesterday to explain why a seemingly harmless 33-year-old carpenter had brutally murdered five of his family members inside his home in Svay Rieng provinces Svay Chrum district. Last Wednesday night, Kuoch Samnamg used a machete to hack his wife, 2-year-old son, 13-year-old brother-in-law, a sister-in-law and his mother-in-law to death. During the attack Samnang also injured his 3-yearold daughter, his wifes 16-year-old nephew, who are all still under observation at the hospital. Then he hanged himself. Left behind with the corpses and pools of blood were unanswered questions to what had caused the man to commit an act so shocking that even police, used to violence, were left reeling. As the funeral of the five murdered family members concluded yesterday in Svay Chrum districts Svay Churm commune, relatives of the victims were still searching for answers. In a phone interview yesterday, Sok Candy, 37, sister of Samnangs wife, Sok Tepy, said she had never imagined such brutal acts could be committed. I had never thought of such a thing, she said. I had never...even heard anything as cruel as this. Ms Chandy confirmed previous police reports that Samnangs motives were related to the familys decision to punish him for attempting to rape his wifes 16-year-old adopted sister. Authorities last week claimed that Samnangs mother-in-law had traveled from Siem Reap province to confront him over the alleged rape attempt. I think he killed the family because he thought his wife would not be with him anymore after she learnt about his rape attempts , she said, adding that her brother-in-laws actions had not been in his character. He was a gentle man, and he never insulted or hit his wife, she said. We didnt hold a funeral for him because he became a brutal killer. He killed his own son and was about to kill his daughter. Svay Chrum commune chief Nguon Sarith said he understood that Samnang had previously suffered from a drug problem, but had never caused any trouble in the community. He had a background of drug use, but he quit a long time ago and became a good man, Mr Sarith said. He had never caused any problems.
Reading 7. R KEO RESIDENTS SHOULD BE RELOCATED, NGO SAYS

Phnom Penh authorities plans for the hundreds of Russei Keo district families facing eviction from a Tonle Sap riverbank remained unclear yesterday. However a human rights worker said that under current government policy, they deserved accommodation. Residents in Russei Keo, Tuol Sangke and Srah Chak communes living in ramshackle homes along the Tonle Sap river will likely lose their homes, although a timetable is uncertain, according to the Nge, deputy district governor. Were not exactly sure of City Halls plan to evict the villagers living at the riverside, said Mr Nge after saying the homes will come down. According to Mr Nge, the park will be partly financed by Sokimex, the local conglomerate and fuel importer, which is contributing $70,000 toward the initial phase being built near company headquarters on National Road 5. District governor Klaing Huot said yesterday he did not know how many families would be affected by the parks construction. The villagers who reside at the riverside have been told its government land and the government used to tell them not to construct real buildings there. Now, they are living in anarchy, said Mr Nge. According to Eang Vuthy, a program officer for Bridges Across Borders, if the land belongs to the state, a plan should be in place to relocate the families.
Reading 8. HOR NAMHONG RETURNS FROM VISIT TO IRAN

Foreign Minister Hor Namhong returned yesterday from a visit this week to Ian, where he met with President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and was expected to sign an agreement on petroleum cooperation between the two countries. Government officials yesterday were once again unable to confirm Iranian media reports the Mr Namhong condemned international sanctions intended to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons. Reached before Mr Namhongs arrival yesterday, Foreign Ministry spokesman Koy Kuong said he would not have details on the two day trip unil after Mr Namhong s return. Mr Kuong could not be reached by telephone after the foreign minister touched down. Mr Namhong was seen leaving Phnom Penh International Airport yesterday with a group of officials that included Cambodian National Petroleum Authority Vice Chairman Ho Vichet.
Reading 9. BEER PROMOTER UNION FORMED IN SIEM REAP

A Phnom Penh-based union for beer promoters and hostesses established a branch in Siem Reap on Monday to improve working conditions there, including low wages, sexual harassment and health hazards, union officials said. Sar Mora, president of the Cambodian Food Service Workers Federation, said the newly created Siem Reap branch is in the process of organizing and in the future would negotiate with employers. Mr Mora claimed that working conditions in Cambodias tourist hub can be even worse than in the capital. For example, he said beer promoters receive less annual leave in Siem Reap than in Phnom Penh. Phal Sophear on Monday was elected president of the unions Siem Reap branch, which she said currently counted seven other members. Ms Sophear said she herself was sexually harassed by customers and employers when she worked as a beer promoter for roughly nine years. Lots of service women in Siem Reap have their rights violated. Especially there is sexual harassment, she said. The union will stand beside them, demanding the equal rights and the suitable wage. CFSWF was founded in 2007 and now has some 1,500 members in the capital, a diverse group that includes garbage collectors, according to Mr Mora. There are about 310 beer promoters in the union in Phnom Penh, he said. Sat Salim, deputy director of the Legal Protection Department at the Ministry of Womens Affairs, welcomed the creation of the Siem Reap branch of the union.
Reading 10. PHNOM PENH COURTS JAIL NIGERIAN FOR ROBBERY

Phnom Penh Municipal court yesterday sentenced a Nigerian man to six years in prison and ordered him to pay $357 in compensation for robbery, illegal entry into Cambodia, property damage and illegal drug use, according to Judge Suos Sam Ath, who added that the convict would be deported from Cambodia after the completion of his prison term. Charles Ugochukwu Nwatu was arrested by immigration police on March 2 on suspicion of being part of a group of three or four Nigerians who allegedly robbed three other Nigerians of $2,000 in Meanchey districts Stung Meanchey commune. In the hearing, Mr Nwatu denied all the charges except illegal entry into Cambodia. I swear I never did the robbery but I accept that my passport really expired, he said. The defendants lawyer, Tith Savuth, said he would advise his client to contest the verdict. The decision of the penal judges is not justice for my client because there is not enough evidence.... I will tell my client to appeal his case next week, he said.
Reading 11. HUN SEN TO JOIN LAKE MEETING AMID FEARS OF LOW FISH CATCH
With fish spawning grounds left dry and river levels at record lows, a two-day meeting on protection of the Tonle Sap lake is to begin to day, officials said yesterday. Phoeun Pheang, deputy chief of the fisheries affairs department of the Fisheries Administration, said that at the meeting in Phnom Penh officials would discuss the extremely low water levels in the Mekong and Tonle Sap, which 4 million Cambodians depend on directly for their livelihoods. They will probably talk about the low water levels during this meeting, he said. We are concerned about these low water leve ls. We dont know what is going on. The Mekong River is currently at the lowest level ever recorded for this time of year, according to the Mekong River Commission. The flooded forests along the river and around the Tonle Sap, which are important feeding and spawning grounds for fish, have so far remained dry. Last Wednesday, government officials and fishermen on the Tonle Sap lake said the unusual hydrological situation would affect fish reproduction and migration and result in a reduced fish production this year. Chan Yuttha, secretary-general of the Tonle Sap Authority, said a large group of officials had planned to hold a two-day meeting on the protection of the lakes flooded forests. These areas have come under increasing pressure from agricultural land encroachment in recent years and their protection has become a government priority in recent months.
Reading 12. TEMPERATURE RISES FOR MINER, P VIHEAR LOCALS

On land deep in the jungle here, violence and arrests have erupted between local mining communities and Malaysian company exploring for gold. Locals and human rights groups say two men, one of whom was killed, have been shot by police since May for allegedly trespassing and stealing gold on land occupied by Delcom Cambodia Limited, a company co-owned by Cambodian investors and the Malaysian oil and gas services provider Deleum Group. An additional seven men have been arrested by authorities. As Cambodia in the past decade has opened its hinterlands to industrial exploitation and development, clashes and tensions have sprouted across the nation between investors and local communities, who say such commerce has come roughshod over their lands and their rights. Villagers here say they have long depended on artisanal gold mining, or mining without heavy industrial methods, for their livelihoods and that the Delcom development is denying this to them by force. However, the company and local officials accuse local villagers of banditry and stealing from a legitimate operation. I have two children and have no other job to earn money to support my family, said Kuoy Bin, a 33-year-old Kuy ethnic minority, who said that soon after he learned to walk he began working in Preah Vihear province as an artisanal miner. Kuoy Bin is part of a community of 937 families in Romtom commun, 414 families are indigenous Kuy, who have been artisanal miners here for generations. But he said he was arrested on June 3 alongside two other men after he ventured inside the boundaries of Delcom Cambodias operational site to collect earth that he said had been left over by the company. We heard gunshots, but nobody was injured. Suddenly, I saw a group of about five armed police chasing us. They finally caught us and detained us at the district police station, he said. According to a copy of the release warrant signed by deputy provincial prison director Ros Chanthy on July 9, Kuoy Bins charges have since been dropped along with those of the other two men by order of Judge Veng Bunthoeun.
Reading 13. NO WORD ON BILATERAL DISCUSSIONS OVER P VIHEAR

The Foreign Ministry said yesterday that it had not yet received any communications from Thailand about the possibility of a bilateral discussion on disputed border territory near Preah Vihear temple. Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva was quoted in Thai newspapers yesterday as saying he would not send Deputy Prime Minister Suthep thaugsuban to Cambodia showed interest in bilateral discussions. Mr Abhisits comments came despite Prime Minister Hun Sens public remarks on Wednesday that the best way forward for the two countries was through bilateral dialogue, and after Mr Suthep had publicly volunteered to meet Mr Hun Sen to discuss the border dispute. Foreign Affairs Ministry spokesman Koy Kuong said yesterday that Mr Abhisit was playing political games through the media by bringing the temple into a debate that should be about the border. Mr Abhisit always wants to talk about the Preah Vihear temple, but the issue of the temple has been solved since 1962, When it was ruled Cambodian by the International Court of Justice, Mr Kuong said. This is a border issue, not an issue about the temple. Mr Abhisit is trying to mislead the public opinion about this case. Mr Kuong said that Cambodia had not received any official communication from Bangkok regarding the dispute. Right now, there is no official information sent by Thailand or Cambodia, he said. Officials at the Thai Ministry of foreign Affairs declined to answer question about the Preah Vihear border dispute yesterday. The latest flare-up between the two nations over Preah Vihear temple began last week during a world Heritage Committee meeting in Brazil, Where Cambodias management plan for the temple was submitted.
Reading 14. MALARIA DEATHS PLUNGED IN FIRST HALF OF 2010

The number of deaths from malaria in the first half of the year dropped by more than two-thirds compared to the same period in 2009, according to National Malaria Canter data. This year, cases and deaths have decreased due t o our village workers; secondly, high coverage of bed nets; and thirdly, we are not out of stock of medicine.... The decrease is very, very good, National Malaria Center director Dr Duong Socheat said. From January to June this year there were 21,562 cases of malaria and 38 deaths, down from 33,547 cases and 135 deaths during the first six months of 2009, said Tol Bunkea. The most affected areas are Kratie, Siem Reap, Oddar Meanchey, Pursat and Ratanakkiri provinces, he added. There is less because this year there has been little rain and a program to fight malaria along the Thai-Cambodia border, Mr Bunkea said, noting distribution of bed nets and education have been scaled up. Bed-net coverage is almost 100 percent in the area where drug resistance emerged along the Thai-Cambodia border in 2007, which is now the epicenter of efforts by the national center, WHO and partner organizations to eliminate malaria, he said. Distribution of nets in malaria affected provinces to the east will be scaled up when a $91 million donation from Global Fund arrives in the next couple of months, he said.
Reading 15. 3 NAPPERS NABBED IN MASSAGE PARLOR TRESPASS

Two police officers and a bodyguard were arrested yesterday morning after allegedly threatening employees at a Chamkar Mon district massage parlor with hand guns and invoking the name of the son of Phnom Penh police chief Touch Naruth, according to police. Phnom Penh crimes deputy police chief Teng chansa said the apparently intoxicated trio arrived at La Cigale Bleue massage parlor at approximately 2 am and pointed their service weapons at the employees, demanding that they do whatever they were ordered to. He said one of the men also claimed to be Mr Naruths son, using his nickname Pich. According to Mr Chansar, two of the parlor employees immediately ran outside to seek help from the establishments security guards, who called the police. They make them run out of the massage room to get help, he said. Now the three officers are being interrogate d to find out who used the name the Phnom Penh municipal police chiefs son. Mr Chansar said the men fired no shots and proceeded to fall asleep inside the parlor, where they were found and arrested at 10 am. He identified the men as Vong Chanra, 46, a bodyguard with the Interior Ministry, Mom Kunthel, 32, a police officer with the Interior Ministrys penal department, and Hun Mariroth, 30, an immigration police officer for Preah Sihanouk province. He said all three were being detained at the minor crimes police station. We are investigating this case to find out who used my sons name to threaten the massage women last night. Now there are two witnesses who agreed to speak with our investigators, said Mr Naruth, who explained that his son was presently in Vietnam. My son is studying in Hanoi for three months, sho these three policemens actions have damaged my dignity, he said. Chamkar Mon district police chief Ouch Sokhon said his officers were assisting with the investigation but referred all questions to Phnom Penh minor crimes police chief Sorn Ly, who referred questions to his deputy, Mr Chansar.
Reading 16. CAMBODIAN, VIETNAMESE OFFICIALS MEET, DISCUSS BORDER ISSUES

At an annual meeting on border issues yesterday, Cambodian and Vietnamese officials reiterated that they would cooperate to solve land disputes and encourage development in the provinces along the border between the two countries. There have been 39 border land disputes in the past year. National Police chief Neth Savoeun told about 100 assembled officials at the meeting adding that police have already managed to resolve 36 of those disputes. There are 36 out of 39 border dispute cases already resolved through the cooperation of the two nations forces and there are thre e more cases still remaining to be solved, Mr Savoeun said. Demarcation of the border began in 2008, and Cambodian Border Commission Chairman Var Kimhong said last year that all 314 border posts would be in place by 2012. Mr Savoeun also said at yesterdays meeting that 281 illegal Vietnamese migrants had been deported from Cambodia in the past year, while 236 Cambodian migrants have been deported from Vietnam. Authorities have uncovered three suspected cross-border human trafficking rings this year and made an arrest in one of those cases, he added.
Reading 17. MAN SHOT DEAD DURING ROBBERY IN PHNOM PENH

A 28-year-old man was shot dead during a robbery in Phnom Penhs Sen Sok district early yesterday morning, police officials said yesterday. Kov Sam Ol was riding home from work on his motorbike with his wife at about 2 am when four men on two motorbikes pulled up behind them outside their house in Toek Thla commune and tried to grab Mr Sam Ols wifes purse, said commune police chief Pen Thol. At first the victim did not know that the bag snatchers had a gun, so he tried to grab his wifes purse back, Mr Thol said. At that time, the gunman shot the victim at short range in the chest. Mr Thol added that Mr Sam Ols wife had since told police that there was no money in her purse and that it only contained makeup. District police chief Moek Hong said Mr sam Ol died on his way to hospital. Our police officers are working on this case....and trying to find out what the suspects look like, he said.
Reading 18. COMPANY SAYS TRAFFIC CAMERAS WILL NOT BE FOR POLICE TO USE
Video footage from recently installed cameras capturing the traffic flow at four of Phnom Penhs busiest intersections will not be recorded for police to use in investigations, the chief executive officer of the company that installed the cameras said yesterday. EZECOM CEO Paul Blanche Horgan said yesterday that the cameras his company installed in partnership with television network CTN had never been intended for police use. It is just a live feed from the four cameras, Mr Blanche -Horgan said. CTN wanted to do a traffic program.... We are not doing any security. Last week, CTN started broadcasting live early morning feeds from cameras in the intersection of Russian Boulevard and St 289, the intersection of Mao Tse Toung Boulevard and Monireth Boulevard, the intersection of Monivong Boulevard and Sihanouk Boulevard and the three-way intersection of St 154, Sisowath and Sothearos Boulevard. Mr Blanche-Horgan said the joint project with CTN cost about $15,000 and was purely intended to provide CTN viewers with a better idea of the traffic situation around the city.
Reading 19. LIGHTNING KILLS 75 SO FAR THIS YEAR, DOWN FROM 2009
Authorities say lightning killed three people on Wednesday in separate incidents in Battambang, Kompong Cham and Stung Treng provinces, bringing the total number of lightning deaths for the year to 75, according to the National Center for disaster Management. However, the figure was still lower than the number killed in the first half of 2009, when 100 people died, said Keo Vy, deputy director of the NCDMs information and relations department. This year, it is less than last year because the rains are small and late, he said. According to the NCDM, 140 people died in 2009 due to lightning, and 95 died in 2008. Mr Vy said prevention efforts for lightning had mainly focused on educating farmers about avoiding lightning but not on the more expensive options such as installing lightning rods. In other countries, they have the equipment to set in public space to protect against lightning, but we dont have the ability to do so, he said. In Kompong Cham on Wednesday, lightning struck and killed 16year-old Moa Ouk as she tended cattle in a rice field during a thunderstorm, said Men Vey deputy police chief in Batheay districts Troap commune. Lightning struck three other people near her, leaving them unconscious for two hours, but they survived, he said. It is hard for the farmer to go back home when it rains because it is necessary to work on the farm and it is hard for the children who tend the cattle far from their village to get home during a storm, he said. In Battambang on Wednesday afternoon, lightning struck and killed 40-year-old Yoeun Yorn as she harvested peanuts in Banan districts Tak Kream commune, said district police chief Buth Sambo. The lightning is really strong this year, he said.
Reading 20. MAN CHARGED WITH RAPE AFTER IMPREGNATING DAUGHTER

Kompong Thom Provincial Court on Tuesday charged a 39-year-old man for allegedly raping and impregnating his 16-year-old daughter, Keo Sophal, provincial anti-human trafficking police chief, said yesterday. Police arrested the suspect Saturday in Stong districts Chamna Krom commune after the 16-year-old victim filed a complaint with police against her father, Mr Sophal said. The suspect confessed to repeatedly raping his daughter many times in a rice field and threatening to kill her if she told anyone, he said. Mr Sophal said the victim told police authorities that she was six weeks pregnant with her father as a result of his repeatedly raping her since April. It is brutal that a father has committed rape against his daughter, he said, adding that the victim has aborted the pre gnancy. Kun Sitha, provincial coordinator for local rights group Adhoc, said that this is the first criminal case involving incest in the province this year.
Reading 21. GOVERNMENT ADVISER BLASTS THAI OFFICIAL OVER PREAH VIHEAR COMMENT
In a scathing diatribe on Thai Foreign Minister Kasit Piromyas recent remarks about Cambodias management plan for Preah Vihear temple, Council of Ministers adviser Pen Ngoeun called the Thai politician a terrorist and compared his administration to the Nazis. The caustic words from Mr. Ngoeun, a member of the Council of Ministers press and quick reaction unit, come less than two weeks before the World Heritage Committeewhich Cambodia and Thailand both joined last yearis set to discuss a plan for the management of Preah Vihear. In a statement sent to local media yesterday, Mr Ngoeun picks through remarks the foreign minister made, as reported by the Bangkok Post on Tuesday. And though the statement ends with a note that his remarks do not reflect the Council of Ministers stance, they closely mirror the governments long-standing line on the issue. According to the Bangkok Post, Mr Kasit said Thailand would oppose Cambodias management plan for the 11th-century temple, which was listed as a World Heritage Site in 2008, while territory nearby remains subject to dispute. Cambodia and Thailand both claim ownership of a 4.6-square-km plot next to the temple along their shared border. Mirroring Council of Ministers spokesman Phay Siphans response to Mr Kasits remarks on Wednesday, but in harsher terms, Mr Ngoeun rejected the idea of overlapping territorial claims and accused Thailand of basing its claim to Cambodia land on an unrecognized border map. Cambodia does not have an overlapping territory with Thailand, he wrote. There was a claim by Thailand that uses the unilateral map in similar fashion as the Nazis (led by Hitler) and the Fascists (led by Mussolini) for the purpose of sending troops to invade and occupy foreign territory.
Reading 22. 19-YEAR-OLD APPREHENDED RAPE-MURDER CASE

Phnom Penh Municipal Police arrested a 19-year-old man on Tuesday in the rape and murder of a 21-year-old woman, police said yesterday. According to Ou Phearum, the deputy penal police chief of Choam Chao commune, officers found the strangled victims naked body inside a rented room in a Dangkao district house late Tuesday night, leading them to the apprehension of six suspects who rented rooms in the same building. Police released five of the men the next morning, Mr Phearum said, but detained Pech Hing, 19 after noticing bruises and scratches on his hands, neck and face. We kept him overnight, then the next day the bruises appeared clearly, which led us to suspect him, he said. District deputy police chief Sok Heng said the suspect has now confessed to the crime. The suspect confessed that he killed the woman, he said. Were making the report, and we are sending him to the court. Bith Kimhong, director of the Interior Ministrys anti -human trafficking department, said his office recorded only six rape-murder cases throughout the country in 2009 and did not have any figures yet for 2010. The Cambodia Daily has reported on eight rape-murders of women and children since the beginning of this year alone. Mr Kimhong said police could not eliminate rape-murder altogether but could reduce by cooperating more with witnesses and prosecutors to make sure killers are punished. He also said authorities were also addressing the issue with pubic service announcements broadcast on radio and television. Ms Mu Sochua lamented the persistence of this increasingly common crime. We are talking about the issue over and over, but nothing is happening, the former minister of womens affairs said. There are many workshops talking about the problem, but nothing is coming out, she said.
Reading 23. WOMAN ON MOTORCYCLE ATTACKED WITH ACID IN MEANCHEY DISTRICT

A 30-year-old woman was attacked with acid on Tuesday morning in Phnom Penhs Meanchey district, according to police and an aid worker, though their accounts of the severity of the victims injuries differed. Lay Chan Thou was riding her motorcycle in Boeng Tompun commune when two men on another motorcycle doused her with acid, said municipal police chief Touch Maruth. Her face is OK as she was wearing a helmet, he said, adding that police were searching for the two culprits. Mr Naruth said he did not know how many acid attacks had occurred in the capital so far this year. Boeng Tompun commune police chief Tep Bora declined to comment on the attack yesterday and referred question to the district police office. Meanchey district police chief Thy Narin said that police were searching for the two attackers before hanging up the phone. Ms Chan Thou is currently being treated at Phnom Penhs Cambodia Acid Survivors Charity, said Chhum Sophea, the charitys program manager. She has burns to her face, arms and legs, she said. The victim doesnt want to talk yet, she added. Normally they dont talk straightaway. Tuesdays attack is at least the fifth acid attack registered in Phnom Penh so far this year, Ms Sophea said. Acid attacks melt both human flesh and bone, causing great pain and leaving victims with extensive scarring and enormous social stigma. Many survivors are left with permanent disabilities such as blindness and deafness, and scarring can make it difficult for them to move. Victims often shy away from filing a court complaint due to high legal costs, and perpetrators, if caught, often escape with inadequate sentences, aid workers say.
Reading 24. ADB LOAN FOR CAMBODIAN RAILWAY COMPLETED

After years of planning and financial delays, the Asian Development Bank and Finance Minister Keat Chhorn yesterday signed the final supplementary $42 million loan needed for work to start on the rehabilitation of Cambodias railway system. The agreement also saw the completion of a $21.5 million grant from the Australian Agency for International Development, which will go toward the $141 million project planned to be completed in 2013. The sub-regional potential of the railway is very clear, said Kunio Senga, director-general of the ADBs Southeast Asia department. Cambodia forms a central part of the Greater Mekong Sub-region programs Southern Economic Corridor, which interconnects Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. He added that the renovation of the railway would one day connect to the Singapore-Kunming Rail Link, creating an unbroken line from Singapore, through Cambodia to China, the countrys largest single foreign investor in 2009. Brian Warry, regional director for Australian firm Toll Holdings, which has an operational concession for the project- said work on the line between Kampot and Phnom Penh should near completion later this year. The first freight train to run on the track is scheduled for Oct 1, he said. In Cambodia, Toll Holdings already supports companies operating in oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Thailand. Economists hope the renovation of Cambodias rail network will enhance trade links in the region and help reduce the cost of imports.
Reading 25. AMERICAN MAN PLEAD GUILTY IN CAMBODIAN MARRIAGE SCHEME

A 25-year-old American man pleaded guilty in a federal court in the US state of Kentucky on Tuesday to charges that he fraudulently married a Cambodian woman who wanted US citizenship, a marriage that got him about $7,000, sexual services and an all-expenses paid Cambodia holiday, according to a statement. Justin Michael Martin of Kentucky faces up to 10 years in jail and a $500,000 fine after pleading guilty to marriage fraud and conspiracy to commit marriage fraud, the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency said. A date for sentencing has not been set. Mr Martin was one of 23 people indicted in April by a federal court for alleged involvement in a fraudulent marriage ring. The conspiracy included over 12 marriages and attempted marriages between 2000 and 2010. The release said Yota Em, the woman Mr Martin married, was currently a fugitive but did not mention the status of any of the other 22 people who have been indicted. Mr Martin traveled to Cambodia in 2004 after being approached by three people, including his future wife, according to the statement from ICE. The couple were married in 2007 and divorced two years later. Martin admitted that he was paid about $7,000 for participating in the marriage fraud scheme, the ICE statement said. While in Cambodia, members of the conspiracy paid for Martins lodging, food, transportation, sexual services from a Cambodian female, and other expenses.
Reading 26. ADHOC CALLS GOVT TO INVESTIGATE BIRTH, MARRIAGE DOCUMENT BRIBERY
The human rights organization Adhoc is to lodge a complaint with provincial authorities in Ratanakkiri province over allegations that indigenous villagers are being forced to pay bribes to commune-level officials in order to receive birth and marriage certificates. More than 20 ethnic minority members of just two communes in the province have reported being forced to hand over $5 to commune clerks or more senior commune officials to have their mandatory paperwork issued, said Pen Boonar, Adhocs provincial coordinator in Ratanakkiri. Officially, applicants for birth and marriage certificates are required to pay only 200 to 500 riel, or about $0.05 to $0.13, as the governments policy is to encourage registration of all Cambodian citizens, Mr Bonnar said. To get a copy of a birth certificate or a copy of a marriage certificate the commune clerks and commune authorities demand $5 otherwise they will not do it for the villagers, he said. Adhoc will send a letter to the provincial governor next week calling on authorities to investigate and intervene to end such illegal extortion performed against indigenous villager who are very poor, he added. Mr Bonnar said the 20 complaints were hail from OYadaw districts Lumchor commune and OChum districts OChum commune. They demanded the money saying we need to pay for their help in writing the certificates for births and marriages and to pay for the cost of pens, OChum village chief Keour Sean said yesterday, adding that the exorbitant costs had left 10 residents of the village unable to register the births of new children. Lum Chor commune chief Sev Than defended the irregular fees, saying that not all the applicants had to pay the full $5. OChum commune chief Vong Duong said that he was not the one who collected the money. I heard villagers complain about this but the person who takes the money is not me, he added.
Reading 27. ASSEMBLY INKS TRADE DEALS WITH CHINA, S KOREA

The National Assembly yesterday ratified free-trade agreements with China and South Korea that were originally signed by the 10 member countries of Asean in 2009. Similar free-trade agreements made by other countries in the region and Asean nations have already resulted in a rise in Cambodian exports. The Asean-Japan Free Trade Agreement, which took effect in Cambodia in December, has triggered substantial growth in garment exports to Japan, which increased by 144.2 percent to $17.67 million between January and April. These agreements will contribute to Aseans outlook, said Kong Vibol, secretary of state at the Ministry of Economy and Finance, who defended yesterdays votes. It will contribute to the free f low of capital investment goods, service and technology. Mr Vibol said that the total amount of Chinese investment in Cambodia had reached $8 billion by last month. Though it was unclear how much of this money came from private investment, or soft loan financing from the Chinese government. Mr Vibol added that China had recently lifted taxes on 418 different goods for Cambodia, resulting in rising exports for some agricultural products. Qian Hai, spokesman for the Chinese Embassy in Phnom Penh, said that the latest free trade agreement with Asean nations would put Cambodia in a promising position to strengthen its ties with China. Right now in Cambodia we are concentrating more on infrastructure like roads, Mr Qian said. We want to help Cambod ia to have their own ability to develop their economy. He added that China would be increasing its investment in the agricultural sector in the coming years, especially in rice production.
Reading 28. PURSAT PROVINCE PRISON BREAK THWARTED BY GUARDS

Prison guards at Pursat provinces Correctional Center 4 thwarted an escape attempted by 10 prisoners on June 26 in Phnom Kravanh districts Phteah Rong commune, correctional center officials said yesterday. At around 4 pm on Saturday, two of the 10 prisoner staged a fight to cause a commotion among the inmates and prevent prison guards from noticing the groups attempt to break down the wooden walls and ceilings of their cells, said CC4 director Hen Sophal. Upon discovering the attempted escape, prison guards shot rounds into the air, signaling about 60 guards to surround the block and calm the situation. The 10 prisoners, ranging from 19 to 33 years old, were transferred to Pursat provincial prison the following day, Mr Sophal said, adding that all of them had only four to nine months left in their sentences. The group confessed to the attempted break after questioning, and police officials will send their report to the provincial court today, said Say Savuth.
Reading 29. MORE CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS DEPORTED FROM THAILAND

Amidst a nationwide crackdown in Thailand against illegal migrant workers, Thai authorities deported 240 Cambodian workers from a village just inside the Thai border yesterday, a provincial police official said. Yesterdays deportation came as a Thai newspaper reported that 403 Cambodian illegal migrant workers were arrested in Thailands Samuth Sakhon province south of Bangkok. Hun Hean, Banteay Meanchey provincial police chief, said the group of 240 Cambodian workers had been arrested by Thai police at a village in Thailands Sakeo province on Wednesday. Mr Hean added that the number of illegal migrant workers deported from Thailand yesterday was not much more than the regular 100 to 200 who are sent back through the Poipet border checkpoint every day. They sent 240 migrant workers back via the Poipet international border checkpoint Thursday morning, Mr Hean said. Some of them were working in the Thai village and some were waiting to move on to Bangkok for work. On Wednesday, around 100 migrant workers were sent back. Its normal for them to send back around 100 to 200 workers a day. In a separate case yesterday, the Thai-language newspaper Post Today reported that 403 Cambodians were among 719 illegal migrant workers arrested by the Samut Sakhon provincial police over the past three weeks. A Translation of the article provided by the Human rights and Development Foundations Migrant Justice Program in Bangkok said that the arrested workers, most of whom were found working in small businesses, will face prosecution before they are deported. On June 2, Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva signed an order for the creation of a government center to help crack down on the number of illegal migrant workers in Thailand. Oum Mean, secretary of state at the Labor Ministry, said yesterday that Cambodian migrant workers were being arrested because they did not have official documents. It is very hard for us to control them and we have always urged them to go to Thailand through licensed companies, Mr Mean said.
Reading 30. NUN, 79, RAPED AT RUSSEI KEO DISTRICT PAGODA, NEIGHBORS SAY
A 79-year-old Buddhist nun recovering from a stroke was raped at a Phnom Penh pagoda on Monday night, the womans neighbors said yesterday. Ly Lieng, who lives at Uddom Ravatei pagoda in the capitals Russei Keo district, was allegedly attacked by a gang of young men who also stole her fan, neghbors said. Approached by a reporter yesterday, Ly Lieng, who cannot speak due to her pre-existing medical condition, held up three fingers up when asked how many men were involved in the attack on Monday night. Her neighbor Mao Chantha, 45, said she had found the elderly woman naked and injured when she went to care for her on Tuesday morning. With my own eyes, I saw her naked and with swollen wounds where she had been raped, Ms Chantha said yesterday, The police officers said that the victim just exaggerated [the attack], and I asked them to find justice. Another neighbor, Van Narath, 25, said she had examined Ly Liengs wounds. I asked the police officers to arrest the suspects as soon as possible, Ms Narath said. Russei Keo commune police chief Sun Chan Nareth said yesterday that police had not yet identified any suspects in the case and were not yet investigating the rape report. This is a fresh case we are investigating... We have identified that a fan was stolen from the scene, Mr Nareth said, adding that the victim had not wanted male police to inspect her body. The victim just expressed body language and didnt let us examine her. So I could not get any detail in that case yet, he said of the reported rape.
Appendix
CHARTS
Chart 1. Chart of Transition Signals
SENTENCE CONNECTORS MEANING FUNCTION TRANSITION PHRASES CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
CLAUSE CONNECTORS COORDINATOR
SUBORDINATORS
OTHERS
To introduce an additional idea
in addition
furthermore moreover besides also too
and
another (+ noun) an additional (+ noun)
To introduce an opposite idea
on the other hand in contrast
however nevertheless instead still nonetheless
but yet
although though even though whereas while
in spite of (+ noun) despite (+ noun)
To introduce a choice or alternative
otherwise
or
if unless
To introduce an explanation
in fact indeed
that is
To introduce an example
for example for instance
an example of (+ noun) such as (+ noun)
To introduce a conclusion or summary
in conclusion in summary in brief in short indeed
To introduce a result
accordingly as a result as a consequence
therefore consequently hence thus
so
Chart 2. Chart of Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs
Relative Pronouns refer to humans refer to humans refer to humans, nonhumans, and things; shows possession refer to nonhumans and things refer to nonhumans and things The professor who teaches my biology class won a Nobel Prizes two year ago. Professor Jones, who teaches my biology class, won a Nobel Prize two years ago. She loaned her car to someone whom she didnt know. Professor Jones, whom I have for biology, won a Nobel Prize two years ago. I studied English from a professor whose name I have forgotten. Students whose native language is English do not study here. She teaches biology, which is my favorite subject. Her husband teaches Japanese, which I enjoy the least. The subject that I enjoy the most is English. The subject I enjoy the most is English. Relative Adverbs when where refer to a time refer to a place I work full time on days when I dont have classes. I didnt work last week, when I had my final exams. She has never returned to the city where she was born. First City Bank, where I have a checking account, was robbed last week.
who
whom
whose
which
that
Chart 3. Chart of Noun Clause Subordinators
SUBORDINATOR Included Statement that who whoever whom whomever whose what whatever which whichever Included Wh-question where wherever when whenever why how however how much how many how long/how often, etc Included Yes/No Question whether (or not) if
MEANING
Whatever person
anything/everything
any place any time
Chart 4. Chart of Adverbial Subordinators
Time
SUBORDINATOR when whenever while as soon as after since as before until where anywhere wherever everywhere as + adverb + as as as if as though because as since so that in order that although even though though while whereas
MEANING a point in time at any time at the same time

immediately at or the time that
from that time while / when
anyplace anyplace everyplace comparison in the way or manner that
for the reason that for the purpose of unexpected result direct opposition
Chart 5. Chart of Prepositions

Frequently used compound prepositions are in the list that follows: according to as of because of in addition to in place of in regard to in spite of on account of prior to with respect to aside from as well as by means of in front of in respect to instead of out of with regard to
Chart 6. Chart of Conjunctions

Coordinators (Coordinating Conjunctions): You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FANBOYS: for or and yet nor so but
Subordinators (Subordinating Conjunctions): after which whenever unless until as soon as so that before although while where wherever what that even though as who whom whether when though how if since whose
References
1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. Writing Academic English. D. Ubanan and Som Muny. Phrases to Paragraphs. Norton University. Nguon Sophy. NSP English Grammar. Martin Hewings. Advanced Grammar in Use. Michael Adams. Scope English (Grammar & Composition) Level 2. Scholastic Scope Editors. Scope English (Writing and Language Skills) Level 4. Scholastic Scope Editors. Scope English (Writing and Language Skills) Level 6. Betty Schrampfer Azar. Understanding and Using English Grammar. A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet. A Practical English Grammar. High School English Grammar (New English Grammar Series). Commanding Sentence Book. Patricia K. Werner and John P. Nelson. Mosaic 2 Grammar.

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1. USES OF SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(1)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Simple Present Tense is used to describe the general truth or facts.

Simple Present Tense is used to describe Timetable.

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(2)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(3)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson II. Present Continuous (Progressive Tense)4

1. USES OF PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE4

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(4)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Present Progressive Tense is used to describe the physical feelings.

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE5

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(5)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson III. Present Perfect (Participle) Tense6

1. USES OF PRESENT PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) TENSE6

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PRESENT PARTICIPLE TENSE7

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(7)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson IV. Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense8

USES OF PRESENT PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) TENSE8

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson V. Simple Past Tense9

1. USES OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE9

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN SIMPLE PAST TENSE10

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(10)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson VI. Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense11

1. USES OF PAST CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE11

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(11)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE12

COMPILED BY : MR. PRAK KIM HONG -(12)NOPARTOFTHISTENSESTOPARAGRAPHSBOOKMAYBERECOPIEDORREPUBLISHEDBYANYMEANSWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION!

ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson VII. Past Perfect (Participle) Tense13

1. USES OF PAST PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) TENSE13

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN PAST PERFECT TENSE14

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson VIII. Past Perfect Continuous Tense15

USES OF PAST PERFECT (PARTICIPLE) CONTINUOUS TENSE15

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson IX. Simple Future Tense16

1. USES OF SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE SHALL OR WILL16

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ENGLISH JAPANESE KHMER TRAINING SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. USES OF SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE BE GOING TO17

3. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES IN SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE17

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