TITLE:

FOUR PROBE METHOD

OBJECT: To measure the resistivity of germanium crystal and also to determine the energy band-gap. CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

THEORY:
The expression of intrinsic carrier concentration is given by ni=pi=2((KT)/(22))3/2(memh)3/4exp(-(Eg)/(2KT)) The electrical conductivity is given by =(niee+piep) . Where all the notation has been used for usual meaning. Since ni=pi, we have =eni(ep) =KT3/2(ep)exp(-(Eg)/(2KT)) Where K is constant. The factor T3/2 and mobilities change relatively slow w.r.t. temperature compared to the exponential term and hence the logarithim of resistivity varies with linearly with 1/T . The width of the energy gap may determined from the slope of the curve.we have,

loge=Eg/2KT-logeK

FOUR PROBE METHOD:

Many conventional methods for measuring resistivity are unsatisfactory for semiconductors because metal-semiconductor junction are rectifying in nature. Also there is generally minority carrier injection by one of the current carrying contacts .An excess concentration of minority carryier will effect the potential of the other contact . The four probe method described here , overcome the difficulties mentioned above and also offer several advantages It permits measurement of resistivity in samples having awide variety of shape .In this manner ,the resistivity of both sides of the semiconductor junction can be determined with good accuracy. In this method 4 sharp are placed on flat surface of the material to be measured , current is passed through the outer electrodes and the floating potential is measured across the inner pair. If the flat surface on which the probes rests adequately large and the crystal is big, the Sc' may be considered to be a semi infinite vollume. To prevent minority carrier injection and make good contacts, the surface on which the probe rests, ma mechanically lapped . Now ,the floating potential Vf at a distance r from the electrode carrying current I in a material of resistivity o is given by

Vf=(oI)/(2r)
When the point spacing is equal, the eqn becomes o=2Vs/I ,s=equal spacing between probes. Since the thickness of crystal is small compared to the probe distance, a correction factor to be applied.

=os/(G7W)
W=thickness of crystal and G7(W/s)=(2sln2)/W. Thus a graph of log10 vs 1000/T is obtained. We earlier obtained, loge=(Eg)/2KT-logeK . The slope of the curve is given by:

Tloge=Eg/2k
Thus Eg may be obtained from the slope of the graph.

LIST OF APARATUS:
1. Probes arrangement 2. Sample: Ge crystal in the form of chip or slice 3. Oven: It is small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from room temperature to 200oC. 4. Four probe set-up: Scientific equipment and services,It has three sub units all enclosed in one cabinet. 5. Multiranged digital voltmeter: The range is (0-200mV) and (0-2V) 6. Constant current generator 7. Oven power supply

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:
Room temperature= 30 oC Current (mA) 3 6 9 Voltage (mV) 114.4 230.0 344 Resistance () 38.13 39.33 38.78

Average resistance=38.41 Resistivity of the material o=(V/I)2s where S=distance between two consecutive probe=1.25 mm o=(38.41 X 2 X 1.25 X 10 -3)= 30.167 cm Since the thickness of the crystal is small compared to the probe distance a correction factor for it has to be applied. Hence =os/(G7)w where w is the thickness of the crystal=0.5 mm w / s = 0.5/1.25 = 0.7. => G7=3.0657 =30.167/3.0657=9.84 cm In general o = (V/I) X 0.785 In Run II, I is kept constant at 3 Ma. o=2.62 V =os/(G7)w =2.62 V / 3.0657 = 0.855 V Table regarding the experimental data is in next page.

Temperature (oC) (K) 30o 35o 40o 45o 50o 55o 60o 65o 70o 75o 80o 85o 90o 303 308 313 318 323 328 333 338 343 348 353 303 308

Voltage(mV) Increasing temp. 114.0 117.7 118.8 119.3 119.5 118.5 116.3 112.4 108 101.6 93.8 85.7 76.2 Decreasing temp 117.1 118.5 120.4 117.3 114.6 112.6 107.5 101.3 93.6 86.2 78.0 72.3 68.4

Average voltage (mV) 115.6 118.1 119.6 118.3 117.05 115.5 111.9 107.1 100.8 93.4 85.4 79 72.3

o=(V/I)2s T-1103 (-cm)

Resistivity =os/(G7)w log10()

3.3 3.25 3.19 3.14 3.1 3.05 3 2.96 2.92 2.87 2.83 2.79 2.75

30.25 30.9 31.3 30.96 30.63 30.22 29.28 28.02 26.38 24.44 22.35 20.67 18.92

8.4 10.1 10.2 10.1 10 9.87 9.56 9.15 8.61 8.82 7.34 6.75 6.18

0.12 1 1.01 1 1 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.9 0.86 0.83 0.79

CALCULATION
From the table, we plot the graph of log10() vs 1000/T From the graph slope is obtained 0.15/0.1710-3=882.35 Now we get: Eg/2K=logeT=2.3026Tlog10() Here, Tlog10 ()=Slope of the curve =882.353 Hence, Eg/2K=2.3026882.353 or, Eg=28.61410-52.3026882.353=0.35eV SO, band gap energy of Ge crystal is obtained by Eg=0.35eV

GRAPH FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA:

DISCUSSIONS:
1. At higher temperature, the voltage for increasing and decreasing temperature varied greatly, which in turn affected the slope of the curve, usually the bandgap E g should have been around 0.7 Ev 2. For more accurate results, more readings at higher temperatures should have been taken.