Tor Fluid Hydraulics

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC
Engr. Zukbee N. A Tor Festus L.

JOMAT Production
Copyright 2013 Zukbee N. A. & Tor Festus L.

Revised edition
Published by HARRISCO PRESS Port Harcourt Nigeria

ISBN: 989 40986 8 13
ALL RIGHT RESERVED This manuscript may not be reproduced in part or in full or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or in any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise except for brief quotation in critical articles or review-without the prior written consent of the copyright owner and the publisher. This book is sold subject to the condition that it should not by way of trade or otherwise be lent, hired out or otherwise circulated without the copyright owner consent, in any form of binding or cover that in which it is published and this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
Designed and Printed: JOMAT Services, No. 28 Poly R2oad, Bori 08035997597 Email: kbtjossy@yahoo.com
ii
To Our wives Mrs. Sira Zukbee & Mrs. Kornebari Evelyn Tor
iii
PREFACE
The book Experimental Method in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics has been carefully arranged to cover the NBTE practical requirement for students offering Fluid Mechanics and some related hydraulic course in engineering departments, especially Mechanical and Civil Engineering. It also covers the University scheme for practical on the basic fluid mechanics. There is also an experiment on turbine and pumps to help the student understand the principles behind the operation of pumps and turbines when they are expose to in the industries. Students who successfully carried out most of the experiment in this book will find Fluid Mechanics very interesting.
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Acknowledgement
The Authors wish to acknowledge their friends and colleagues in the Polytechnic for the kind assistance and contribution especially the Head of Department, Engr J. N. Beredam for allowing them use the school facilities to perform most of the practical outline in this book.
Zukbee N. A. & Tor Festus L.
CONTENTS
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS ..........................................................................................................i IN .........................................................................................................................................................i FLUID MECHANICS .........................................................................................................................i AND HYDRAULIC ............................................................................................................................i JOMAT Production...............................................................................................................................i Revised edition ...................................................................................................................................ii PREFACE ..........................................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................................v CHAPTER ONE..................................................................................................................................1 BASIC HYDRAULIC BENCH.......................................................................................................1 EXPERIMENT 1.1..............................................................................................................................6 THE STABILITY OF A FLOATING BODY.................................................................................6 CHAPTER TWO...............................................................................................................................10 EXPERIMENT 2.1............................................................................................................................10 THE POSITION OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ...................................................................10 CHAPTER THREE...........................................................................................................................15 EXPERIMENT 3.1............................................................................................................................15 DISCHARGE THROUGH AN ORIFICE.....................................................................................15 EXPERIMENT 3.2............................................................................................................................19 TO DETERMINE THE COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE ........................................................19 CHAPTER FOUR..............................................................................................................................21 EXPERIMENT 4.1............................................................................................................................21 BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENT ........................................21 CHAPTER FIVE...............................................................................................................................25 EXPERIMENT 5.1 ...........................................................................................................................25 DISCHARGE OVER WEIR (Rectangular Notch) .......................................................................25 EXPERIMENT 5.2 ...........................................................................................................................28 DISCHARGE OVER WEIR (V- Notch) ......................................................................................28 CHAPTER SIX..................................................................................................................................32 EXPERIMENT 6.1 ...........................................................................................................................32 FRICTION LOSS ALONG A PIPE .............................................................................................32 CHAPTER SEVEN...........................................................................................................................36 EXPERIMENT 7.1............................................................................................................................36 FLOW CONDITION ....................................................................................................................36 EXPERIMENT 7.2............................................................................................................................39 OSBORNE REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT ..................................................................................39 CHAPTER EIGHT............................................................................................................................41 EXPERIMENT 8.1............................................................................................................................41 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW VISUALIZATION ............................................................................41 EXPERIMENT 8.2............................................................................................................................44 VISUALIZATION OF FLOW OVER OR AROUND IMMERSED OBJECT............................44 CHAPTER NINE...............................................................................................................................48 EXPERIMENT 9.1............................................................................................................................48 IMPACT OF JETS ....................................................................................................................48 CHAPTER TEN.................................................................................................................................52 EXPERIMENT 10.1..........................................................................................................................52 PRESSURE GAUGE CALIBRATION.....................................................................................52 CHAPTER ELEVEN.........................................................................................................................56 EXPERIMENT 11.1 .........................................................................................................................56 LOSSES IN PIPE BENDS ........................................................................................................56
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CHAPTER TWELVE........................................................................................................................60 EXPERIMENT 12.1..........................................................................................................................60 STEADY UNIFORM FLOW....................................................................................................60 CHAPTER THIRTEEN.....................................................................................................................63 EXPERIMENT 13.1..........................................................................................................................63 THE CHANGE IN DEPTH AT A HYDRAULIC JUMP.........................................................63 EXPERIMENT 13.2..........................................................................................................................65 FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE WITH A HYDRAULIC JUMP........................................65 CHAPTER FOURTEEN...................................................................................................................68 EXPERIMENT 14.1..........................................................................................................................68 FLOW OVER A BROAD - CRESTED WEIR.........................................................................68 CHAPTER FIFTEEN........................................................................................................................70 EXPERIMENT 15.1..........................................................................................................................70 FLOW THROUGH A VENTURE FLUME .............................................................................70 CHAPTER SIXTEEN .......................................................................................................................74 EXPERIMENT 16.1..........................................................................................................................74 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE PUMP AT A SINGLE SPEED ....74 EXPERIMENT 16.2..........................................................................................................................76 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMILAR PUMP IN PARALLEL .................76 EXPERIMENT 16.3..........................................................................................................................78 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO SIMILAR PUMP IN SERIES.......................78 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN.................................................................................................................81 EXPERIMENT 17.1..........................................................................................................................81 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PUMP...........................................................81 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN ....................................................................................................................85 EXPERIMENT 18.1..........................................................................................................................85 PRESSURE HEAD AND FLOW RATE AT VARIOUS SPEED OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP ........................................................................................................................................85 EXPERIMENT 18.2..........................................................................................................................89 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE HEAD, FLOW RATE, TORQUE, AND POWER OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP..............................................................................................89 CHAPTER NINETEEN ....................................................................................................................93 EXPERIMENT 19.1..........................................................................................................................93 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PELTON IMPULSE TURBINE .....................93 REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................98
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Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability
CHAPTER ONE
BASIC HYDRAULIC BENCH The hydraulic bench as shown in a line diagram of fig. 1.1 and a three dimensional diagram of fig. 1.2, is intended to provide facilities for performing a number of simple experiments in hydraulics. In fig. 1.1 below is the arraignment of a single unit in which a small centrifugal pump P draws water from a sump S resting below the bench, and delivers it to a bench supply valve V. The delivery pressure at this value is recorded on a Bourdon pressure gauge G, which is provided with a connection A for calibrating the gauge with a dead weight tester.
G V A B
O P
Fig. 1.1 Line diagram of a hydraulic bench. Below the bench is a weighing tank W into which the discharge from apparatus being tested on the bench
may be directed through a short pipe D terminating at flange F just above the bench level.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 .S . . . . . . . . 0 1 f 1 2
. . l .
i g h t t u b e s c a l e F l o w c o n t r o l v a M o t o r s t a r t / s t o p D u m p v a l v e h a n D r a i n v a l v e S u m p t a n k c a p . M e a s u r i n g c y l i n T r a n s p a r e n t p i p P u m p & m o t o r S i d e c h a n n e l s Q u i c k r e l e a s e c o e x i b l e s u p p l y p i p I n l e t s t i l l i n g b a f
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 4 5 6 7 8
. . . . . .
O p e n c h a n n W e i r c a r r i e T a n k s t i l l i n V o l . M e a s u D u m p v a l v e O v e r f l o w
Fig. 1.2 A Three dimensional diagram of a Hydraulic Bench The weighting tank W is supported at one end of a weigh beam, the other end of which carries a weight 2
hanger sufficient to balance approximately the dry weight of the tank. The outlet valve B in the base of the tank may be operated through a mechanism by an external handle. An over flow pipe O is also provided. Apparatus under test is placed on the bench and connected by flexible pipe to a bench supply valve which normally serves to regulate the rate of flow through the apparatus. Another flexible pipe is lead from the exit of the apparatus to the flange above a weighing tank: so that the discharge from the exit of the apparatus is returned through the open valve at the base of the tank to the sump. The Hydraulic Bench comprises the following; 1. Volumetric measuring tank 2. Sump tank, 3. Centrifugal pump, 4. control valve, 5. stilling baffle, 6. slight tube with level scale and 7. a dump valve. It is also incorporated with it an earth leakage circuit breaker. Experiments are not carried out on the hydraulic bench alone but it is used in conjunction with the following apparatus:1. A Dead Weight Pressure gauge calibrators. 2. Metacentric Height Apparatus 3. Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Apparatus 4. Basic Weirs 5. Orifice and Jet Apparatus 6. Impact of Jet Apparatus 7. Osborne Reynoldss Apparatus 3
Pipe Friction Apparatus 9. Flow visualisation channel 10. Losses in Bends Apparatus 11. Flow Demonstration Apparatus 12. Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus A measuring cylinder 7 is provided with the hydraulics
8.
bench for measurement of very small flow rates. Attention is drawn to the following points which should be observed for safe and satisfactory operation of the bench. 1. off. 2. If a leak develops so that water drips on to the from the electrical supplies supply it. leak by The has electric motor or starter, stop the pump immediately and isolate it withdrawing the plug which Before starting the pump ensure that the sump is the bench supply valves are turned full and that
connection should not be made until the
been sealed. A small amount of water leaking on to the bench top, however, is of small concern, as it drains 3. back into the sump. When making connections by flexible hose it is usually sufficient to rely on friction between the metal pipe and the hose to maintain the water tightness of the connection. Where however the connection is subjected to the full pressure delivered to the bench supply valve, or if the hose is a loose fit on the metal pipe, it is advisable to secure the connection with a hose clip tightened by a screw driver or a key made for the purpose. 4
4.
At
all
times
other
than
when
discharge
measurement is being made, the dump valve in the base of the measuring tanks should be kept open. Although each tank has an overflow pipe. But this is inadequate to deal with the maximum discharge.
EXPERIMENT 1.1
THE STABILITY OF A FLOATING BODY
AIM To demonstrate the stability of a body floating in a fluid. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulics Bench 2. Metre Rule 3. Weighing Machine 4. Metacentric Height Apparatus
Fig. 1.3 Metacentric height Apparatus 6
THEORY If a jockey weight m is moved a horizontal distance x from its position and if the total weight of the floating assembly is W; then the corresponding movement of the centre of gravity G of the whole assembly in the direction parallel to the base of the floating body is
mx1 . W
If this movement produces a new equilibrium
position at angle , then the metacentric height is

mx1 given by GM = , where M is the metacentric. W tan
If B is the centre of buoyancy, the distance BM may also be calculated from BM =

1 . Where I = 2nd moment V
of area about an axis through the centriod of the area of the body at the plane of the water surface, the axis being perpendicular to the plane in which angular displacement take place. V = volume of liquid displaced. For a rectangular pontoon B lies at a depth below the water surface 1 3 equal to the total depth of immersion, and I = lb . 12 GM = BM BG PROCEDURE First weigh the various components of the floating assembly and measure the length and width of the pontoon. Determine the centre of gravity of the pontoon by turning it on its side and supporting it at the stem on the edge of a steel rule to obtain the point at which it balances. To obtain a convenient point of 7
balance, it may be necessary to move the adjustable weight along the stem to a suitable position. Mark the point of balance Centre of Gravity. Float the pontoon in the volumetric tank water. Record angles for various positions of the jockey weight on both sides of the centre O with an increment of 10mm. Set the adjustable weight at another different height for a new position of centre of gravity and repeat the procedure. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS Dimensions of Pontoon Length = ., Width = ., Jockey weight = Weight of assembled pontoon = . Position centre of gravity CG from base of pontoon. Y = ., Depth of immersion, d = . Position of centre of Buoyancy CB d 2 = . mx mx x Right x Left GM = GM =
W tan W tan
Plot GM against and read GM when = 0 x is distance of moveable mass is angle of heel GM is metacentric height
I Lb 3 = Check by calculation BM = V 12V I GM = BM BG = Y d 2 V
QUESTIONS 1. Does the position of the metacentric depend on the position of 2. the centre of gravity? Does the metacentric height vary with angle of heel?
Hydrostatic Pressure
CHAPTER TWO
EXPERIMENT 2.1 THE POSITION OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AIM To determine the position of the centre of pressure of an immersed plane surface and to compare it with the theoretical position. APPARATUS 1. Hydrostatic pressure apparatus 2. Hydraulic bench THEORY The force (F) acting on a submerged surface is F = P.A - g XA. This is the algebraic sum of all the small forces acting on their respective position and it act through a point called centre of pressure. Taking moment about O, and note that force on trip = x g A Moment of force on strip = x2g A But x2 A =Io (2nd moment of area about O) And moment = FZ FZ = gIo Since F = xg A for resultant force gI 0 I = 0 Then Z = gA X A X From parallel axis theorem I 0 = I gg + A X
2
10
Z=
I CG1 + A X AX
I CG1 AX
+X
11
Fig. 2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus 12
This equation is applied also for partially submerged plated except that the Area of plate varies 3 I CG = br , A = b.r 12 and = r 2 Z=
2 r 3
2 3
That is, centre of pressure is

2 3
down the section of
plate that is submerged. xC = r + q PROCEDURE From the end of the balance arm hang the balance pan and position the balance arm on the knife edge pivot. From the drain cock, connect a hose sump and also connect hose from the bench feed to the triangular aperture on the top of the Perspex tank. With the help of the adjustable feet and spirit level, level the tank. Move the connecter balance mass until the balance arm is horizontal with the drain cock close, admit water to the apparatus until the level reaches the bottom edge of the quadrant. Place a mass on the balance pan: slowly add water into the tank until the balance arm is horizontal. Record the water level on the plate and the mass on the balance pan. Repeat the above procedure for each increment of mass until the water level reaches the maximum reading on the scale. Remove also each increment of 13
mass noting masses and water level until all the masses have been removed.
PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION No . 1 2 3 4 5 Mass m(g)
mm
xCA
xCT (mm)
A = actual T = Theoretical mgP = FxCA
xCA =
Plot xc actual against xc theoretical for the partially and fully submerged cases. CONCLUSION 1. 2. Why is the centre of pressure always below the Explain the reason for any discrepancies between the the theoretical results. centriod? actual and
mgP F
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Discharge Through an Orifice
CHAPTER THREE
EXPERIMENT 3.1 DISCHARGE THROUGH AN ORIFICE AIM To determine the coefficient of velocity for a small orifice APPARATUS 1. Hydraulic Bench
2.
Orifice and Jet Apparatus Stop Watch.
3.
THEORY
V = CV 2 gh CV = X 2 hY X 2 4 CV Y= h
Note: The plan of vena contractor is taken as the datum for measuring X. PROCEDURE Adjust the feet to level the apparatus and ensure that the part of the Jet coincides with the row of measuring needles. Connect the apparatus to the bench delivering valve and the overflow pipe hose to the sump tank. After placing a sheet of paper on the backboard raise the 15
needles to clear the path of the water jet and also raise the overflow pipe.
16
Open the flow control valve, to admit water into the head tank. Adjust the valve until the water is just spilling into the overflow. Record the head h on the 17
Fig. 3.1 Orifice and jet apparatus
scale.
Assess the position of the vena contractor
visually and note the distance from the orifice. Adjust each of the needles in turn to determine the jet path, making the position of the top of the needles on the sheet of paper using the other orifice plate. Repeat for various values of h by moving the overflow. Repeat using another orifice plate. PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION Orifice A
Head h(mm ) Height Distance X (mm ) Y(mm) X(mm)
2 2
Orifice B
X
2
Head h(mm )
Height Distance X2(mm2 Y(mm ) X(mm) )
X2
Plot
X2
against y.
Find CV from the slope of the graph.
18
EXPERIMENT 3.2 TO DETERMINE THE COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE AIM To find experimentally the coefficient of discharge for a small orifice for flows under constant and varying head. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulics Bench
2. 3.
Orifice and Jet Apparatus Stop Watch.
See Fig. 3.1above THEORY
Q = C d A 2 gh T = 2 AT Cd A 2 g
h1 h2
PROCEDURE Measure the orifice diameter, removing the orifice plate if necessary, measure the internal dimensions of the header tank. Connect the apparatus to the bench, levelling by adjusting feet, ensuring the overflow pipe runs into the sump tank. Raise overflow pipe to a suitable level, release water into the tank. Control the flow until the water is just spilling into overflow. Record the head h on the scale, measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank, or by intercepting the jet with a measuring cylinder. Repeat for different water levels. For flow under varying head, the overflow pipe is raised to obtain maximum head, the header tank filled to overflow level and the inlet water feed closed. 19
Start a stop watch when the level reaches the first convenient scale mark (noted as h). Take a reading of the head (h2) at 20 second intervals. The above should be repeated using the other orifice. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS: Constant Head
Head h(mm) Volume Time water T (l) (sec) Q l sec Q
2
Variable Head
Head h(mm) Height h2 (mm) Time T (sec)
(a)
Plot Q2 against h and obtain Cd from the Plot T against and obtain Cd from the
slope of the graph for constant head.

(b) h2
slope of the graph for variable. Determine RO Reynolds number at each head and plot Cd versus RO.
20
Discharge over Weirs
CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENT 4.1 BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENT AIM To investigate the validity of Bernoullis theorem as applied to the flow of water in a tapering duct. APPARATUS 1. Bernoullis theorem (Venturi meter) 2. Hydraulic bench 3. Stop watch demonstration apparatus
THEORY If an incompressible fluid is to flow through a venture meter and if the cross-sectional area at any section (1) 21
Fig. 4.1 Bernoullis theorem apparatus
upstream is denoted as a1, and at the throat section (2) as a2 and at any other section n as qn1, then piezometer tubes at these sections will register ht, h2 and hi. Assuming that there is no loss of energy, Bernoullis theorem states that
V12 V22 Vn2 + h1 = +h2 = +hn 2g 2g 2g
Since Z1 = Z 2 = Z n
From the continuity equation Q = a1 V1 = a2 V2 = an, Vn Substituting this in Bernoulli equation for V1 will give
V22 a2 V22 + h1 = + h 2 ; V2 = 2 g a1 2 g
2 g ( h1 h 2 )
2
2 g ( h1 h 2 ) a 2 1 a 1
2
a 2 1 a 1 In practice there is some loss of energy between section (1) and (2) and it is customary to allow for such discrepancy by writing. 2 g h1 h 2 Q = Cd a3 2 a 2 1 a 1
Q = a 2 V2 = a 2
Where Cd is known as the coefficient of the meter. PROCEDURE First open the control valve downstream of the meter and the bench supply valve so as to allow water to run for a few seconds to clear air pockets from the supply system. Then gradually close the control valve. When the water levels have risen to a convenient height, 22
gradually close the bench valve, so that, as both valves are finally shut off the meter is left containing static water under moderate pressure. Set the adjusting screws at the base, so that the piezometers each read the same value. Take the reading of the maximum available (h1 h2) i.e. with h1 close to the top of the scale and h2 close to the bottom. (This condition is achieved by gradually opening both the bench valve and the control valve. Successive openings of either valve will increase the flow and the difference between h1 and h2. If difficulty is experienced in reaching the desired condition air may be released from or admitted to the manifold through the small air valve at its end). Measure the quantity of water flowing by collecting it in the weighing tank, record the time taken to collect this amount and while this is in progress read values of h1 and h2 from the scale. At reducing values of (h1 h2), take a series of readings PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION
Tube Dia. of No. cross section (mm) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Area of Mamometer Flow Probe Probe Fluid cross levels (h)mm Rate Q Distance Manometer Velocit l section (mm) level (mm) y (m/s) sec 2 (mm )
Choose any two value of h and plot a graph of Q vs (h1 h2)1/2 23
Calculate the coefficient of the meter.
24
Discharge Over Weirs
CHAPTER FIVE
EXPERIMENT 5.1 DISCHARGE OVER WEIR (Rectangular Notch) AIM To study the characteristics of flow over a rectangular notch. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulic bench 2. Rectangular notch
3. 4.
Hook and pointer gauge Stop watch
THEORY The total flow rate Q through a rectangular weir is given by:
3 2 Q= 2 g H 2b 3
Where
b = width of rectangular weir H = head on weir
Taking into account losses and contraction of the jet, Q for a rectangular notch can be given as
3 2 Q = Cb 2g b H 2 3
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge. Also it can be said that 25
Q = KHn or Log Q = Log K + nLog H
( R
e c t a
Fig. 5.1 Rectangular notch apparatus
l a
r )
If experimental results are plotted having Log H as abscissa and Log Q as ordinate, then the slope of the 26
straight line = n, and the intercept on the axis of Log Q = Log K. PROCEDURE First level the apparatus. Admit water from the bench supply to the apparatus until the level is approximately correct and bale out or in using a small beaker until the crest of the weir lies just in the surface. Place a steel rule on the crest. Then set the hook gauge on the water surface in the still tube and take the zero reading. From the bench supply valve, regulate the flow. First start with a maximum discharge and subsequent readings with roughly equal decrement in head. Measure the discharge and head on the weir at each stage. About six different discharges for each notch should be made. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION Record breadth of notch 1. Tabulate volumes, time and heads
2.
Compute and tabulate Q, H 3 2 , Cd, Q 3 , Log Q, Plot Q 3 against H Log Q ,, Log H Cd ,, H Note:
2
Log H
Cd =
3Q 2b 2g H
3 2
CONCLUSION 1. Is Cd constant? 27
Discharge Over Weirs 2. 3.
Estimate an average valve of Q for the test Can the empirical formula Q = KHn use in describing the
4.
relationship between Q and H? If yes find the
value of K and n. If Cd is not constant suggest a functional

H b.
relationship between Cd and
EXPERIMENT 5.2 DISCHARGE OVER WEIR (V- Notch) AIM To study the characteristics of flow over a V-notch. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulic bench 2.
3. 4.
V-Shaped notch Hook and pointer gauge Stop watch
THEORY The total flow rate Q through a V-notch of angle 2 , is given by

5 8 2 g tan H 2 15
Q=
Where
H = head on weir
Taking into account losses and contraction of the jet, Q for V notch can be given as
5 8 2 g tan H 2 15
Q = Cd
28
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge. be said that Q = KHn or Log Q = Log K + nLogH
Also it can
If experimental results are plotted having Log H as abscissa and Log Q as ordinate, then the slope of the straight line = n, and the intercept on the axis of Log Q = Log K.
29
( V
- n
Fig. 5.2 V-notch apparatus
t c
PROCEDURE First level the apparatus. Admit water from the bench supply to the apparatus until the level is approximately correct and bale out or in using a small beaker until the crest of the weir lies just in the 30
surface. The reflection of the V in the surface serves to indicate whether the level is correct or not. Then set the hook gauge on the water surface in the still tube and take the zero reading. From the bench supply valve, regulate the flow. First start with a maximum discharge and subsequent readings with roughly equal decrement in head. Measure the discharge and head on the weir at each stage. About six different discharge for each notch should be made.
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION FOR V- NOTCH
1. Record breadth of notch. 2. Tabulate volumes, time and heads

3.
Compute and tabulate Q and Q Plot Q

2 5
4.
against H and find Cd from the slope of
the graph. QUESTION 1. Is Cd constant throughout experiment? 2. What are the advantage and disadvantage of plotting Q
2 5
against H instead of Q against
31
Flow Profile
CHAPTER SIX
EXPERIMENT 6.1 FRICTION LOSS ALONG A PIPE AIM To investigate the variation of friction head along a circular pipe with the mead flow velocity in the pipe. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulic bench 2. Pipe friction apparatus 3. Measuring cylinder
4. 5.
Thermometer Stop watch
THEORY The frictional resistance to which a fluid is subjected as it flows along a pipe results in a continuous loss of energy or total head of the fluid. laws of resistance in pipes. Osborne Reynold recorded a number of experiments to determine the The parameters which determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent in any particular case are given by Reynold as Re = Where Re = Reynolds number = Density of fluid V = Velocity of flow D = Diameter of pipe 32
VD
Flow Profile
= Coefficient of Viscosity of the fluid
Re has a practical maximum value of 2000 laminar flow. For pipe flow calculations, the Darcy33
Fig 6.1 Pipe Friction apparatus
Flow Profile
fLV 2 Weisbach equation h f = is generally adopted, 2 gD 64 f = when Re

hf = Head loss or drop in hydraulic grade line L = Length of pipe f = Friction factor Loss of head for laminar flow can also be expressed by the pioseusuilles equation PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION
Volume (liters) Time (s) Water man. Reading (mm) Mercury man. reading (mm)
Area of test section =

I D
of test section =
Length of test section = Water temperature = Compute and tabulate the value of friction head hf, as head of system fluid (water). From the experiment obtain the value of volume, time and cross sectional area of test section, calculate and tabulate the values of the mean flow velocity V. Compute and tabulate V2, Log hf, Log V, Log Re, Log F. 34
Flow Profile
d 2 gh f Given that f = 2 4L V
Graph 1. Graph 2. Plot Log hf against Log V Plot Log F against Log Re
From the above graphs assess the value of the critical velocity VC below which flow is laminar. Graph 3. Graph 4. For V > VC, plot hf against V Fro V < VC plot hf against V
Determine the empirical relations hf = KVn from graph 1 Determine the empirical relations
F = KRen from graph 2.
Obtain the average value of F for turbulent flow in pipe from graph 3. Obtain the value of from graph 4 CONCLUSION Does the experiment evidence indicate that two different flow regimes are occurring? Does the evidence support the relation f = 0.079, Re-0.25 for turbulent flow Give reason for any discrepancies if experimental average value of and f do not agree with value found from reference data.
f =16 Re for laminar flow and
35
Impact of Jets
CHAPTER SEVEN
EXPERIMENT 7.1 FLOW CONDITION AIM To observe Laminar, Transitional, Turbulent flow and there velocity profile. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulics bench 2. Osborne Reynolds apparatus
3.
Vegetable dye Is a steady conditional flow where the stream lines
THEORY Laminar Flow:
are parallel. If the fluid is under this condition, the dye will be easily identified as a solid core. Turbulent Flow: Is an unsteady condition where the stream lines interact causing shear plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. During this condition, the dye will be totally mix up. Transitional Flow: Is the period where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent flow as the velocity of flow increases. PROCEDURE Position the apparatus on the bench and fill the dye reservoir with dye and lower the injector until it is just above the bellmouth inlet. Close the flow control valve with bench inlet valve open slowly fill head tank to the overflow level and close inlet valve. 36
Impact of Jets
To admit water to the flow visualization pipe open and close flow control valve. The apparatus should be allowed to stand for at least 37
Fig. 7.1 Osborne Reynolds Apparatus
Impact of Jets
ten minutes before proceeding. Open the inlet valve slightly until water trickles from the outlet pipe. Fractionally open the control valve and adjust dye control valve until slow flow with dye indication is achieved. When the flow rate is low, the dye is drawn through the centre of the pipe. If the flow rate is constantly increased, the flow rate produce eddies in the dye until the dye completely disperses into the water. For the velocity profile, open the dye reservoir needle for a drop of dye to deposit in the pipe and you will observe that the drop will take a three dimensional paraloid profile.
38
Impact of Jets
EXPERIMENT 7.2 OSBORNE REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT AIM To reproduce the classical experiments conducted by Professor condition APPARATUS 1. Hydraulics bench
2.
Osborne
Reynolds
concerning
fluid
flow
Osborne Reynolds Apparatus Measuring cylinder Stop watch, Vegetable Dye Thermometer
3.
4. 5. 6.
See fig. 7. 1 above THEORY Internationally, Reynolds number Re is recognised as a criterion for denoting fluid flow condition
Re =
Vd =
Slightly open
PROCEDURE Measure the temperature of the water.
the inlet valve until water trickles from the outlet pipe. Fractionally open the control valve until slow flow with dye indication is achieved. Measure and note the flow rate. Repeat the experiment for increasing flow rate by 39
Impact of Jets
opening the flow control valve.
Take a specific
measurement of flow rate at the critical condition. Also repeat the procedure for decreasing flow rates, taking a specific measurement of flow at the critical condition. PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION Visual dye condition Volume of water Time Internal diameter of visualization pipe= Temperature of water = Viscosity of water = Calculate volume flow rate and Re for each setting. Compare flow conditions indicated by dye stream with value of Re CONCLUSION Do the results obtained agree with the statement under analysis if not account for any discrepancies.
40
Flow Visualization
CHAPTER EIGHT
EXPERIMENT 8.1 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW VISUALIZATION AIM To demonstrate phenomena associated with open channel flow. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulics bench
2.
Flow visualization channel
THEORY The primary purpose of this piece of apparatus is to demonstrate visually a wide range of hydraulic effects associated with flow in open channels. The intention is to complement lecturers associated with the subject and not to form the basic for theoretical analysis. No theoretical analyses or detailed procedures are included. However, any of the effects may be studied independently in detail. PROCEDURE The apparatus should be installed over the bench top open channel. It is important that the apparatus is sited as far as possible from the volumetric tank, along the channels, to ensure that water discharging from the apparatus is contained within the volumetric tank. 41
Flow Visualization
Connect the inlet pipe to the bench supply and open the bench flow control valve.
42
Fig. 8. 1 Flow Visualisation Channel
Flow Visualization
Open channel hydraulics demonstrations include the following:

1.
Discharge beneath a sluice gate (undershot
weir). 2. Drowning of a sluice by an obstacle downstream (broad crested weir). 3. The Hydraulic Jump, i.e. energy degradation in transition from fast to slow flow. 4. Fast and slow, flow over a broad crested weir. 5. Fast and slow flow over a narrow crested weir.
43
Flow Visualization
EXPERIMENT 8.2 VISUALIZATION OF FLOW OVER OR AROUND IMMERSED OBJECT AIM To visualize the flow pattern over or around an object immersed in a fluid. APPARATUS 1. Hydraulics bench
2. 3.
Flow visualization channel Vegetable dye.
THEORY The primary purpose of this piece of apparatus is to demonstrate visually a wide range of hydraulic effects associated with flow in open channels. The intention is to complement lecturers associated with the subject and not to form the basic for theoretical analysis. No theoretical analyses or detailed procedures are included. However, any of the effects may be studied independently in detail. PROCEDURE The apparatus should be installed over the bench top open channel. It is important that the apparatus is sited as far as possible from the volumetric tank, along the channels, to ensure that water discharging from the apparatus is contained within the volumetric tank. Connect the inlet pipe to the bench supply and open 44
Flow Visualization
the bench flow control valve. Models used in the channel should be positioned using the tongs provided and installed by the appropriate retaining screw. A
45
Flow Visualization
blanking plug is provided for each of the holes on the wall and floor when not in use.
The flow visualization technique involves the use of dye injected at the hypodermic tubes. In operation, the 46
Fig. 8.2
Flow Visualization
overshot weir should be raised fully and the undershot weir should be removed. The model under investigation should be installed on its retaining screw and the dye injection system installed in its retaining clip. The dye reservoir should be filled with vegetable dye. Flow rate through the channel should be adjusted at bench control valve. Density of the dye streams may be adjusted using the control valve at the base of the reservoir. With the overshot weir in the raised position, the channel will run full of water enabling flow patterns around and over submerged objects to be demonstrated. DEMONSTRATIONS Demonstrations include flow around small or large cylinders and symmetrical or asymmetrical aerofoils. Patterns of flow over submerged broad and narrow crested weirs may also be demonstrated.
47
Impact of Jets
CHAPTER NINE
EXPERIMENT 9.1 IMPACT OF JETS AIM To investigate the validity of theoretical expression to the force exerted by jet on targets of various shapes. e.g. jet of water directed on the vane of turbine with an output of 100,000 H.P and with efficiency of 90% APPARATUS 1. Jet impact apparatus 2. Hydraulic bench 3. Flexible hose 4. Stop watch 5. Vernier caliper 6. Weight THEORY If a jet of fluid at the rate of 0m3/s along the x-axis with velocity V0 m/sec and is deflected by it tangent through angle B so that the fluid leaves the tangent with velocity V1m/sec inclined at an angle B to the axis, then the force F on the tangent in the direction of x is equal and opposite to the force in the direction of x on the jet. F = Q(V Vcos B) But V = Q A For the case of a flat plate, assume B = 900, so that 48
Impact of Jets
Since cos 900 = 0

Q 2 F= A
Since the case of hemispherical tangent assume b = 1800 so that cosB = 1

2 Q 2 F= A
. 0 0
For the case of a 120 target, assume B= 120 and Cos B =

3 Q 2 hence F = 2A
49
Fig. 9.1 Impact of Jet apparatus
Impact of Jets
PROCEDURE First level the apparatus. Set the lever to the balanced position (as indicated by the tally) by placing the jockey weight at its zero position and then adjusting the knurled nuts above the spring. Admit water through the bench supply valve and centralize the jet on the flat plate by adjusting the four screws at the base. This screw adjustment should be done simultaneously by equal amount in opposite directions. Increase the rate of flow to the maximum and note the jockey weight which restores the lever to the balanced position, measure the discharge volume in the tank. Take six readings with roughly equally spaced positions of the jockey weight. Repeat the experiment using the 1200 target and the hemispherical target. The diameter of the nozzle, the height of the vane above the tip of the nozzle where the lever is balanced, the distance between the centre of the vane and the pivot of the lever, and the jockey weight should be noted. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION
1.
Results should be tabulated as follows:Volume of water Time Flow rate Q ( ls) Q2
Mass on weight pan
Nozzle diameter = g = 9.81 m/s2, 50
Impact of Jets
=
2. 3.
Repeat table for 1200 target and hemispherical target. For each target plate, compute and tabulate Q and Q2 and From the analysis, the slopes of the graph should be as
plot mass M on weight pan against Q2 and measure the slope. 4. follows Flat target 1200 ,,
gA 3 2 gA
Hemispherical target 2 gA Account for any discrepancies between the slopes obtained from
the measured values and the theoretical slopes.
51
Pressure Gauge Calibration
CHAPTER TEN
EXPERIMENT 10.1 PRESSURE GAUGE CALIBRATION AIM: To accurately calibrate a Commercial Bourdon tube pressure gauge using a dead weigh tester. APPARATUS: Equipment consists of a stainless steel piston which is free to move vertically in a closely fittings brass cylinder. A transparent flexible hose connects the cylinder to the pressure. This gauge is of the Bourdon tube type and, like the cylinder, is mounted on the cast base of the unit integral with the piston is a loading plat-form upon which known weights are placed during test. All air is expelled from the system by means of a purge hole in the upper part of the cylinder. THEORY: Gauge reading can be shown as a function of true (applied) pressure. Gauge error can also be shown as a function of true pressure. By graphically representing the results in this way, the two possible kinds of gauge error-that due to combination of hysteresis, friction and
52
backlash and that due to graduation errors can be shown.
53
PROCEDURE: Remove the piston and completely fill the system with water. Ensure that all air has been purged by tilting the unit. Replace the piston.
Fig. 10.1 Pressure gauge calibration apparatus Add weights in increments of 54

1 2 kg.
And at each
increment observe the pressure gauge reading. Do not
apply more than 6kg weight on the calibration platform. During the test, slightly rotate the piston to avoid sticking. Decrease the weights in decrement of reading.
1 2 kg.
And at each decrement observe the pressure gauge Note the weight of the piston and its crosssectional area. PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATIONS 1. Reading should be tabulated as follows:
Weight added to piston (kg) Total load on piston (kg) True pressure kg/mm2 Gauge reading (bar) Increasin Decreasing g pressure pressure
2. Plot a graph of gauge reading against true pressure (Pressure gauge calibration). 3. Plot a graph of gauge error against true pressure (Gauge error = True pressure Gauge reading). 4. Comment on the Results obtained.
55
Losses in Bends
CHAPTER ELEVEN
EXPERIMENT 11.1 LOSSES IN PIPE BENDS AIM To determine losses in small bore piping systems. APPARATUS: 1. Hydraulic bench
2. 3.
Losses in bend apparatus Stop watch
Fig. 11.1 Losses in bends apparatus DARK BLUE CIRCUIT 1. Gate valve 2. Standard Elbow bend. 3. 90 Mite bend 4. Straight pipe
56
Losses in Bends
LIGHT BLUE CIRCUIT 5. Globe valve 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Sudden expansion 13.7mm to 2 diameter Sudden 26.4mm to 13 diameter 152.4mm 900 radius bend 101 .6mm 900 radius bend 50.8mm 90 radius bend
THEORY: For an incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe, the following equations apply: Q = A1V1 =A2V2 (continuity)
P 1 V12 P2 V22 Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hl12 (Bernoulli) Pg 2 g Pg 2 g Where hl12 is the head loss 1. The head loss along a length L of a straight pipe of constant
diameter d is given by
hL = fLV 2 2 gd
where f = friction factor
2. Head loss at a sudden expansion is
( ) hL = V1 V2
2g
2 KV 2 hL =
3. Head loss at a sudden contraction is given by A2 A1 where K depends on the ratio
2g
2 KV 2 4. Head loss due to a bend hL = 2 g , K depends On Bend radius ratio Pipe radius 2 KV 2 5. Head loss due to a valve hL = 2 g where K depends upon
the type of valve and the degree of opening.
57
Losses in Bends
PROCEDURE: Open fully the water control valve on the hydraulic bench. With the globe valve closed, open the gate valve fully to obtain maximum flow through the Light Blue circuit. Record the readings on the piezometer tubes and the U-tube. Collect a sufficient quantity of water in the weighing tank to ensure that the weighing takes place over a minimum period of 60 seconds. Repeat the above procedure for at least six different flow rates; obtain by closing the gate valve, equally spaced over the full flow range. Record the water temperature in the sump tank of the hydraulic bench each time a reading is taken. Close the gate valve, then open the globe valve and repeat the experimental procedure for the Dark Blue circuit. Close both the globe valve and gate valve before switching off the pump. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS 1. Results should be tabulated as follows: a. Dark Blue Circuit
Test no. Time to collect 15kg Piezometer tube U-Tube water (sec) readings (cm) water (cm) Hg 1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gate valve 2.
b.
Light blue circuit

U-Tube (cm) Hg Globe valve
Test no. Time to collect Piezometer tube readings (cm) water 15kg water (sec) 1. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 2.
2.(i) For
the
straight
pipe,
obtain
the
following
relationship (a) Head loss as a function of volume flow rate. 58
Losses in Bends
(b) Friction factor as a function of Reynolds Number. (ii) For sudden expansion compare the measured rise in head with the rise calculated on the head loss.
2g
2 ( V1 V2 ) =
assumption of
hL
(iii) For
sudden
contraction,
compare
KV 2
the
measures fall in
head with the fall calculated on loss given by hL =

2g
the assumption of head (iv) pipe
Obtain values of loss coefficient K for the
59
Steady Uniform Flow
CHAPTER TWELVE
EXPERIMENT 12.1 STEADY UNIFORM FLOW AIM In most flow problems it is often necessary to predict the rate of flow through a channel of known physical characteristic (size, shape, slope, roughness etc.). In this experiment, the theoretical and empirical relationships of these quantities are compared with measured values in the channel for steady uniform flow. APPARATUS: 1) 5 metre inclinable flow channel 2) 3) 4) 5) Adjustment sluice Gate/weir Vernier depth gauges Weights Thermometer
THEORY The Chezy equation for steady uniform flow in a channel is given by
V =C M i
Where V = Velocity of flow C = Chezy coefficient
M = Hydraulic mean depth = Cross sec tional area of flow A Wetted perimeter of flow P
i = slope of channel 1 1.49 6 The formula gives C = m n Where n = Roughness coefficient. 60
Steady Uniform Flow
The Reynolds Number Re =
= = = PROCEDURE: Set the sluice
Where V
VL Vm = Density of fluid, = viscosity of fluid mean velocity of flow, I = characteristics length m for open channel
gate
in
the
closed
position
and
approximately half fill the channel with water close the delivery valve before stopping the pump so that W is retained in the channel While allowing the water to settle, check that the instrument guide rails are parallel to the channel base by using gauges about the channel using the hand wheel and 250cm screw (100ins.) apart in the mid-length of the channel and tilt arrangement until the depth of water is The channel bed now has a gradient of
1 5 cm 8
greater at
the down-stream depth gauge than the upstream one.

400 .
Open the sluice gate and switch on the pump. Adjust the position of the sluice gate and the flow rate to obtain a uniform depth of flow of about 1.25cm over the mid-length of the channel, when satisfied that the flow is uniform and steady, take measurement of the flow rate using the weighing mechanism and stop-watch. Record this against the depth of flow. Repeat the procedure for a series of flow rates up to the maximum delivery of the pump. Check the width of the channel with callipers. Also take the temperature of the water. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION 1. Readings should be tabulated as follows: 61
Steady Uniform Flow
2. Using Meaning formula and assuming values of n = 0.010, 0.009, 0.008 and 0.0075, calculate C. 3. For the first and last tests, calculate the Reynolds number. 4. Discuss your results.
62
Hydraulic Jump
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
EXPERIMENT 13.1 THE CHANGE IN DEPTH AT A HYDRAULIC JUMP AIM: To investigate the relationship between the flow rate in the channel and the depth of flow on either side of a hydraulic jump. APPARATUS: 1) 5 meter inclinable flow channel 2) Adjustable sluice gate 3) Vernier Depth gauge 4) Stop watch 5) Weights. THEORY: By applying the hydrostatic force and the momentum equations across an hydraulic jump yields
2 2 = d 1 d 2 ( d 1+ d 2 ).................(1) g
Where d1 and d2 are depths upstream and downstream of jump. q = flow per unit width This equation may be rearranged to include the Froude Number Fr1 of the flow up stream of the Jump. From Continuity,
q=
Q =V1d1 = V2 d 2 B
63
Hydraulic Jump
F =
2 F 1 =
V1 gd1
d2 d2 1 + .................................................( 2 ) d1 d 1
PROCEDURE. Set up the movable sluice gate about 1 meter from the inlet with the channel bed set level. Adjust the flow rate and sluice gate opening to give a range of flow depths upstream and downstream of the jump. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS 1. Readings should be tabulated as follows:
Upstream depth d1 Downstream depth d2 Quantity W(kg) Time to collect water (sec) d1
d1d2(d1+d2)
2q 2 g
d2
2. Plot a graph of depth variation across a hydraulic jump with quantity. i.e. d1d2 (d1+d2) vs
2q 2 g
3. Discuss the results obtained
64
Hydraulic Jump
EXPERIMENT 13.2 FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE WITH A HYDRAULIC JUMP AIM: In this experiment, a sluice gate is used to produce rapid flow in a channel where otherwise the flow would be tranquil. As the flow reverts from the rapid to tranquil state, a resultant deepening of the water takes place and is referred to as a Hydraulic jump. APPARATUS 1. 5M Inclinable flow channel 2. Vernier Depth Gauges 3. Movable sluice gates 4. Stop-clock 5. Weights THEORY: The energy per unit weight or specific energy E of a fluid above the base of a channel at a depth d is given by
V2 Q2 E=d+ =d + 2g 2 gA 2
E is a minimum at the critical depth dc when dc = q
3 2 g
or Emin =
3 2 dc
At the minimum at the critical, the critical velocity Vc is given by Vc =

gdc
65
Hydraulic Jump
The minimum value of E corresponds to a Froude Number of 11 which is the critical condition in determining whether a flow is rapid or tranquil.
PROCEDURE: Set up the channel with a small slope on the channel bed of 1 400 . Clamp the movable sluice gate to the guide rails at about 1 metre from the inter end. Check to see that it is squarely placed across the channel and sealed properly at the edges. Switch on the pump and adjust the flow rate so that the water is about 102mm (4 ins) deep upstream of the sluice gate When the latter is about 38mm
1 1 ins 2
from the base of the channel.
Measure the flow rate with the weighing mechanism and stop watch. Measure the depth of flow upstream of the sluice gate and at 75mm (3 ins) interval downstream. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION 1. Results should be tabulated as follows: Position Upstream of Gate at Gate 75mm downstream of gate 150mm downstream of gate 2. Plot a graph of depth against specific Energy. 3. Plot on another graph paper, depth of flow and specific Energy against distance from the sluice gate. 66 Depth d
V2 2g
E=d+V
2g
Hydraulic Jump
4. Comment on the position of Emin with respect to that of the hydraulic jump.
67
Flow over a board
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
EXPERIMENT 14.1 FLOW OVER A BROAD - CRESTED WEIR AIM: To show that the flow over the top of a broad crested weir is approximately critical APPARATUS 1. 5m inclinable flow channel 2. Depth gauges 3. 3 rectangular plated metal block 4. Stop-watch 5. Weights THEORY For a broad-crested weir in a rectangular channel,
q2 2 d = = E ...................................................(1) g 3
3 c
Since velocity upstream is small, in V2 V2 E = do + , negligible. Therefore E = d0 where do = d0 d 2g 2g
2 2 In (1) d c3 = d o so that d c = d o 3 3
E = Specific Energy dc = Critical depth d = Heights of weir du = Upstream depth of weir do = du - d q = flow per unit width
68
Flow over a board
PROCEDURE: Adjust the channel bed to a shallow slope of 1 400 . Place the 3 blocks end to end about 1 metre from the outlet end of the channel. Adjust the flow, rate through the channel to the maximum value for which the flow over the crest is substantially parallel to the crest. Take readings of the upstream depth du and the depth over the crest (dc + d), while measuring the flow rate with the weighing mechanism and stop clock. Reduce the flow rate and repeat the readings. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION 1. Results should be tabulated as follows:
Critical depth Depth upstream Depth at weir W kg du dc + d Time sec q do dc
1 2 do 3 3 2 E g
2. Plot a graph of calculated critical depth against depth over weir. 3. Comment on the results obtained.
69
Flow through a venture flume
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
EXPERIMENT 15.1 FLOW THROUGH A VENTURE FLUME AIM: To compare the practical and theoretical profiles of the water surface through the venturi and find a coefficient of discharge for the venturi. APPARATUS: The venturi is made by fitting a pair of double wedge plate inside the channel. The plates are made of 12.7mm ( in.) thick clear Perspex and are shaped so that each tapered section and the throat are 14.3mm(4 ins) long and in the directions of flow. The plates are held in position at the sides of the channel by a screwed aluminium spacer, which is fitted in the throat above the level of the water surface. THEORY: For a rectangular cross section flume.
V2 Q2 1 E =d + =d+ 2 2 = Cons tan t .....................................(1) 2g b d 2g Where E = Specific Energy d = Depth of flow V = Mean Velocity of flow b = Breadth of flow Q = Quantity (rate of flow) If the flow conditions are critical in the throat, then
2 dT = E...............................................( 2 ) 3
70
1 Where d is the depth of flow in the throat. If there is a large change
in the cross sectional area between the upstream and the throat sections, then the upstream velocity head may be neglected and equation (2) becomes
2 dT = do...............................................( 3) 3
Where do = upstream depth. If we consider the velocity distribution to be uniform at all sections then we may combine (1) and (2) or (1) and (3) so that
E =d +
Q2 1 Q2 2 = E + 2 2 2 g bT 2g dT 3
1 2 b E 3
2 T 2
Where
bT = Breadth at the throat 1

1 3
2 2 2 Or Q = g bT E .(4) 3 Putting E d0
Q=g
2 2 bT do 3 ..(5)
1 3
2 2 or Q = g 2 Cd do .(6) 3
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge. PROCEDURE: Adjust the channel bed to a slope of 1 in 400. Insert and secure the venturi plates in a position about1 meter from the outlet end of the channel. Care should be taken to see that the plates are positioned exactly opposite to one another so that throat positions corresponds. Switch on the pump and adjust the flow rate to the maximum for which the critical condition exists in the throat (i.e. the depth at some point in the 71
1 2
throat should be
When the flow rate is set, use the depth gauges to measure the depths of flow at 25mm intervals along the length of the venture. Repeat the procedure for series of flow rates being careful that the flow is always critical in the throat. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS 1. Reading could be recorded as
Start of venture (A) 5.0cm from (A) 10cm from (A) 15.0cm from (A) 20.0cm from (A) 25.0cm from (A) 30.0cm from (A) 35.5 cm from (A) 37.5 cm from (A) 2.5cm Upstream 40.0cm from (A) 2.5cm from (A) 7.5cm from (A) 12.5cm from (A) 17.5cm from (A) 22.5cm from (A) 27.5cm from (A) 32.5cm from (A)
2 3
of that upstream of the venture).
2. Using the Upstream reading, calculate E from
Q2 1 E =d + 2 2 b d 2g
With this derive an expression for each flow rate such that
d 2(E d) =
Q2 Where x = 2g
x b 2 ---------------------------------(b)
Compute values of the left hand side of equation (b) for various values of d and plot these against d. 3. Draw the theoretical and practical water surface pr through the venturi for a given flow rate. 4. Using equations (4) and (5) determine the coefficient of discharge for each flow rate. Draw a graph of theoretical discharge against practical discharge Qp and comment on your results. 72
Qr 1
73
Characteristics of Pump(s) at Single Speed
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
EXPERIMENT 16.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE PUMP AT A SINGLE SPEED AIM: To determine the head/flow rate characteristic of a single centrifugal pump at a single speed. APPARATUS: 1. Hydraulics bench
2. Series/parallel
pump test accessory.
y d r a u l i c s
b e n c h
o w
e r
s w
i t c h
Fig. 16.1 Series/parallel pump test accessory
THEORY: In this experiment we are concern with head/flow rate relationship. If we note the inlet and outlet From our gauge head, the total head will be the difference between outlets head and the inlet head. 74
reading, if the inlet head is P1 and the outlet head is P2, then Total head = P1-P2 PROCEDURE With the auxiliary pump on the floor of the left hand side of the hydraulics bench, position the apparatus manifold in the bench channel and connect the bench with the apparatus using the appropriate hoses as shown. Switch on the electrical power supply. Open the drain valve and open the discharge control valve. Switch on the pump. Record inlet pressure, outlet pressure and flow rate using the volumetric tank. Close discharge valve slowly. Tabulate your result at different discharge. PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION
Manifold pressure mH2O Inlet m.H2O Datum head correction m Total Head m.H2O Vol . (l) Time (sec.) Flow rate Q l/s
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Plot a graph of head against flow rate
75
EXPERIMENT 16.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMILAR PUMP IN PARALLEL AIM: To determine the head/flow rate characteristics of two similar pumps operating in a parallel at the same speed. APPARATUS: 1. Hydraulics bench 2. Series/parallel pump test accessory
y d
r a u l i c s
b e n c h
o w
e r
s w
i t c h
THEORY: When two or more similar pumps are connected in parallel, the head across each pump is the same but the flow rate Q is showed equally between the pumps. It should be noted that flow rate does not increase according to the number of pump switch on. PROCEDURE: With the auxiliary pump on the floor of the left hand side of the hydraulics bench, position the apparatus 76
Fig. 16.2 Series/parallel pump test accessory (with Y-connector i.e. in parallel)
manifold in the bench channel and connect the bench with the apparatus using the appropriate hoses as shown. Switch on the electrical power supply. Open the drain valve and open the discharge control valve. Switch on the pump. Record inlet pressure, outlet pressure and flow rate using the volumetric tank. Close discharge valve slowly. Tabulate your result at different discharge. PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION
Manifold pressure mH2O Inlet m.H2O Datum head correction m Total Head m.H2O Vol . (l) Time (sec.) Flow rate Q l/s
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Plot a graph of head against flow rate Compare this graph with graph of experiment 16.1 Comment on your flow rate and give reasons why the flow rate does not increase in proportion to the number of pumps used.
77
EXPERIMENT 16.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO SIMILAR PUMP IN SERIES AIM: To determine the head/flow rate characteristics of two similar pumps operating in series at the same speed. APPARATUS: 1. Hydraulics bench 2. Series/parallel pump test speed
y d
r a u
l i c s
e n
e r
s w
i t c h
Fig. 16.3 Series/parallel pump test accessory (in series) THEORY: If two or more similar pumps are connected in series, the discharge passes through each pump in turn and undergoes a head boost H at each pump n D = Number of pumps H = total head
78
It two similar pumps are connected in series will give a combined pump characteristics of twice the head P1 + P2 PROCEDURE: With the auxiliary pump on the floor of the left hand side of the hydraulics bench, position the apparatus manifold in the bench channel and connect the bench with the apparatus using the appropriate hoses as shown in fig. 16.3. Switch on the electrical power supply. Close bench control valve, close discharge valve, and switch on pump. Open discharge valve. With the discharge valve fully open allow the pumps to stabilize for a few minutes and notice that there will be no pressure reading as the valve is fully open. Close the discharge valve slowly to obtain a convenient pressure gauge reading of about 0.5bar. Record pressure and compound gauge readings using the volumetric tank determine flow rate. Repeat above procedure at different pressure until discharge valve is fully closed. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
Tim e s Vol . l Flow rate Q
l/s m3s1
Pressure
Bar
Compound
Velocity head correction
Datum head correction
Total head mH2O
mH2O Bar
mH2O
Area of hose = 7.85 10-5m2 Velocity Head =

V2 2g
, but V = A , g = 9.8ms-2
Distance between gauge centres = (Datum head) 79
Total head = (pressure + velocity head + datum head) Compound Plot a graph of total head against flow rate.
80
Characteristics of Pump(s) at Varying Speed
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
EXPERIMENT 17.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PUMP AIM: To determine the relationship efficiency and between speed head for a
discharge,
power
centrifugal pump at various speed. 1.

2.
APPARATUS: Hydraulics bench Pump characteristics test accessory
Fig. 17.1 Pump characteristics test accessory
THEORY: The performance of any pump working at a fixed speed can be represented by the following relationship
1.
Total Head (H) against Discharge (Q) 81
Characteristics of Pump(s) at Varying Speed 2. 3.
Input Power (P) against Discharge (Q) Efficiency ()against Discharge (Q)
The above relationship plotted together on a graph sheet is called the performance characteristics and is always advisable to plot them on a common base line of discharge (Q). Total head = Inlet pressure Discharge pressure (mH2O) Input Power = Volts Amps (W)
Water power Efficiency % = Input power
Water power = gHQ (W) Where = 1,000kg/m3 g = 9.81 m/s2 PROCEDURE: Position the apparatus manifold block on the working channel of the hydraulics bench and the pump set on the floor at the left hand side of the bench. With the appropriate hoses connect the apparatus to the bench drain valve. valve. Switch on the electrical supply, and open the drain valve and the discharge control Switch on pump to run on a speed of 2,000r.p.m Tabulate reading on gauge and meters, determine flow rate. Slowly close discharge valve to give a
82
convenient reading on the gauge and record new reading until valve is totally closed. Repeat the above procedure for a pump speed of 2,500r.p.m and 3,000r.p.m
PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATIONS Tabulate result as shown below

Efficiency % Suction head (mH2O ) Pressur e head (mH2O) Gauge correctio n head Total head (mH2O ) Wate r powe r P(w) Powe r input W R.P.M Vol l Times Q l/s Q m2/s Amps Volts
200 0 200 0 200 0 200 0 250 0 250 0 250 0 250 0 300 0 300 0
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
83
300 0 300 0
0.8 0.8
Plot the following performance characteristics curve for each speed Total head (H) against Discharge (Q) Input power (P) against Discharge (Q) Efficiency () against Discharge (Q) From your graph, at what speed was the operating point of the pump achieved? Comment on the effect of suction head on the performance of the pumps. See appendix 1 for the performance curve
84
Characteristics of Reciprocating Pump
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
EXPERIMENT 18.1 PRESSURE HEAD AND FLOW RATE AT VARIOUS SPEED OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP AIM: To investigate the relationship between pressure head and flow rate at various reciprocating pump speeds.
1. 2.
APPARATUS: Arm field ram pump test bench Stop watch
Fig. 18.1 Reciprocating Pump PUMP SPEED RATIO

Pump/Motor pulley teeth ratio Maximum pump speed Motor @ 1450 rev.min Bourdon pressure guage
72.14
282 rev/min 85
0-70m.H2O
Fig. 18.2 Arm field ram pump test bench PROCEDURE: With the delivery gate valve fully open, switch on the test rig and raise the motor speed to maximum. Note the reading on the pressure gauge at this point. Now slowly close the delivery gate valve and STOP when the pressure gauge reads 5m.H2O. NOTE: The delivery gate valve must not be fully closed with the pump running as serious damage could occur to the equipment. Note the difference between the maximum pressure reading and minimum pressure reading (5m.H2O) and select six equi-spaced points throughout the pressure 86
range, which will be the pressures at which flow will be measured. The actual pressure head of the pump is the difference between the pressure gauge reading in m.H2O and the vacuum gauge reading in m.H2O, at a particular rate of flow. At each selected pressure reading, measure the rate of flow using the graduated sight glass on the volumetric tank and the stopwatch. Tabulate this data in the Results Section below. The above procedure is now repeated at two other speeds, e.g. 1000 rev/min and 500 rev/min and the results are tabulated. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS Pump speed = Motor speed = Motor speed
Readings Pressure m.H2O
Driver pulley Driven pulley
14 teeth 72 teeth
14 72
Head m.H2O Flow rate l/sec
Vacuum m.H2O
1 2 3 4 5 6 Pump Speed:.
Readings Pressure m.H2O Vacuum m.H2O Head m.H2O Flow rate l/sec
1 2 3 4 5 87
Pump speed:..
Readings Pressure m.H2O Vacuum m.H2O Head m.H2O Flow rate l/sec
1 2 3 4 5 6 CONCLUSION From the results table construct a family of three graphs for each speed using common axes of pump head (vertical axis) against flow rate (horizontal axis). Compare the characteristics curves and comment upon the flow/pressure relationship at different speeds. Suggest any advantages or disadvantages of the ram type pump.
88
EXPERIMENT 18.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE HEAD, FLOW RATE, TORQUE, AND POWER OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP AIM: To investigate the relationship between pressure head, flow rate, torque, power consumed for a reciprocating pump.
1. 2.
APPARATUS: Arm field ram pump test bench (see fig. 18.2) Stop watch. PROCEDURE 1. Ensure that the dynamometer motor torque arm has been correctly set to zero. 2. With the delivery gate valve fully open, switch on the test rig and set the motor speed to maximum 1450 rev/mm. 3. Note the reading on the pressure gauge at this point. 4. Now slowly close the delivery gate valve and STOP when the pressure gauge reads 5m.H2O NOTE: The delivery gate valve must not be fully closed with the pump running as serious damage could occur to the equipment. 5. Note the difference between the maximum pressure reading and minimum pressure reading (5m.H2O and select six equi-spaced points throughout the pressure range, which will be the pressures at which flow will be measured. The actual pressure head of the pump is the difference between the pressure 89
6. 7. 8.
9. 10.
gauge reading in m.H2O, and the vacuum gauge reading in m.H2O, at a particular rate of f low. Adjust the delivery gate valve to the first of the selected pressure gauge readings. Measure the rate of flow using the graduated sight glass on the volumetric tank and the stopwatch. Record flow rate in results. At this particular flow rate, place weights on the weight hanger to return the beam to the balanced (horizontal) position. Note the Torque in the results table. Repeat operations (f) and (h) above, for the five other selected pressure readings. Repeat operations (b) to (i) above for two other motor speeds as required, say 1000 rev/mm and 500 rev/mm.
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS All data gathered during the test must be tabulated on the results sheet. CALCULATIONS Torque T = L.g.W Where T = Torque Nm L = torque arm length (metres) g = 9.81 m.sec-2 W = load (kg) 2 N T Input Power P =
60
Where P = Power in watts N = Pump rev/mm T = Torque N.m. Note: The actual pump speed may be calculated using the pump/motor pulley ratio as follows: 14 Pump Speed = Motor Speed 72 Hydraulic Power (Pump output power) P/ = .g.Q.H/.10-3 Where P/ = Hydraulic power (watts) 90
= Density of water g = Gravity 9.81.sec-2 Q = Rate of flow 1/sec H/ = Pump head m.H2O
1. Construct a family of curves for the various speeds at which the tests were carried out, using common axes of Pressure Head (vertical axis) against Flow Rate (horizontal axis). 2. Construct a family of curves for the various speeds at which the tests were carried out, using common axes of Pressure Head (vertical axis) against Torque (horizontal axis). 3. Construct a family of curves for the various speeds at which the tests were carried out, using common axes of Input Power (vertical axis) against Flow Rate (horizontal axis). QUESTION 1. Referring to the Power/Flow graph, should. the pump be started with its flow control valve open, or closed? Explain why. 2. What are the disadvantages of the ram type pump when compared with centrifugal or gear type pumps? 3.
Output Power P / Given that Efficiency = , show the most InputPower P
efficient operating point for the pump at any one of the operating speeds chosen in the test. 4. State a suitable industrial application for this type of pump. Correlate the industrial application with the test data obtained. Note: This results table is used for the testing of the pump at ONE speed only. If tests at other speeds are required, further copies of this sheet must be used. Motor speed:.rev/min
Readings Pressur e m.H2O Vacuu m m.H2O Pump Head m.H2O Volum e (l) Time (sec. ) Flo w l/sec Torqu e N.m Powe r Watts
91
1 2 3 4 5 6
92
Characteristics of Turbines
CHAPTER NINETEEN
EXPERIMENT 19.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PELTON IMPULSE TURBINE AIM: To determine the operating characteristics of a pelton turbine at various speeds. 1. 2.
3.
APPARATUS: Hydraulics bench Pelton impulse turbine Tachometer
Fig. 19.1 Pelton impulse turbine
93
THEORY Pump and turbine performance curves are derived in the same ways. and discharge. Mechanical power Pm = Torque angular velocity = T , where T = Force radius (Nm) 2 rev / min rad / s and = 60 Water power = gHQ Where = density of water 1,000kg/m3 g = 9.81 m/s2 H = Inlet head m Q = Flow rate m3/s Mechanical power 100 Turbine Efficiency % = Water power The speed is usually considered as a principle variable when plotting power, efficiency, torque
Pm T 100 = 100 Pw gHQ
PROCEDURES Position the pelton turbine on the hydraulic and connect the bench supply to the apparatus. Clamp the tachometer and lift the band brake assembly until it is off the brake drum. Switch on the bench pump and fully open the bench control valve. Adjust spear control valve until the maximum rev/min are indicated on the tachometer. Measure rev/min, flow rate, and inlet
pressure. Lower band brake assembly over brake drum and adjust band until a convenient reading is indicated 94
on the right hand spring balance loads. the results.
Repeat the
procedures above at different applied loads and tabulate PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CALCULATION W 1 3m Brake drum radius = 30 10- W 2 Total force = W2 W1
D r u m
Fig. 18.2
R.P.M (rad/s) W1 (N) W2 (N) W1-W2 (N) Drum radius Torque (N/m) Pm (W) Vol. (l) Time (s) Flow rate (m3/s) Pressure (mH2O) Pw (W) Efficiency (%)
1. 0
1. 5
2. 0
2. 5
3. 0
3. 5
4. 0
4. 5
5. 0
5. 5
6. 0
6. 5
7.0
3 0
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
1. 2.
Plot a graph of power against rotor speed. Plot a graph of torque against rotor speed. 95
3. 4. 5. 6.
Plot a graph of efficiency against rotor speed. Plot a graph of discharge against rotor speed What is the difference between pump and turbine Comment on the graphs.
96
e r
2 P um p s 1 P um p
o Q 2
e r Q
o w
e r
Fig. 1. Head/ flow rate control for single centrifugal pump at single speed H H 2 H 2 Q Fig. iii. Head/ flow rate control for two centrifugal pump in series 2 P u m p s
Q 2
Fig. ii. Head/flow rate for two centrifugal pump in parallel

He a d
1 Pum p
t r in p u Pow e
p e r a t i n g
p o
Ef
fic
ie
nc
i s c h a r g e
Fig. iv. Performance curve for a centrifugal pump
i s c h a r g e
T o r q u e
o w
e r
f f i c i e n c y R o t o r S p e e d
Fig. v. Performance curve for a Pelton turbine
97
REFERENCE Arm Field Instructional Manual, October 1988 Felix J. K. Ideriah: Fluid Machinery, MacMillan Press London (in Preparation) J. F. Douglas; J.M Gasiovek; J. A. Swaffield, London Fluid Mechanics, Pitman Books Ltd. 1981. John A. Robertson; Calyton L. Crowe Engineering Fluid Mechanics Washington State University Pullman. 2nd Edition Lewitt. E. H; Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, Pitman and Sons Ltd. London (1966) Walsaw A. C and Jobson D. A; Mechanics of Fluids, Longmans Green and Co. Ltd, London 1962
98
Index A
Apparatus...........................3, 4, 6, 12, 15, 19, 39 Arm field ram pump test bench............85, 86, 89
J
Jockey weight.....................................................8
B
Bench.............................................2, 3, 6, 15, 19 Bends.................................................................4 Bernoullis theorem....................................21, 22 binding...............................................................ii Bourdon tube...................................................52 Brake drum......................................................95 Buoyancy...........................................................8
L
Losses in bend apparatus.................................56
M
Manifold.....................................................75, 77 Mass...........................................................14, 50 Metacentric....................................................3, 6 Metre.................................................................6 Moment............................................................10 Movable sluice gates........................................65
C
Centrifugal pump...............................................3 Chezy equation................................................60 Circuit..............................................................58 Critical depth.............................................68, 69
P
Pontoon.............................................................8 Pump characteristics test accessory................81
R
Roughness coefficient......................................60
D
Discharge.......................................43, 81, 82, 84 Dye..................................................................39
S
Sump.................................................................3
E
Energy.................................................66, 68, 70
T
Tachometer......................................................93 Temperature....................................................40 Thermometer.......................................32, 39, 60 Tube...........................................................23, 58 Turbulent flow..................................................36
F
Flexible hose....................................................48 Flow. 4, 23, 36, 41, 44, 47, 50, 75, 77, 79, 87, 88, 91, 94, 95 Fluid...........................................................23, 98 Friction...................................................4, 34, 59
U
Upstream depth.........................................64, 68
G
Gate valve..................................................56, 58 Gauge..................................................52, 55, 83 Gravity.........................................................8, 91
V
Vegetable dye............................................36, 44 Vernier depth gauges.......................................60 volumetric..........8, 19, 41, 44, 75, 77, 79, 87, 90
H
Hemispherical target........................................51 Hook..........................................................25, 28 Hydraulic bench...........10, 21, 25, 28, 32, 48, 56 Hydrostatic.............................................4, 10, 12
W
watch...20, 21, 25, 28, 32, 39, 48, 56, 61, 63, 66, 68, 85, 89 weight......................1, 2, 7, 8, 50, 51, 55, 65, 90 weirs................................................................47
99

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EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC

Engr. Zukbee N. A Tor Festus L.

Copyright 2013 Zukbee N. A. & Tor Festus L.

Published by HARRISCO PRESS Port Harcourt Nigeria

Zukbee N. A. & Tor Festus L.

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

connection should not be made until the

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Fig. 1.3 Metacentric height Apparatus 6

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

If this movement produces a new equilibrium

position at angle , then the metacentric height is

If B is the centre of buoyancy, the distance BM may also be calculated from BM =

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Hydraulic Bench/ Floating Body Stability

Fig. 2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus 12

That is, centre of pressure is

down the section of

PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND CALCULATION No . 1 2 3 4 5 Mass m(g)

A = actual T = Theoretical mgP = FxCA

Discharge Through an Orifice

Orifice and Jet Apparatus Stop Watch.

Discharge Through an Orifice

Discharge Through an Orifice

Fig. 3.1 Orifice and jet apparatus

Discharge Through an Orifice

Assess the position of the vena contractor

Height Distance X2(mm2 Y(mm ) X(mm) )

Find CV from the slope of the graph.

Discharge Through an Orifice

Orifice and Jet Apparatus Stop Watch.

See Fig. 3.1above THEORY

Discharge Through an Orifice

slope of the graph for constant head.

Discharge over Weirs

Fig. 4.1 Bernoullis theorem apparatus

Discharge over Weirs

V12 V22 Vn2 + h1 = +h2 = +hn 2g 2g 2g

Discharge over Weirs

Choose any two value of h and plot a graph of Q vs (h1 h2)1/2 23

Discharge over Weirs

Calculate the coefficient of the meter.

Discharge Over Weirs

Hook and pointer gauge Stop watch

b = width of rectangular weir H = head on weir

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge. Also it can be said that 25

Discharge Over Weirs

Q = KHn or Log Q = Log K + nLog H

Fig. 5.1 Rectangular notch apparatus

Discharge Over Weirs

Discharge Over Weirs 2. 3.

relationship between Q and H? If yes find the

value of K and n. If Cd is not constant suggest a functional

relationship between Cd and

V-Shaped notch Hook and pointer gauge Stop watch

THEORY The total flow rate Q through a V-notch of angle 2 , is given by

Discharge Over Weirs

Discharge Over Weirs

Fig. 5.2 V-notch apparatus

Discharge Over Weirs