Science and Art Drawing

LIBRARY OF
WELLESLEY COLLEGE
PRESENTED BY
HELEN A. MERRILL, 'SS
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SCIENCE AND AET DEAWING

COMPLETE GEOMETRICAL COURSE
SCIENCE AND AET DRAWING

COMPLETE CtEOMETEICAL COUESE
CONSISTING OF
PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY, ORTHOGRAPHIC AND ISOMETRIC

PROJECTION, PROJECTION OF SHADOWS, THE PRINCIPLES
OF MAP PROJECTION, GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC,
AND GRAPHIC
STATICS
BY
J.
HUMPHREY SPANTON
GOLD MEDALLIST, ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS, LONDON

INSTRUCTOR IN DRAWING TO NAVAL CADETS IN H.M.S. BRITANNIA
DESIGNED TO MEET ALL THE ItEQUIREMENTS OF AliMY
AND SCIENCE AND ART EXAMINATIONS
3Lontimx
MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YORK
CO.
1895
All rights reserved
C5
c"
519*2
j-J:
PEEFACE
Practical Geometry
is
the
weapon which they must use
who would
attack practical work.
The Engineer, the

its
Architect,
assistance
the Soldier, and the Statistician, all have recourse to

to solve their
problems or to explain their methods.

is
Every day
the graphic treatment of subjects
finding
its
application in
new
directions
and
to
be able to delineate the proportions of

tool
for
any subject places in the hand an invaluable

execution of any design of practical value.
the
The Author, in adding

subject
to the
many
excellent manuals on the
which have been already published one more of yet
untried merit, appeals to those particularly

solid
who wish
to
have a
grounding without the aid of a teacher, and also to those

assistance in passing from the simpler to the
who need
more
intricate parts of the subject.
His publishers have spared no
expense in enabling him to elaborate those parts which are
known
to present real difficulties to the student.
There has
been no demand upon him to abridge the necessary information,

the scantiness of which so often makes
to
it difficult for
the student
comprehend the more advanced portions
of the subject.
A free use
method
has been
for
made
;
of perspective sketches,
which
are
good substitutes
models
and in several instances a practical
of obtaining the results has been introduced in addition
to that obtained
by geometrical construction
e.g.
all
the conic

VI
PRACTICAL GEO-AIETRY
by the
sections could be obtained with the greatest accuracy
method
illustrated at the
commencement
of Chapter
XV.
In practice subjects are sometimes treated in a conventional
manner;
for instance, illustrated in

is
the
first
part of Chapter
XXXIII.
the conventional method of projecting shadows in
architectural
and engineering drawings.

to
These additions have been made
make
the book useful,
not only to students, but also to those engaged in practical
work.
This book
cal
is
intended to embrace the whole course of practiit
geometry reqiiired in various examinations, and

Principles
Slcdics.
includes
the
of
Map
of
Projection,
Graphic
Arithmetic,
and
Graphic
The Syllabus
the
Geometrical
Course
is
for
the
South
detail,
Kensington Science and Art Examinations
given in
with references to the problems contained in this work (page

575).
This course covers nearly the whole ground necessary for the
following examinations
:
The Eoyal College The City

of
of Science,
College.
and School of Mines.
London
The College
of Preceptors.
The Army Examinations.

Tlie
Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations.

College, Cooper's Hill.
The Indian Engineering
Where any
of these
examinations contain certain special

in the South Kensington Syllabus,
e.g.
portions which are not
named
these can be found by reference to the index of this book,

the use of sector (Cooper's Hill Syllabus), page 132.
The Author bess
to acknowledofe his
indebtedness to the
PREFACE
following
text-books,
vii
which have furnished many invaluable
hints towards the execution of his design, viz. Angel's Practical
Plane Gcometnj and Projection, Bradley's Elements of Practicnl

Geometry, Pressland's Crcomctrical Drawing, and Jessop's Elements
of Appliccl Mechanics.
CONTENTS
Drawing Instruments and Materials
General Directions
.... ......
CHAPTER
I
PAGE
1
Definitions
PLANE GEOMETEY
CHAPTER
Geometrical Pattern Drawing
.
.
II
Lines, Triangles, Quadrilaterals, Convergent Lines,

.
and
Circles
.
16
.30
Application of the Arcs of Circles to the various forms of Arches
32
CHAPTER
General Information concerning Polygons
III
.
General Methods for constructing Polygons

Special
,,,,,,
...
.
.35 .38
40
CHAPTER
Inscribed and Described Figures
.
IV
.
.44
.56 .60
.62 .77
CHAPTER V
Foiled Figures
.
. .
Exercises in different forms of Gothic Tracery
CHAPTER
Tangents and Tangential Arcs
. .
VI
.
Application of Tangential Arcs to Design
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
CHAPTEE
Projioi'tional Lines
,,
.
.
YII
.
Angles
......
.
.81
PAGE
85
CHAPTEE
Equivalent Areas
.
.
VIII
.
.89
98
CHAPTEE
The
Ei<^rht-angled Triangle
IX
Proportional and Equivalent Areas

CHAPTEE X
.
. .
Construction of Plain Scales

,,
Comparative Scales
Diagonal Scales
Proportional Scales
,,
,,
.113 .118 .120 .124 .129 .130 .131 .132
CHAPTEE
On
To
the Use of the Protractor construct a Scale of Chords
,,
.
XI
.
Angles without a Protractor

. .
On
the LTse of the Sector
CHAPTEE
CHAPTEE
On
the Construction of Similar Figures
XII
.
Plans of Surveys and Measurement of Areas
.140
XIII
.
.143
CHAPTEE XIV
Principles of Similitude, or the Enlargement and Eeduction of
Plane Figures
.146
CHAPTEE XV
The Conic
Sections
Practical
Method
for
drawing the Conic Sections
.152
.
Mechanical Methods for drawing the Ellipse
155
158
Methods
for constructing the Ellipse
.156
.
To
find the
Normal and Tangent
to
an Ellipse
CONTENTS
To complete an Ellipse from a Portion of its Curve To draw an Ellipse througli three given points
Methods
for constructing a Parabola
158 159
160 160
161
To draw
Methods
a Tangent and
Normal
to a Parabola
for constructing
an Hyperbola
Mechanical Methods for drawing the Parabola and Hyper

bola
.
,
.
To construct an Oval The Conic Sections ajjplied
....
to
162
163 164
Art Forms
CHAPTER
XVI
165
175
of Arcs
The Cycloidal Curves, their Tangents and Normals The Involute of a Circle with Tangent and Normal To construct a Continuous Curve by a Combination To draw a Common Spiral
Archimedean Spirals
Logarithmic
,,
176
177
177 179
181
The
Ionic Volute
Special
Forms
of Eccentrics or
Cams
182
The Conchoid The Cissoid The Ogee or Cyma Reversa Curves traced by Parts of a Machine
Construction of Curves from Tabular Data
Exercises in Plane Geometry
183
185 186
187
189
191
SOLID GEOMETEY
CHAPTER
Introduction
XVII
201
CHAPTER
Simple Solids in given Positions
to Scale
XVIII
209
CHAPTER XIX
The Regular
Solids
223
CHAPTER XX
Octagonal Pyramids, Cones, and Cylinders
236
xa
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
CHAPTEE XXI
PAGE
Spheres, Great Circles, Spherical Triangles, and Helices
Stereographic Projection
.243 .261
.266
CHAPTER
On
the Alteration of the
XXII
.
Ground Line
CHAPTER
Orthographic Projection
.
.
XXIII
.
On
the Projection of Points

,,
Lines
Planes
....
. .
.274 .275
.
278
296
Intersection of Planes
......
CHAPTER XXIV
CHAPTER XXY
.
.
305
Angles between Planes which are not parallel
.313 .318
CHAPTER XXVI
Lines inclined to Planes
. .
CHAPTER XXVII
Lines contained by Planes and making given Angles with the
Co-ordinate Planes
.
. . .
.324
330
CHAPTER
Rotation of Plane Figures
.
XXVIII
.
CHAPTER XXIX
Objects inclined to the Horizontal Plane at given Angles
.
335
CHAPTER XXX
Sections of Solids, Construction of Sectional Areas, and Develoj)nient of Plane and Curved Surfaces
.
.
Sections of a Cone
,,
Cylinder
Sphere
...... ...... ......

.
342
355 363 364

CONTENTS
xiu
Tangent Planes and Solids
Horizontal Projection
The Plane of Reference The Scale of Slope The Projection of Points and Lines from
.... ..... .... ....

CHAPTER XXXII
their Indices
.,
.,
CHAPTER XXXI
PAGE
367
402
403 404 405 406 408 410

411
Planes
.,
The
Intersection of Planes
Angles between given Lines

Intersection of Lines and Planes
Angles between given Planes
415
Tangent Planes and Solids
419
To
project the Contours of a Piece of
Land
regular Plane Pictures from an Indexed Plan
432 433
CHAPTER
Projection of Shadows
XXXIII
Work
Part
1.
Shadows used Shadows

at given
in Practical
2.
of Objects cast
by
Angles
,,
,,
Orthogonal Projection
.... ....
. .
.435
444 445 462
Parallel
Rays
of Liglit
3.
Shadows
of Objects cast
from a Luminous Point
CHAPTER XXXIV
Inscribed Solids
470
CHAPTER XXXV
Interpenetration of Solids
478
CHAPTER XXXVI
Isometric Projection
511
CHAPTER XXXVII
Principles of
Map
Projection
520
Orthograialiically
.
To
project a
Hemisphere
522
Stereographically
523
XIV
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
PAGE
Gnomonic
Project iou
Cylindrical or Mercator's Projection
Conical Projection
Flanistead's Projection
524 524 527 529
CHAPTER
Graphic Arithmetic
Addition
.
. .
XXXVIII
530
531
531
Subtraction
Representation of
Multiplication
Division
....
.
Numbers by Lines
532 534
536
537
^
Involution
Evolution, or the E.Ktraction of Roots
Vulgar Fractions
539 642
Representation of Areas by means of Lines

Solids
543 545
CHAPTER XXXIX
Graphic Statics
Parallelogram of Forces
Composition and Resolution of Forces

Parallelepiped of Forces
The Triangle of Forces The Polygon of Forces Moments of Force

Parallel Forces
The Resultant Moment of Several Forces Equality of Moments The Funicular Polygon The Line of Load, or Load Line
Couples
Moment
of a
The Resultant Couple
Construction of Stress Diagrams for
The Centre of Gravity Of Plane Figures Of Solids
.... .... .....

Couple
.
of a Series of Couples
Framed
Structures
.....
546 547 547 551 551 552 553 553 560 560 562 563 565 565 566 566 572 572 574
Science and Art Syllabus, with reference
to Probs. in this
Book
575
PEACTICAL PLANE GEOMETEY

DKAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS.
The Brawing-hoarcl.
ordinary purposes
is
A
is
very convenient
size
it
to
use for
half Imperial (23"
x 16");
should be
made
of well-seasoned yellow pine, with the edges true
and
at
right anoies to each other.

Tlie Tee-square.
This
a ruler with a cross piece or stock
at the
end
it
is
like the letter
in shape, hence its name.
The blade should be screwed on

into
it,
to the stock,
and not mortised
so as to allow of the
set-squares being used
up
to the
extreme margin of the paper, as illustrated under the head of

General Direetions
(p. 4).
By keeping
the stock of the tee-
square pressed closely against the edge of the drawing-board,
we
are enabled to
Set-squares.
These
as
draw
lines parallel to
each other.
are right-angled triangles
made with
:
given fixed angles out of thin pieces of wood or ebonite

latter
is
the
preferable,
it
is
not liable to warp.
The most
into a
useful angles are those of 45 and 60.
French Curves.
variety of curves.
These
They
are thin pieces of
wood cut
are used for drawing fair curves, that
are not arcs of circles, through

cycloidal curves, for instance.
Scale.
succession of points
the
plain scale about
inches
long, divided
into
inches, with sub-divisions
of eighths on one edge
and tenths
on the
3
other.
.
PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY

Pencils.
Two
line.
degrees of hardness should be used
HH for
drawing in the construction, and

with a firmer
for
drawing in the result
Brawing-'pcvper.
This should have a hard smooth surface.

the best for fine
Whatman's
across
" liot-presscd " is
work
but
if
the
drawing has to be coloured, a damp sponge should' first be drawn

the surface, to remove the gloss.
is
Cartridge-paper of
good quality
suitable for ordinary work.

size is "
The most convenient

can be cut to
half, or
Imperial
"
(30" x 22"), which
Draioing-ioins.
These
"
quarter Imperial, as desired.
should have short fine points, so as
not to
make
Dividers.
large holes in the drawing-board.
These are also called compasses, and are used

or dividing lines.
for setting off distances
There
is
a special
kind made, called

justed
hair-dividers," one leg of

:
which can be ad-
by means of a spring and screw
these are very useful
for dividing lines, etc.

Bovj-pencil.
This
is
a small pair of compasses with one

:
leg constructed to hold a pencil
it is
used for drawing
circles
and
arcs.
Boio-jjcn.
This
is
a similar instrument to a bow-pencil,

its legs
but has a ruling pen for one of

is
instead of a pencil, and
used for inking in

JVote.
circles
and
arcs.
Both
;
hinged legs
because,
the same centre,
bow -pencil and bow -pen should have when a number of circles are drawn from they are likely to make a large hole in the
the
is
paper, unless the leg used for the centre

to the paper. It
is
kept perpendicular
also
necessary to have the pen -leg as

it
upright
as
possible,
otherwise
has
tendency to
draw
thick-
uneven
lines.
BuliTig-pen.
is
This
is
used for inking in
lines, the
ness of which
regulated
by
a screw.
Some
is
are
of
made
in
which the nib that works against the ruler

thickness of metal
:
an extra
this is
to prevent the nibs
from closing
when
the pen
is
pressed against the ruler.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS
Indian ink should be used
several advantages over
for inking in a drawing.
It has
;
common
;
ink
it
dries quickly
it
does
not corrode the ruling-pen
and the
the
lines can be coloured over
without their running.
The most convenient

bottles, as it is
'
is
liquid Indian
ink, sold in
always ready for use.
The ruling-pen should
be
filled
with Indian ink by means of an ordinary steel nib.

is
If the
cake Indian ink

of
used, after rubbing
it
in a saucer,
filling
piece
thin
whalebone should
be
used
for
the
ruling-pen.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
Keep
all
instruments perfectly clean
do not leave ink to
dry in the ruling-pen.
In using dividers avoid, as

through the paper.
much
as possible,
making holes
The paper should be firmly
fixed to the drawing-board
by
a drawing-pin at each corner, well pressed down.
Do
not stick
pins in the middle of the board, because the points of the

dividers
are
liable
to
slip
into
them and make unsightly

called a " chisel-point
holes in the paper.
A
ing
its
pencil sharpened to
what
;
is it
"
is
generally used for drawing lines
has the advantage of retainis
point longer, but a nicely-pointed pencil

it
better for
neat work, as
enables us to
see
the
commencement and
and slope the pencil
termination of a line more easily.
Always
done, there
rule a line from
left
to
right,
slightly towards the direction in

is less
which
it is
moving
if this is
chance of indenting the paper, which should
always be avoided.
Having determined the extent

superfluous length
;
of a line, always rub out the
this will
prevent unnecessary complication.

is
Avoid using India-rubber more than

tends to injure the surface of the paper.
necessary, as
it
After inking in a

drawing, use
cleaning
it
stale
bread in preference to
India-rubber for
up.
for
The tee-square should be used

only
;
drawing horizontal
be drawn by the
lines
set-
the perpendicular lines should
squares.
If this is done,
it is
immaterial whether the edges of

it
the
drawing-board are right angles, because

its
will
only be
necessary to use one of
edges.
For drawing parallel

perpendicular,
lines
that are neither horizontal nor
hold
one set-square firmly pressed upon the
Fig. 2
paper and slide the other along
its
edge.
Geometrical draw-
ing can be greatly facilitated by the proper use of set-squares,

so
it is
advisable to practise their use.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS
When
a problem contains
many
arcs of circles,
it is
advis-
able to connect the arc with
its
;
corresponding centre.
Enclose
the centre in a small circle
draw a dotted
3).
line
to the arc,
terminated by an arrow-head (Fig.
In drawing intersecting arcs for bisecting

arcs
lines, etc.,
the
too
should
:
not
intersect
each
other
too
obtusely
arcs
or
acutely
the nearer the angle between

it
the
approaches
90" the easier
will be to ascertain the exact point required.

line, first place
In joining two points by a
the point of the

it,
pencil on one point, then place the edge of the ruler against
and adjust the ruler

point.
till
its
edge coincides with the other
All the problems
should be drawn larger than shown.

advisable
to
Where
possible,
it
is
vary the conditions,
for
instance, in Principles of Similitude, select figures of a different
shape to those shown.
In the General Methods for drawing the
regular polygons, apply the
method
to
drawing several of the
polygons
do not be satisfied with one example.

is
Great accuracy
required in drawing the various problems.
Every
effort
should be made to ensure neatness and precision
in the work.
All arcs should be inked in

line to
first,
as
it is
easier to join a
an arc than an arc to a
line.
CHAPTEE
DEFINITIONS
point simply marks position
it
is
supposed to have uo
magnitude.
A
and
line
has length only, and no thickness
the extremities
intersection of lines are points.

line,
straight line is some-
times called a right
and
is
the shortest distance between
two
points.
To
idTOcluce a line is to
lengthen
it.
Parallel lines are an equal distance
apart
^^s- ^-
throughout
if
their
entire
length,
and
produced
in
either
direction
would never meet.

Lines drawn thus, are said to converge towards a
and diverge towards
l.
If
till
we were
to
produce the ends at a
^
îg- ^
they meet, they would form an angle.
An
point.
angle
is
the
amount
of opening
at
between two
lines
which meet
is
one
to
As
lines, '
the point a
common
both
Fig. 6.
the ansle here ^
shown would
be called
hac.
An
angle
is
a small circle over the figures
measured by degrees, which are expressed by thus 22 means 22 degrees.
Lines are said to be bisected

parts.
when
divided into two equal
vertical line at its
lower end points towards the centre
CHAP.
DEFINITIONS
same direction
it.
of the earth, in the
as a string suspended with
a weight attached to
A
earth,
liorizontal
i.e.
line is a line
parallel to the surface of the
at right angles to a vertical line.
A
centre,
circle is
a curved line
drawn round a common point

an equal
This curved
or
or
and every^ part of
it is
distance from this point.

line
is
called
the
" eircwnference "
" peripliery" of the circle.
A line drawn
it
through
the centre
till
meets
as
line
ctb,
the
is
circumference
on
each
side,
called the ''diameter" ;
and any
drawn
from the centre to the circumference,

as ce or cd,
is
called a "radius."
circle
contains
360, so
the angle acd would contain 90, or one-quarter of the whole.
This angle
is
called a
"
right angle"
shown by the dotted
curve.
The angle
ace contains 45, or one-eighth of the circle, while
ech contains
135.
All angles containing more than 90 are called "obtuse

angles,"
as
ech;
while
those
containing
less
than 90
are
called " acute angles" as ace.
The
to ah,
line dc is said to be perpendicular, or at right angles

is
and
the distance of the point
d from the
line ab.
A A
semicircle is
haK a
circle, as adh.
quadrant
is
a quarter of a circle, as ad.
Fig. 9.
Concentric circles have the

parallel to each other (Fig. 8).
same
centre,
and are therefore
Eccentric circles have not the
same centre
(Fig. 9).
chap.
A plane
Area
is
is
a flat surface
which has length and breadth,
but no thickness.
the
amount
of surface a plane contains.
Tkiangles.
Triangles are figures that have three angles, and are contained by three sides
that they possess.
;
they are named after certain specialities
There are three kinds of triangles named after their sides

viz. equilateral, isosceles,
and
scalene.
An An
equilateral triangle has three equal sides (Fig. 10).

isosceles triangle
has two sides equal (Fig. 11).
Fig. 12.
A
viz.
scalene triangle has
none
of its sides equal (Fig. 12).

:
There are three kinds of triangles named after their angles
a right-angled triangle, an dhtuse-angled triangle, and an
acute-angled triangle.
right-angled triangle has one right angle (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13.
Fiff.
14.
Fig. 15.
An An
dbtiise-angled triangle has
one obtuse angle
(Fig. 14).
acute-angled triangle has three acute angles (Fig. 15).

DEFIxNITIONS
Paets of a Triangle
The The
The
height
is
base is its lowest side, as ac.
vertex is the point opposite

h.
its base, as
altitude
or
perpendicular
verhe.
a line
drawn from the

a line
tex, perpendicular to its base, as
The median
is
drawn from
the vertex to the middle point of the

base, as the dotted line hd.
The hypotenuse
is
the line op-
posite the right angle of a right-angled triangle.
QUADEILATEKAL FIGURES.
Quadrilateral figures have four sides and are of the following
kinds
A square has four equal sides and four equal angles (Fig.
17).
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
A A
rectangle or
oUong has only
its
opposite sides equal, but
has four equal angles (Fig. 18).
rhombus has
all
its sides
equal, but its angles are not
right angles (Fig. 19).
Fig. 19.
Fis. 20.
rhomboid has only
its
opposite
sides
equal,
and
its
angles are not right angles (Fig. 20).
lo

The four
chap.
figures just described are also called " 'parallelo-
grams"
other.
their ojjposite sides being always parallel to each other,

;
and of equal length
their opposite angles are also equal to each
line joining the
opposite angles will always divide

:
the figure into two equal parts

as the dotted line ah.
this line is called a "
diagonal"
If a parallelogram has one right angle, all its angles
must
be
rio'ht angles.
Fig.
2L
Fig. 22.
A A
trapezoid has only
two of
its
sides parallel to each other
(Fig. 21).
trapezium has none of
its
sides parallel (Fig. 22).
23.
Fiff.
24.
right-angled trap)ezoid has two right angles (Fig. 23).

isosceles
An
trapezoid has
two opposite
sides equal (Fig. 2-i).
Parts of a Circle.
An
arc
is
any portion of the circum-
ference of a circle, as ahc.
A A A
two
chord
is
straight line joining

ac.
the extremities of an arc, as
segment
is
the space contained

/.
between the arc and the chord, as

sector
is
the
space enclosed by
radii
and the
arc, as g.
DEFINITIONS
ii
A tangent is
it is
a line touching the circumference in one point

circle
always at right angles to the radius of the

cle.
at that
point, as
Ordinate
is
a line
drawn from
a point in a curve perpen-
dicular to the diameter, as dotted line in Fig. 26(1).
Abscissa
is
the part of the diameter cut off by
the ordinate, as dotted line in Fig. 26 (2).
Polygons.
Polygons are figures
that
contain
more than
four sides, and are of two kinds, viz. regular and

irregular.
Regular polygons have their sides of equal length
and their angles
FiR. 26.
also equal.
Irregular 'polygons have their sides as well as their angles
unequal.
Pentagon
has
5 equal sides 6
,,
and
5 equal angles. 6
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
.,
7 8 9 8
Nonagon
Decagon
Undecagon
10
11
10
11 12
a regular polygon
;
,,
Duodecagon
12
of
To
find the angles
we
divide 360
by the number of
at the centre.
sides it contains
this will give the angles
Then by subtracting one

to
of these angles from

its
180 the remainder will give the angle between

For example,
find the angles of
sides.
an octagon, divide 360

less
by 8
45, the angle at centre;
180
45=
135, the
angle formed by the sides of the octagon.
All the foregoing definitions refer to plane surfaces or parts

of
same.
For instance, lines are parts of planes

a plane will form part of
it,
line
drawn upon
and the intersection
12

two plaues
will
chap.
of
form a
line.
In the same way points are

lines will give points.
parts of lines,
and the intersection of

SOLIDS.
These do not form part of Plane Geometry, but as they

will be required in other sections of this work, it is advisable to include
them
in these definitions.
solid
has length, breadth, and thickness.

;
Solids are of great variety
they are also of regular and
irregular shape.
Eegulak Solids have equal

cannot have fewer than four
Tetrahedron
is
faces
and equal edges, and
sides.
composed of four equilateral

is
triangles.
Hexahedron or cute
Oetahcdron
is
formed
of six equal squares.
contained by eight equilateral triangles.

for its faces.
Dodecahedron has twelve equal pentagons

Icosahedron
is
composed of twenty equilateral
triangles.
Peisms are
solids
whose ends are
similar,
the
sides
to
of
which are parallelograms, and their edges parallel

other
;
each
they are named after the shape of their bases.

sides.
Triangular prism, having a base of three
Quadrangular prism, having a base of four

Hexagoncd prism, having a base of six
etc.
sides.
sides.
Pyramids
are solid figures, the edges of
which meet
at a
vertex; they are also
named
Triangular pyramid,
The
after the
shape of their bases.

is
tetrahedron
triangular
pyramid, having three sides to
its base.
Quadrangidar pyramid, having four sides

Hexagonal pyramid, having six sides
etc.
to its base.
to its base.
Solids formed of Plane and Curved Surfaces.
cylinder
is
a surface, every point of which

its axis.
is
equally
distant from a straight line called
DEFINITIONS
13
cone
is
a surface described
by the revolution
called its axis.
of a right-
angled triangle about one of

Note.
its sides
is
A
A
cylinder
a circular prism.
cone
is
a circular pyramid.
Solids formed of Curved Surfaces only.

Sphere.
its centre,
and every section^ of

the
Spheroid.
Every Eesembling
part of the surface

it is
is
equally distant from
a circle.
all its
sphere in shape, but
sections are not circles.
GENERAL PROPERTIES
OF SOME OF THE FIGURES ALREADY DESCRIBED.
If
two
lines cross each other the opposite angles are
always
equal.
to
The angle
clce,
act
is
equal
the angle
and the angle

hcc.
Fig. 27.
aecl is
equal to the angle
The two adjacent angles

equal to two right angles
;
are
the
angles
ecd.
cted
and
ael),
for in-
stance, as well as the angles hcc
and
Triangles.
The three angles

two
of a triangle
;
contain together 180, or
right angles
so if
two angles are given, the

For example,
third angle can always be found.

if
one angle
is
70 and the other 30", the remain80.
ing angle
must be
70 + 30= 100. 180-100 = 80.
The
Fis. 28.
exterior angle of a triangle

interior
angles.
is
equal to the
is
two opposite
The angle ahc
^ a section literally means a part separated from the rest, but in practical geometry and the other subjects treated of in this work it really means intersection : a solid is supposed to be cut through by a plane and a part removed.
14

;
equal to the angles hcd and cdb together
in the
is
same way the
angle cdc
equal to the two
angles hcd and cbd.

If
we multiply
the
base
get
by half the
base by ^
altitude,
;
we
the area of a triangle

its
Fig. 29.
or half
'='
its
altitude will give
lis
the same result.

parallel lines are
Triangles of equal bases
drawn between
Fig. 30.
equal in area, and lines drawn parallel to their bases at equal

heights are equal in length, as the dotted lines
shown
If
(Fig. 30).
we
bisect
two
sides of
a triangle
and
join the points of bisection,

is
we
get a line that
always parallel to the third side (Fig. 31).
Fig. 31.
QUADEILATEKALS.
If
we
bisect the four sides
of a quadrilateral figure
it
and
join the points, a
will
always give us
parallelogram,
as
shown
for
by
dotted
lines.
The reason
this
will
be
apparent by the principle shown in the

preceding figure
so as to
if
we draw
a diagonal
form two
triangles.
Parallelograms drawn between parallel

Fiff.
lines
on equal bases are always equal
DEFINITIONS
and
parallel lines
15
in area,
drawn
at equal heiglits are
always
Fig. 33.
equal to each other and to the bases, as shown by dotted

lines.
Semiciecles.
Any two
lines
drawn from the ex-
tremities of the diameter, to a point on
the circumference of a semicircle, will form

a right anaie.
Fig. 34.
Tangents.
Tangents drawn to any three circles of different diameters
all
meet in the same
straight line.
Fig. 35.
CHAPTEE
LINES,
II
LINES, TRIANGLES, QUADEILATEEALS,
CONVERGENT
AND CIRCLES
Problem
To
bisect
1.
a given straight
line
AB.
From
and
as centres, witli
line,
any radius greater than half the
describe arcs cutting each other in
C and
join
CD
by
a line.
This
line
line will bisect
AB
in E.
The
D
Fis;.
CD
will be perpendicular to
AB.
36.
Problem
To
bisect
2.
a given arc AB. the
Proceed
in
in
1,
same
way
arc
as
Problem
using the extremities

centres.
of the arc as
is
The
AB
bisected at E.
chap.
ii
lines
17
Problem
To draw a
line parallel to
3.
a given line
AB
through a given
point C.
Take any point
D
and
in
line
r
''!
AB, not
with
opposite the point

as
\
'<
centre,
DC
as
'
radius,
describe
an arc cutting
^-.2
AB
in E,
and from C as centre,
^^^
^'^-
with
the
same
;
radius,
set
;
draw
off
r,
another
length
to
DF EC on DE
arc
the
^^
a line
drawn through CF
will be parallel
AB.
Peoblem
To draw a
line parallel to
4.
a given
it.
line
AB
at a given
distance fro77i
Let the length of the line

'
--'"
'""-
represent the given distance.
Take any points

line
and
in
AB
;
as
centres,
and with
arcs
as
D C
y-
radius
describe
line
shown
gg
draw the
^Qc as
a tangent to these arcs.

will be parallel to
EG
AB.
Peoblem
5.
From a point Q
in a given line
AB,
to
draw a
r
,
line
'perpendicular to
AB.
At
radius,
the
point
arcs
C,
with
cutting
any
describe
AB
E
as
in
and
with
and
centres,
and with the same radius,
draw
arcs intersecting at
join
EC,
D
^
Fig. 40.
e;
which
will be perpendicular to.AB.
'
i8
Pkoblem
6.
When
the point
,
is at,
or near, the end of the given line
AB.
any and
F,^
With B
as centre,
and
witli
;
radius BC, draw the arc
CDE
with the same

D ---f--~
lE^
radius, starting at C,
set
off arcs
and
with each of
centres
these
two
points
radius,
as
and
with any
draw
;
arcs cutting
each other at
B
Fig.
join
FB, which
4L
AB.
Problem
To draiv a
line perpendicular to
7.
a given
line,
frotn a point
which
Let
is tvithout the line.
AB
be the given line and
the point.
With C
arcs
as centre,
and with
any radius greater

cutting
than CD, draw
the line
these
AB
in
E
as
f^
|^r^
Pd
and
from
points
centres,
with any radius, describe
join
CG,
-'0"
"X.
Fig. 42.
which
AB.
Problem
8.
When
the point is opposite, or nearly opposite, one
end
of the line
AB.
Let
be
the
given
point.
Take any point
on
AB, not
L/
opposite the point C, and join
CD
and bisect
it
in E; with
radius,
as centre,
EC as B circle CFD
and
Fig. 43.
draw the semiwhich

will be
join CF,
perpendicular to AB.
11
LINES
19
Peoblem
To divide a given
line
9.
AB
into
any number of equal

example.
the line
parts.
Take
five for
From one extremity A, draw
AD,
at
any angle
to
AB
and from the end B, draw
another line BC, parallel to
AD.
^-z^"'
,,
With
any
convenient
radius,
set off along the line
AD, com-''^
,-7''
mencing
of
parts,
at
end A, the number

one,
'
less
into
which
/
,'
vi-''
it is
required to divide the given

;
,/-''
line
repeat
the
same operaat
~r
Fig. 44.
tion on line
BC, commencing
;
end B, with same radius

join the points as shown,
into five equal parts.
then
line
and the given
AB
will be divided
Problem
10.
Another Method.
C
,''
.
'
Draw
;
the line
AC
at
any angle
to
\
AB AC may
off
be of any con-
'
\
\
venient length.
\
..''
\
mark
^
along
AC
With any radius, the number of C with B

other
;,'''
equal parts required; join the end

of the last division
;
A
Fig. 45.
draw
points
lines
from
all
the
parallel to
CB
(Prob. 4),
till
they
meet the
line
AB, which
will then be divided as required.
Problem
To divide a
Let
11.
line proportionally to
line.
a given divided
line.
AB
be a given divided
Take any point C and

join
it
with each end of
AB
divide
BC
into four equal parts,

lines
;
and draw the

parallel to
'/;
D, E, and
AB
join the divisions
F^T^
F
on
AB with
C, then the divisions
on the
lines
D, E, and
will
/
,'
.'
represent
3. 4-
respectively the
1^,
pro-
D^
A
''
portions of
divisions
If
^,
and \
of the
on the given
to enlarge
line
AB,
A
h:
Fig. 46.
B
I?
we wish
the divi-
sions on
AB
to 1^, for instance,
produce the line
CB
and repeat
one of the four divisions below
B, which will give
draw
GH
parallel to AJB,
and produce
the divisions as shown.
Problem 12.
FtoWj a given 'point B, on a given
angle equal
to
line,
AB,
to construct
an
a given angle
C.
With
angle
radius, as
point
centre,
C
arc
of
the
given
and with
any
draw the
the
arc
the same radius, with
EE B
;
and with
as centre,
draw
on
GH
take
the
it
length of the arc EF, and set

off
GH
draw the
through H.
Then the
BD angle GBH
line
will be equal to the given angle C.
Problem
13.
To Msect a given angle ABC.
With B
any
radius,
as
centre,
and with
draw the arc

as
centres,
AC
with
A
at
Fio-.
and C
with
any
radius,
draw the
join
arcs intersecting will bisect
48.
the angle
DB, which ABC.
TRIANGLES
Problem
To
Let
trisect
14.
a right angle.
ABC
be the right angle.
With
draw
and
as centre,
and with any
radius,
the arc
AC
with the same radius, and
A
D
and C
;
as centres,
draw the
arcs
join
EB
and DB, which
will trisect
Fig. 49.
the angle
ABC.
Problem
To
trisect
15.
ABC.-*^
any angle
Erom
B, with any radius, describe the arc
AHC
bisect the
;
angle
ABC
join
and C
with
as centre,
and with
DA
as
radius,
;
describe
the
semicircle
AGC
and
with the same radius, describe the

arcs
E
;
and
AG
off
take the
A and C length AG and

from
;
join
set it
from
along the line GB, which

join
will give the point I
ET and
J and
EI, which will give the points
K on the arc AHC

B,
join
J and
K with
ABC.
which will
trisect the anoie
TRIANGLES.
Problem
16.
To construct an equilateral triangle

on a given line AB.
With
A and B
as centres,
and with
AB
as radius, describe arcs cutting each
other at C; join
C with A and
B.
Then
Fi^. 51.
;
ABC
^
will be an equilateral triangle.

is
one of the impossibilities of geometry but this problem, devised by the author, gives an approximation so near, that the difference is imperceptible in ordinary geometrical drawing.
This
chap.
Problem
17.
to construct
On a given
isosceles
hose
AB
an
triangle,
the
angle at
vertex to he equal to given angle

C.
Produce the
base
AB
an
to
E,
and
at
construct
angle
making with
to
Fi?. 52.
AE
an angle equal
C.
Bisect the angle
EAB
by
the line
AD.
Erom B draw
a line in D.
making with
AB an angle equal to DAB, and meeting AD ADB will be the isosceles triangle required.
Peoblem
18.
to
On a
given base
AB,
construct
an
isosceles triangle, its altitude to he
equal
to
a given
at E,
line
CD.
Bisect
AB
CD
and erect a perto
pendicular equal in height
the
given line
join
AE
the
and
BF,
then
AFB
will
be
isosceles
D
Fis. 53.
triangle required.
Peoblem
To construct a
19.
triangle, the three sides
A, B, and C being given.

the base
line
Draw
the
DE
equal to
given
A.
Erom
as
to
centre,
and with radius equal
line B, describe
an arc at E, and
from
as centre,
and with radius

arc,
equal to line C, draw another

cutting the other at
join
ED
and EE, which

Fi?. 54.
will give the tri-
angle required.
TRIANGLES
Problem
20.
%vith ttvo sides
23
To construct a triangle
equal
to
given lines
included
and B,
equcd
and
to C.
the
angle
Make an
Mark
off
angle
DEF
equal to
given angle C, in required position.
EF
is
equal to line A, and
ED
equal to line
join
DF.
Fig. 55.
DEF
the triangle required.
Peoblem
To
construct
21.
jperjên-
a triangle with a
to
dicidar height equal

the tioo
sides
AB^ and
forming
the vertex
equcd to the given lines
C and D.
Through
right
centre,
B draw
to
the line
EF
at
angles
AB.
From
A
D
as
and with
of
radii equal to
the
re-
lengths
Fig. 56.
the lines
C and
spectively,
draw
arcs
cutting
the
line
EF
join
AE and AF,
which will give the triangle required.

22.
Problem
To
consti'uct
triangle, the
to
base
AB
heitig given,
one ctngle of
which
is
equcd
C,
and
the difference of the sides equal to
given line D.
At end
angle
line
C.
A
Cut
of
the base, con-
struct an angle equal to the given

off
AF
equal
to
D, the given difference of the

;
sides
join
FB.
Bisect
FB
at
right angles
in
join
by EB.
a line meeting
AF
^
'
}:(
Fig. 57,
AEB
is
the required triangle.
24
Pkoblem
23.
To construct a triangle on a base equal to given line A, with vertical angle equal to D, and sum of the two remaining
sides equal to
BE.
Draw
the line BE, and at
construct an angle
making
to half
with
the
BE
an angle equal
angle
given
D.
From
an
arc
point B, with radius equal to

^
given
cutting
line
A,
draw
;
AFig. 58,
EC at C join BC. Bisect CE at right angles by line EG join EC. BCE will then be the
;
triangle required.
Peoblem 24.
Construct a triangle with tivo sides
equal to the given lines
and
respectively,
and
to
the included
median equal
given line C.
Draw
a triangle with the side
DE
side
equal to given line A, the
DF
equal to given line B, and
the third side
EE
^T
equal to twice
Bisect the
^^
B^^
Fig. 59.
the given median C.

line
EE
;
at
it
G.
Draw
;
produce
to
to
make
DG and GH equal
DG
join
EH.
DEH
will be the triangle required.
QUADRILATERALS
Problem
25.
to describe
25
On a
given hase
AB
a ^
triangle
triangle
similar
to
-
a given
DEF.
angles
at
Make
at
and
equal respectively to the angles
and E.
at C.
Produce the
lines
to
meet
Then
ABC
will
FiR. 60.
be the triangle required.
QUADRILATERALS.
Problem
To
26.
construct a square on
hase
a given
AB.
At point
lar to
erect a perpendicuto
it.
AB
and equal
With
B
to
and C
as centres,
and radius equal
AB, draw
intersecting arcs meet-
B
Fig. 61.
ing at
D CABD
;
join
is
DC
and DB.
the square required.
Problem 27.
To construct a square on a given
diagonal AB.
Bisect
AB
with the line

it,
CD
join
at
right angles to
Mark
and
off
;
EC and
ED
equal to
EA
CB
EB
is
CA
f^
^'^^'
and AD, and
and BD.
^^
CADB
26

Peoblem
28.
To
construct a rectangle with sides cqiial to given lines
Draw
the line
CD
equal to given line A.
perpendicular
DF
equal to given line B.
At With C
A and B. D erect a
as centre
B^
Fig. 63.
and radius equal
to line
B,
and with F
as
centre and radius
equal to line A, draw arcs intersecting each other at
join
EC
and EF, which
will give the rectangle required.
Peoblem
To
29.
construct a rectangle with diagonal equal to given line
A, and one side equal
to
given line B.
Bisect
Draw
the line
CD
CD
at E.
Fig. 64.
With E
as centre,
and with radius EC, draw a
circle
from C
CONVERGENT LINES
and
CIRCLES AND ARCS
27
off'
as centres,
and with given line

join
as radius, set
the
points
r and G
is
CG, GD, DF, and FC.
CGDF
the required rectangle.
Problem
To construct a rliomhus
30.
luith sides equal to given line

to
A,
and
angle equal
given angle C.
Make
the base
given line A.
At
to
DE equal to D construct DE
arcs
;
an angle equal
Set off
given angle C.
DF
as
equal to
centres,
with
F and E
equal to
secting at
and radius
inter-
DE, draw
;
G join EG and EG. DEGF will be the required

Fig. 65.
rhombus.
CONVERGENT LINES CIRCLES AND

;
ARCS.
Peoblem
To
drav:i
31.
hettvee?i
line
lines
bisecting
the angle
two
given
conis
verging
AB
and CD, when
the
angular
'point
inaccessible.
From any
draw a
Bisect
line line
point
in
EF
parallel to
AB, CD.
be-
the
angle
BEF
B,
by the
EG.
At any point
and
tween
draw
HL
and
MN",
parallel to
EG.
Bisect
EG
HL
Fiff.
in
and N.
is
Join
66.
which, produced,
line required.
the bisecting
28
TRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY
chap.
Pkoblem 32.
Through
the
given jJoint A,
to
draw a
line
which vxndd, if
produced, meet at the same point as the given lines
BC and
Draw
parallel
DE jjrodnced.
Draw any
any
line
convenient line
FG
At
join
AF
^C
and AG.
HK
parallel to
FG.
H
draw the line

F
HL
Fig. 67.
to
FA, and
at
draw the
line
KL
parallel to
GA,
cutting
is
each other at L.
Draw
a line through
L and A; AL
the
convergent line required.
Peoblem 33.
To find
the centre of
circle.
Draw any
chord AB, and bisect
it
by a perpendicular DE,
Fig. 68.
which will be a diameter of the
circle.
Bisect
DE
in
C,
which will be the centre of the
circle.
CONVERGENT LINES
CIRCLES AND ARCS

34.
29
Peoble:\[
To drav: a
Join
circle
throvgh three given 2)oints A, B, C.

Bisect
,
AB
and BC.
AB
and
BC by
perpendiculars
cutting
each other at D, which

circle.
will be the centre of the
From
radius,
as
centre,
and
circle,
DA
as
describe
which
will then pass through the given
points A, B, C, as required.
JVote.
The
tlie
two
following
Fig. 69.
problems are constructed in the
same manner.
To drav:
arc of a circle through three given joints, A, B, C.
the centre of
To find
circle
from a given
35.
arc
AC.
Problem
At
the given
eguidistant 2ôints A, B, C,
on
a given
a,re,
to
draiu a
number of radial
lines, the centre
of the circle icing
inaccessible.
On
the points A, B, C, D,
etc.,
as centres,
with radii larger
than a division, describe arcs cutting each other at EF,

etc.
Thus
and
from
and C
as centres, describe
arcs cutting each other at E,

so on.
etc.,
Draw
the lines BE, CF,

lines
which will be the radial
required.
Problem
To draiv
the arc of
36.
circle
through three given points A, B, C.
the centre of the circle being inaccessible.
With
and C
as centres,
and with a radius equal
to
AC,

iudeiiuite arcs.
draw
From
the points
A
B
and C draw
till
lines
through
arcs in
they meet the

E.
and
From
and
E
;
set off short equal dis-
tances on the arcs above and
below
arc
join the divisions

to
on
AD
point C, and the
divisions on arc
CE
to point A.
Where
Fig.
the lines from corre-
7L
sponding points intersect,

obtain a point in the arc
intersects the line
;
for instance,
where the
line
we from El we
from Dl, we get the point E; and so on

fair curve,
with the other points, by joining which with a

get the required arc.
GEOMETRICAL PATTERN DRAWING.

These designs are based on the equilateral triangle and
square
;
they should be copied to a
much
larger scale than
shown.
Eigs. 72, 73, 74,
and 75, are drawn with the 60

90, 60, and 30.
set-square,
worked
against the edge of the tee-square.

viz.
All three angles of
the set-square are used,
The remaining
figures are
drawn with the 45
set-square.
^/ \/
A /\ A
_ \/
/
YA Y A A \/ V \/ /\ /\ \ /\ \/ V A/ \/ 'Â AA A
Fisr.
^ A
72.
Fig. 73.
GEOMETRICAL PATTERN DRAWING
31
Fig. 74.
Fig. 75.
Fig. 76.
Fig. 77.
Fig. 78.
Fig. 79.
32
PRACTICAL PLANE GE0MI:TRY
Fig. SO.
Fig. 81.
/ \ / \
-Z s.
5,,
' '
^
^
z N^ \ / \ ^ / ^ z ^
Fig. 82.
Arches.
L_l
I
Fig. 83.
These figures show the application of arcs of

formation of the different kinds of arches.
circles to the
(ê-j'-yi i
c ire ulcer
c/e^>ê^/a Z
Fig. 85.
Fig. 84.
ARCHES
33
ZS'lIzp-^cc
Fig. 86.
Fig. 88.
Fig. 89.
Oêe
Fig. 90. Fig. 91.
34
Fig. 92.
Figs. 84, 85,
and 86 represent the forms of arches
used,
before the introduction of Grothic or jDointed architecture.

Figs. 87, 88, 89,
and 90 belong
to
the earlier periods of

later period.
Gothic, while Figs. 91 and
92 represent those of a
CHAPTEE
POLYGONS
III
Regular Polygons are figures that have equal sides and equal
angles.
To construct a regular polygon, we must have the length

and the number of
sides
;
of one side a circle, the
if it is to
be inscribed in
number
of its sides will determine their leuQ-th

other.
and the angle they form with each

If
we take any
polygon, regular or irregular, and produce
Fig. 93.
all its sides in
one direction only, Fig. 93, we shall find that the
total
of all the exterior angles,
shown by the dotted

;
curves, is
equal to 360, or four right angles

of the polygon to
and
if
we
join each angle
any point in
its
centre, the
sum
of
the
angles at this point will also be
360, and there will be as
many
angles formed in the centre as there are exterior angles.

will, of course,
In regular polygons these angles at the centre
36

;
be equal to each other
and
if
we produce
the sides in one
direction, as iu Fig. 93, the
exterior angles will be equal to
each other
to the
and
as the
number
of angles at the centre
is
equal
number
of exterior angles,
is
and the sum
of the angles in
each instance
exterior angle.
equal, the angle at the centre
must equal the

line
To construct any regular polygon on the given

for
AB,
example, a nonagon, 360-^ 9

40.
So
if
we draw
will
of
a line at B,
making an angle of 40 with

produced,
exterior
it
AB
the
give
us
angle
it
the
nonagon,
easy
to
from which
will
be
complete the polygon.
The perimeter
struct
of
a polygon
is
sometimes given,
e.g.
Con-
an octagon
the 'perimeter of 'which is 6 inches.

inches.
inches.
inches.
-75
f
been shown that
Draw
centre
equal,
the line
AB
this
length,
It has
the exterior angles and those at the

of
.-.
regular
polygon
45.
are
360^8 =
Pro-
duce the line AB, and
construct
.
an angle of 45.
Make BC = AB.
three
points from
circle con-
We
now have
j,j
which we can draw the
taining the required polygon (Prob. 34).
The polygon could

of
also
be drawn, after finding the length

for constructing a
AB, by any
of the
methods shown
polygon
on a given straight line.
The centre
of
any regular polygon

it.
is
the centre of the
circle that circumscribes
Any regular
polygon can be inscribed in a
circle
by
setting
off the angles at the centre.
37
POLYGONS
If tangents to a circle circumscribing a regular polygon be
drawn
parallel to the sides of the inscribed polygon, a similar
figure will
be described about the circle
or if tano-ents be
dravyn at the angles of the inscribed polygon, the circle will

also be " described by,"
i.e.
contained
in,
a similar figure.
In the following problems two general methods are given

for constructing regular
polygons on a given
;
line,
and two
for
inscribing
them
in a given circle
but as these general methods

first
require either a line or an arc to be

divisions,
divided into equal
the special
methods
also given.
for
individual
polygons
are
preferable,
which are
See also
(Prob. 169),
how
and
to
its
construct any angle without a protractor

application to polygons.
Pkoblem
To inscribe in a
circle,
37.
triangle, sgiiare, pentagon, hexagon,
octagon, decagon, or duodecagon.
Describe a
circle,
and draw the two diameters

other
AE
and
BD
at right angles to each
join
BA.
Set off
on
circum;
ference,
AF
equal to
AC
join
AF
the
and EF.
With
on
as centre,
and radius equal

arc
G-
to
EF, draw
produced.
G
as
EA
off
With
centre,
and radius
equal to AC, set
on
cir-
cumference
join
AH.
With
arcs
D
I
and
E
to
as centres,
and radius
equal
DC,
set off the

;
and J on circumference
join
ID.
With CG as radius, and J as centre, mark off K on diameter BD. With CK as radius, mark off on circumference
from
the arcs
L and
join
BL
and
BM
then
38
EF
will equal oue side of
an equilateral
a square,
^pentagon,
triangle.
AB
BM
AF
hexagon,
octagon,
AH
BL
DI
Problem
To
inscribe
decagon,
duodecagon.
38.
any regular
'polygon in a given circle.
A
Describe a
circle,
heptagon, for example.
and draw the diameter AB.
Divide
AB
Fig. 97.
into as
(in this
many
equal divisions as there are sides to the polygon
instance seven).
With
and
as centres,
and with
radius equal to
draw the
A,^
till
line
AB, CD, passing through the second

to complete
describe intersecting arcs at C.
From C
from
division
it
meets the circumference at D.

;
Join
it,
AD, which
off
will give one side of the polygon
mark
due
AD
the
round the circumference.

This
method
of
constructing
polygons
is
to
Chevalier Antoine de Ville (1628), and although useful for

practical purposes,
^
is
not mathematically correct.
Whatever number
of sides the polygon
may
have, the line
CD
is
always
draAvn through the second division from A.
POLYGONS
Peoblem
39.
circle
39
To inscribe any regular polygon in a given

method).
Describe
the radius CA.
a
circle,
(second
For example, a nonagon.
and draw
At
draw a tan"With
radius,
it
gent to
centre,
the
circle.
as
and with any
draw
are
a semicircle, and divide
into as
many
equal
parts
as
there
sides to
the polygon (in this in-
stance nine).
From
through
till
point
draw
lines
each
of
these
divisions
they meet the circumference,
Join these points, which will
give the polygon required.
Peoblem
40.
On a
given line
AB,
to describe
a regular polygon.
For example, a heptagon.

Produce
AB
to C.
With
as centre,
and
AB
as
radius,
it
describe a semicircle, and divide

into
as
many
equal
divisions
as
there are sides to the polygon (in

this instance seven).
Join
A with
C
in
the the
second
division
from
will
semicircle,^
which
give
point D.
points
off
Join
AD.
Through the
Set the
DAB
describe a circle.
the
distance
AD
round
circumference, and join the points
marked, which will give the required polygon.

^ The line AD is always drawn to the second number of sides the polygon may contain.
division from C, whatever
40

Problem 41.
On a
given line
AB,
to
describe
a regular polygon (second
method).
For example, a pentagon.
At point B
as centre,
erect a perpendicular equal to
AB.
With B
it
and radius BA, draw the quadrant AC, and divide

into
as
many
equal divisions
as
there are sides to the polygon (in

this case five).
Join
the
point
B
C.-^
with
the
second division from
Bisect
AB
till
at
it
D, and erect a perpendicular

meets the line drawn from
the
to
second
j)oint
division,
which
as
will
give
E.
From E
centre,
and with radius EB, describe
circle.
Erom
point A, with dis-
tance
AB, mark
off
round
the
circumference the points of
the polygon.
required.
Join these points, which will give the pentagon
Problem 42.
On a
given straight line

erect
AB,
to
construct
a regular pentagon.
At B
dicular to
BC
perpento
it.
Bisect
centre,
AB, and equal AB in D. With

and
as
DC
as radius,
draw
the arc
CE
meeting
duced in E.
as centres,
With
AB proA and B
to
and radius equal and
AE, draw
E.
centres,
intersecting arcs at
With A,
B,
E
arcs
as
Fig. 101.
and radius
equal to
at
AB, draw
intersecting
^
and K.
Join
AH, HE,
See note to previous problem.
POLYGONS
YK, and KB.
quired.
41
Then
AHFKB
will
be
the
pentagon
re-
Problem
43.
a regular hexagon.
On a given With
and
straight line
AB,
to construct
and
as
centres,
radius
AB, draw
the arcs
at
intersecting
each other
C.
With C
the
at
as centre,
and with the

circle.
same radius, draw a same

radius,
With
commencing
circle the
A, set
off
round the
points D, E, F, G.
Join AD, DE,
EF, EG, and GB, which will

give the hexagon required.
Problem 44.
In a given
circle to inscribe
regular heptagon.
Draw any
bisect it in C.
radius
AB,
and
Through C draw
DE
CD
perpendicular to
as radius,
AB.
With
at E,
commencing
set off
round the
L,
circle the points
E, G,
H, K,
and M, by joining
which we get the required hepFig. 103.
tagon.
Problem 45.
On
a.
given line
as
AB,
to construct
a regular heptagon.
With B
centre,
and
BA
as radius,
draw a semicircle
42
meeting
AB
produced in
C.
With centre A, and radius AB, draw an arc cutting the

semicircle
in D,
perpendicular to
Draw DE AB. With

arc cutting
C
to
as centre,
and radius equal

Join BE.
DE, draw an
the semicircle in F.
Erom
the three points A, B,
E, find the centre of the circle
H
I,
(Prob.
34).
With
as
centre,
and radius HA, draw
a circle.
With
AB
as radius,
the circle the points K, L, the heptagon required.
commencing at E, set off on M, and N", by joining which we get
Problem 46.
On a
given line
AB,
to construct
a regular
octagon.
A and B erect the Produce AB to E. Bisect the angle DBE by the line BE.
At
perpendiculars
AC
and
BD.
Make BE
equal to AB.
Erom
parallel
E draw
to
the line
EH
AB, and make

Join
KH
equal to
LE.
AH.
Set off on
AC
and BD, from points

a length equal to
will give the
and B,
HE, which points C and D.
With
the points C, D, H, and
E
to at
as centres,
and a radius equal

intersecting arcs
Fig. 105.
AB, draw
and N.
Join
HM, MC, CD,
DIT, and NE, which will give
the octagon required.
POLYGONS
Problem 47.
In a given
circle to inscribe
43
a nonagon.
perpendicular to each
Draw
other.
the diameters
AB
and
CD
With
arc
as
centre,
and radius AE,

/
A
^--^ R
,
draw the
cutting
the circle in F.
as centre,
With B
cutting
in
Gr.
and radius BF,

arc
r l/
/
c|-
;'
'
draw
the
--1--^-
~~H~
r
TjD"
'^^
CD
With
radius
produced
Gr as
centre,
and
the
m\
GA, draw
arc cutting
CD
A,
in
H.
on
\VIST,
N-^
With
HC as radius, comat
set off
>
-^0
Jv
Fig. 106.
mencing
the circle the points K, L,
M,
0, P, Q, and E, by joining
which we get the nonagon required.
Problem 48,
In a given
circle to inscribe
a regular undecagon.
Draw
the two diameters
AB
E.
as
and
CD
cutting each other in

as
centre,
With
radius,
and
AE
draw an
arc
cutting
the circle in H.
With
as centre,
and
DE
as
radius,
draw an arc
cutting the circle in F.

as centre,
With F
draw
Join
and
FH
as radius,
the arc cutting
CD
is
in K.
HK.
Then
HK
equal to one
side of the undecagon.

as radius, starting
With
HK
from H,
set off
on the
circle
the points of the
required polygon, and join them.
CHAPTEE
IV
INSCEIBED AND DESCKIBED FIGURES
Problem
To
inscribe
49.
an
equilateral triangle in a given cirele
ABC.
Pind the centre
(Prob.
33),
and draw the diameter
DC.
With
as centre,
and
DE
as radius,
mark
off the points
and
on the circumference of the
circle.
Join AB, BC,
and CA.
required.
Then
ABC
will be the inscribed equilateral triangle
Problem
To
deseribe
50.
an
egidlateral triangle ahont
a given
eirele
ABC.
At
84),
the points A, B, and

till
C draw
tangents to the circle (Prob.

G-,
and produce them
they meet in the points P,
and H.
Then the
circle
equilateral triangle
as required.
PGH
will be described about the
ABC,
CHAP. IV
INSCRIBED AND DESCRIBED FIGURES,
45
Problem
To
inscribe
51.
circle
in a given
triangle
ABC.
Bisect
the
angles
CAB
and
ABC
by
lines
meeting in D.
line
D
and
let
fall
tlie
From DE, perpen-
dicular to
AB.
"With
as centre,
DE
as radius, inscribe the circle
required.
Peoblem
To
describe
52.
circle
about a given
triangle
ABC.
sides
Bisect
the two
AB
and
AC
by
lines
meeting in D.
With
as
centre,
and
DA
as radius, de-
scribe the required circle.
Peoblem
To
describe
53.
an
equilcttercd triangle ccbout
a given sgimre
ABCD.
With C and
and with
arcs
as centres,
CA
as
as radius, describe
cutting
each
other
at
E.
With E
points
centre,
and with
off
the same radius,
mark
the
Join
E and G on these arcs. CF and DG-, and produce

till
them
in
they meet in the point
H, and the base
AB
produced
and
L.
Then
HKL
is
Fig. 111.
the required equilateral triangle.
46
Peoblem
To
54.
inscribe
a square in a given
triangle
ABC.
perpen-
From C draw CD
dicular to
dicular to
AB, and CE perpenCD, and equal to it.
Draw
in
F.
the line
EB
cutting
AC
AB.
Draw FG- parallel to Draw the lines FH and

Then
is
GL
perpendicular to AB.
FGLH
Problem
In a given an
equal
triangle
55.
ABC,
to inscrihe
its sides
oblong having one of

to the
given line D.
From A,
set off
along the base
AB,
AE
equal to the given line

the
line
D.
From E draw
AC.
parallel to
Through
and
EF F draw
the
the line
FG
parallel to the base
AB.
lines
From
F draw
GH
is
E
Fis. 113.
and
FL
perpendicular
to
AB.
GFLH
the oblong required.
Problem
To
inscribe
56.
circle.
a square in a given
Draw any two

each other.
diameters
AB
and
CD
at right angles to
Join the extremities of these diameters.
ACBD
is
the inscribed square required.
INSCRIBED AND DESCRIBED FIGURES
47
Peoblem
To
describe
57.
circle.
a square about a given
At
the points A, C, B,
draw tangents meeting each other
at the points E, F, G,
(Prob. 84).
EFHG-
is
the described square required.
Peoblem
To inscribe a
circle
58.
in a given square.
at
Draw the diagonals AB and CD intersecting each other Erom E draw EF perpendicular to AD. With E as E.
and
centre,
circle.
EF
as
radius,
draw a
^>^-
This will be the inscribed
circle required.
-!s>.B
Peoblem
To
describe
59.
circle
aboiU a given
square.
With
draw a
centre E, and radius
EA,
circle.
This will be the

Fig. 115.
described circle required.

Peoblem
To
60.
inscribe
CHAP.
sqiiarc in
a given
rhombus.
Draw
the
two
diagonals the
AB
and
CD.
Bisect
AEC, AED, and produce the lines each way till

angles
they
meet the
sides
of
the
rhombus
in the points
F,G,H,L.
Join FG-, GL,
LH, and HF.
FGHL
To
inscribe
is
the inscribed square required,
Peoblem
a
circle
61,
in a given
rhombus.
Draw the
diagonals
AB
and
in
CD
E.
intersecting each other
From E draw
as
centre,
the line
EF
as
is
perpendicular to
AD
(Prob, 6).
With E
radius,
and
EF
This
draw a
circle.
the inscribed circle required.
Peoblem
To
inscribe
62.
an
equilateral triangle in a given square
ABCD.
and radius
;
With B
with same
as centre,
BA, draw the quadrant

as centres, set off
AD and radius, with A and D

on the quadrant
E.
the points
F and
draw
Bisect
AE
and
and FD, and through the points

of bisection
lines
GB
HB,
cutting the given square in
and H.
Join BG,
is
GH, and HB.
BGH
the inscribed equi-
lateral triangle required.
49
Peoblem
To
inscribe
63.
an
isosceles triangle
in a given sqiiare
given line E.
ABCD,
having
a hase equal
to the
Draw
the diagonal
AD.
From A,
along
AD,
set off
AF
Fig. 119.
equal to half the given base E.

perpendicular to
Through F draw the

Join
line
GH
AD
(Prob. 5).
GD
and HD.
GDH
is
the inscribed isosceles triangle required.
Problem
To
inscribe
64.
a square in a given
its
tra'peziiim
ABCD
which has
adjacent
2JC('i^s
of sides equcd.
Draw
and CD,
the two diagonals
AB
From
point
set off
CE
CD.
perpendicular and equal to
Join
in G.
to
EA
by a
line cutting
CB
Draw
AB.
CD.
the line
GF A
and
parallel
From
points
F and G draw
the lines
FH
GK
parallel to
Join
HK.
Fis:.
FGKH
is
the
inscribed
120.
square required.
so
Peoblem
65.
circle
To inscribe a
trapezium
has
its
in a given
wliicli
ACBD
adjacent
^ja-irs
of
sides equal.
Bisect
angles, as
lines
any two
adjacent
ADB
and DBC, by
meeting in E.
From E
and
draw
EF With E
radius,
perpendicular to CB.
as
centre,
circle.
EF
as
Fis.
12L
draw a
This will
be the inscribed
circle required.
Problem
To
inscribe
'6Q.
a rhombus in a given rhomboid
ABCD.
each
Draw
the two diagonals

Bisect any two
AD
and
CB
intersecting
other in E.
adjacent angles, as
CED
and
the
Gr,
DEB, by
lines
cutting
given rhomboid in
F and
lines to
and produce these
and H.
and HF.
Join FG,
GK, KH,
inscribed
Ficr.
FGKH
rhombus
is
the
122.
required.
Pkoblem
To
hiscribe
67.
an octagon in a given square ABCD.
Draw
the two diaaonals
AD
and
CB
intersecting
each

other in E.
51
"With
radius,
as
centre,
off
and
AE
E
as
mark
the
^,
points
and
on the sides of
/A
\
.'
\, N
/
the square.
Proceed in the same

C,
'
'-^V
\
7
\ \
.-^
/>''
manner with the auQies B,
and
as centres,
which
will give the
eight
points
square,
required
on
the
given
hj joining which
inscribed
kV
A
\
1
1
we
obtain the required
\^
Fi^. 123,
/ Q
octao'on.
Problem
To
inscribe,
68.
a square in a given hexagon
ABCDEF.
Draw
sect
it
the diasfonal
EB
bi-
in
G, and draw the line

it.
HK
^
H
any
j)erpendicular to
Bisect
as
two and
adjacent
angles,
lines
BGK
EGK, by
in
meet-
ing the
hexagon
M
side
and 0.
till
Produce these two
lines
they
the
AV
Fiff.
meet the
hexagon in
opposite
of
L and
is
IST.
Join
LM,
MO,
124.
OlST,
and NL.
the inscribed square
LMOIsT
required.
Problem
To
inscribe
to
69.
four equal
circles
in a given sciuare
as
tic-o
ABCD
each circle
touch two others, as
ivell
sides of the given sqtiare.
Draw
the two diarronals
AD
and
CB
intersectinfr each other
52
PRACTICAL TLANE GEOMETRY

Bisect the sides of the square in
tlie
in the point E.
points F,
G, H, and
the lines
(Prob. 1).
Draw
will
FH
and GL.
Join FG,
GH, HL, and LF, which

give the points
M,
0, P, and E.
line
From point [;^ MN" parallel

0,
P,
M
to
draw the
AB.
as
MjST,
With M,
and
describe
and
centres,
radius
circles.
equal
to
These will be the four
inscribed circles required.
Problem
To
inscribe
to
70.
four equal
circles
in a given square
ABCD
each circle
touch two others,
and
one side only of the given square.
Draw
other
in
the two the point
diagonals
E.
AD
and
CB
intersecting
each
Bisect
the sides of the square in the

points F, G, H, and L.
Join
FH and GL. Bisect the angle GDE by a line meeting GL in

With EM, mark
M.
and
P.
centre E, and radius

off
the points
IST,
0,
With
the
as
points
M,
and
N, 0, and
centres,
radius equal to
MG,
describe the
four inscribed circles required.
Problem 71.
To
inscribe three equal circles in
a given equilateral triangle

tioo,
ABC
each circle
to
touch the other
as well as tivo sides of the
given triangle.
Bisect the two sides of the triangle by lines intersecting

each other at the centre D.
the
centre
53
Draw
a line from point
C through
till
it
meets the
base at E.
Bisect the angle
BEC
F. as
by a With
radius,
line
meeting
centre,
DB
and
in
as
DF
and
FH
mark off the points K From F draw the line perpendicular to AB. With
L.
the points F, K, and
as centres, to
and with a radius equal
FH,
draw the three inscribed

required.
circles,
Pkoblem
In a given
72.
to inscribe three
ABC,
equal circles
touching each other
and one
side of the triangle only.
Bisect two sides of the triangle
by
lines intersecting each
other at the point

to
(Prob.
1).
Join
CD
and produce
it
E.
Bisect the angle
With
as
centre,
and
DBF DF as
by a
radius,
line cutting
CE
in
F.
Gl-
mark
off the points
and H.
From
the points F, G, and
as centres,
and with a
radius equal to FE, draw the three inscribed circles required.
54

Problem
73.
to inscribe six
chap.
In a given
ABC,
equal circles
touching each other and one side of the triangle only.
Having drawn the three

draw
angle,
lines
till
circles according to the last
problem,
through
and H,
parallel to the sides of the tri-
they meet the lines bisecting the angles in the points

IST.
L,
M, and
These points are the centres of the three
circles
which
will complete the six inscribed circles required.
Problem
In a given octagon
to inscribe
74.
circles
four equal
touching each other.

Bi-
Draw
sect
the four diagonals.
the
angle
intersecting
centre,
and
ABC by a line AC in D. With C as CD as radius, mark

G, and H.
off the points F,
Prom
and
draw the
line
DL
perpendicP, G,
ular to
KC.
With D,
H
to
as centres,
and a radius equal
DL, draw the four inscribed
circles required.
Problem
In a given
circle to clrctio
75.
four equal circles touching each other.

(Prob. 33).
Pind centre of
circle
Draw
the two diameters
AB
and
CD
at right
angles to
each other.
At
and
draw
tangents to the circle to meet at

the point
(Prob.
84).
Draw
by a
PE.
line
Bisect the angle

cutting
EPD
With E Af-as centre, and EG as radius, mark off the points H, K, and L. With
in G.
CD
G, H, K, and
as
centres,
and
with a radius equal to GD, draw

the four inscribed circles required.
55
Pkoblem
In
a given circle to inscribe
76.
circles
each other.
any numlcr of equal For example, five.
touching
_^
Find the centre C (Prob. 33).

into five equal parts
Divide the circumference
(Prob.
37),
and draw the

the
five
radii to
meet
points
circumference in
0, P, and E.
the
M, N,
angle
Bisect the
f-
MCN" by
a line meeting the
circumference in A.
Through
A
CE
CIS!"
draw a
till it
line at right angles to
meets the lines
CM
and
produced in
angle
E.
and D.
Bisect the
DBC
by
a line to meet
CA in
CE
as
With C
as centre,
circle,
and
radius,
draw a
and bisect
between the
five
radii, in
each arc on this

F, G,
circle,
the points
centres,
circles
H, and
(Prob. 2).
to
and a radius equal

required.
With E, F, G, H, and L as EA, draw the five inscribed
Pkoblem
About a given
circle
77.
equal
circle.
A,
to describe six circles
to it,
touching
each other as well as the given
Find centre
33).
of
circle
(Prob.
With
A as centre, and a radius

circle
equal to the diameter of the given

circle,
draw the
BCDEFG.
Take the
Draw
off
the diameter BE.
diameter of the given circle and mark
from
E the points D, C, B, G, and F.

of these points as a centre,
to that of the given
With each
132.
and a radius equal

circle,
draw the
six circles required.
CHAPTER V
FOILED FIGURES
Foiled figures are constructed on the regular polygons, and

are of
two kinds
viz.
those having tangential arcs, and those
having adjacent diameters.
Problem 78
is
an
if
illustration of the former kind.
The
arcs
simply touch, and
produced would not intersect each other.

circles con-
The angles
of the
polygon are the centres of the
tainiug the arcs.
Problem 79
of the polygon
is
an
illustration of the latter kind.
The
sides
form the diameters of the semicircles, the centre
of each side being the centre of the circle containing the arc. If these arcs
were produced, they would intersect each
other.
Problem 78.
To
construct a foiled figure about
any
regidar polygon, having tangential

arcs.
For example, a hexagon.
THE HEXAFOIL.
Bisect one side
1).
AB
as
in
(Prob.
With each
and
of the angular points
as centres,
Fiff.
AC
radius,
draw
133.
the six arcs, as required.
FOILED FIGURES
57
Problem
79.
oêgular
To construct a foiled figure ahout any

adjacent diameters.
polygon having
For example, a pentagon.
THE CINQUEFOIL.
Bisect each side of the pen-
tagon (Prob.
1)
in
the
points
of
O, D, E, F, and G.
With each
these points as centres, and with
a radius equal to CA, draw the

five arcs required.
Note.
If these arcs
are to
have a stated radius, the length of

the line
AB, in each instance,
will
Fig. 134.
he twice the required radius.
Peoblem
80.
THE TREFOIL.
In a given
ABC,
to inscribe
trefoil.
Bisect the angles
CAB
and
ABC
by
lines
produced
sides
till
they
meet
the
of
the
triangle in
and
(Prob. 13).
From
FD.
C,
through centre L, draw

Join
the line CF.
From
dicular to
G AC
DE, EF, and draw GI perpen(Prob. 4). With

centres,
G, H, and
radius
three
other,
foil
K
till
as to
and a
equal
arcs
GI,
draw the
they meet each

tre-
which will form the
required.
58
chap.
Problem
Within a given
81.
circle to inscribe three
equal semicircles
Find
centre of circle
(Prob. 33).
Draw
radius
(Prob.
the diameter
BC, and
dicular to
tlie
it
AD
perpen-
5).
Trisect the
angle
BAD in E and F (Prob. 14). Set off DG equal to DF. Join FA and GA by lines produced to L and H. Join EG by a line
cutting
centre,
FL
and
in
M.
With
Join
as
AM
the
as radius, set off
the points N. and 0.
MN,
semi-
NO, and OM, which

meters
circles.
are the dia-
of
required
With
E, P, and S as centres, and a radius equal to
EM, draw
the three semicircles required.
Peoblem
82.
the quatrefoil.
In a given square
ABCD,
to inscribe
four
semicircles
Draw
GH.
in
the diagonals
AD
and
and CB.
Bisect each side of
the square in the points E, F, G, and H, and join

Bisect
(Prob.
EF
and
HD
1),
in
FB
and join KL,
cutting
centre,
off
GH
and
in N.
PIST as radius,
With P as mark
and EN,
the points
M,
0, and E, and
join
NM, MO, OE,

will
which
form the diameters
of the required semicircles.

S,
With
and
T,
U, and
as
centres,
with a radius equal to SN,
draw
the four semicircles required.
FOILED FIGURES
Pkoblem
Within a given
circles
circle to inscribe
59
83.
any number of eqitcd semiFor exainple,.wSeye%.
THE HEPTAFOIL. Find centre C (Prob. 33).

equal
parts
as
Divide the
circle into as
many
the
number
of semicircles required (in this
case seven), and from each of
these points, A, B, D, E, F,
GJ-,
and H, draw diameters.

the point
From
bisect
^j|
draw the tangent

84),
AM
ting
(Prob.
and
the angle
CK
CAM by a line in N (Prob.
cut13).
With C as centre, and CN" radius, mark off the points

P, E, S, T, and U.
as
0,
Join each
of these points to form the polygon.

side of the polygon,
sides,
From
the centre of each

its
with a radius equal to half of one of

semicircles required.
draw the seven
GOTHIC TRACERY.
These
examples
of
Gothic
tracery should
be carefully
:
copied to an enlarged scale.
The
a
scale should be varied
for
instance, a simple figure like Fig.
141 should be enlarged

more complicated
in the
proportion of say
Fig.
5:4; while
figure, as
147, should be drawn

Fig.
trwice the size of the
design shown.
139 shows the preliminary work necessary for drawing

and
Fig.
Fig. 140,
145 the
construction for Fig. 146.
After copying these examples, the student should take
some of the preceding problems of foiled figures, and build up

tracery
upon them.
Gothic tracery forms an excellent example of the applica-
6o

of design
;
tion of geometrical j)i'oblems to the principles

also forms
it
the best practice possible for the use of drawing
instruments.
A-.
^.
>
Fiff.
139.
Fig. 140.
Fig. 141.
Fig. 142.
Fig. 143.
Fig.
144.
FOILED FIGURES
6i
Fig. 145.
Fig. 146,
Fig. 147.
CHAPTEE
VI
TANGENTS AND TANGENTIAL AECS
Pkoblem 84
To draw a tangent
circle at
to
a given
a given jjoint A.
circle
Find the centre of the
(Prob. 33).
Join AC.
line
From
perpenit.
draw the
AB
dicular to
AC, and produce

is
Then
Fiff.
AB
the
tangent re-
148.
quired.
Problem
To draw a tangent
to
85.
a given
circle
it.
from a
given 2ôint
A
it
outside
Find the centre C (Prob.

Join AC, and bisect
in B.
33).
From
,
as centre,
and with
semicircle
BA
Join
as radius,
describe
cutting
the
',
circumference in D.
AD, and
produce
it.
Then the
line
AD
is
Fis. 149.
the tangent required.
.p.
vi
tangents and tangential arcs

Peoblem
86.
63
To draio a tangent
to the
arc of a circle at a given 'point
A
At C
witliout using the centre.
Draw
the chord
AB
and bisect
it
in
(Prob.
1).
erect perpendicular to
AB
cutting the
arc in D.
Join
AD.
is
Make
the angle
DAE
equal to
DAC.
Then
EA
produced
the tangent required.
Problem
To
clravj
87.
egiial to line 1) to touch tico
a given
circle ivith
radius
straight lines forming
a given angle ABC.
D
Fig. 151.
Bisect the angle
ABC
by the
line
BE.
Draw
the line
FH
64
parallel to
BA
(Prob. 4),
and
at a distance equal to given line
from
circle.
it.
Where FH From E draw

and
intersects
BE
will be the centre of the
the line
EK
perpendicular to BA.
circle required.
With
as centre,
EK
as radius,
draw the
Problem
88.
to
To draio tangents
circle
from
a,
given jjoint A, the centre of

circle
tlie
not lacing Jcnoum.
Erom
secants
point the
draw any three

as
to
circle,
CB, DE,
and GF.
Join
BE
and DC, DG-
and FE, by
points
lines intersecting in the
H and Iv. through H and K

circumference in
Draw
till
line
it
meets the
'^
Fig. 152.
AL
and
L and M. Join AM, which will be the tan-
gents required.
Problem
In a given angle CAB,
89.
to inscribe
circle ivhich shall 'pass
through a given point D.

Bisect the angle
CAB
F
in
by
the line
AE
(Prob. 13).
Take
any convenient point
AE,
and from
F draw
the line
(Prob.
FG
5).
perpendicular to
AC
With F
radius,
as centre,
and
FG
as
draw a
circle.
Join
DA, cutting the circle in H. From the given point D draw DK parallel to HF. With
Fig. 153.
as centre,
and
KD
as radius,
draw the required
circle.
TANGENTS AND TANGENTIAL ARCS

Problem
To draw a
circle
65
90.
the given poi7it
which shall pass through

line
and touch a given
BC
in D.
At
the given point
erect the line
DE
perpendicular to
BC
E.
(Prob, 5),
and join AD.
At
point
construct an angle
DAE
equal to the angle

as centre,
ADE
(Prob. 12).
AE
intersects
DE
in
With E
and
ED as radius, draw the

Peoblem
91.
required circle.
To draw a
circle
which shall
joass
through the two given
points
A and B
and
touch the given line
CD.
Join the two given points
AB, and produce the

it
line till
meets the given line
CD
de;
produced in E.
On AE
/
C^-z-
scribe the semicircle
EEA
at
draw
BF
perpendicular to E "-^^
AE. ED,
Eroni E, along the line

set off
EG
equal to EF.
Then G,
B,
A are three points in

circle,
the required
which can
Fi^. 155.
be drawn as required (Prob. 34).
66
Peoblem
To draw four equal
touch
tivo
circles, %uith
92.
to
radius equal
given line E, to
given lines
'^
AB
'
and CD, which are not 'parallel.

Bisect
any
two
lines
adjacent
angles
by the
FG- and
HK.
Draw
the lines
LM
it
and
NO
CD,
parallel to
the given line
at a distance
from
equal
to the given radius
(Prob. 4).
Where
these lines intersect the
bisectors,
we
get the points S,
E, T, and P.
With
the points
R,
S, T,
and P
as centres,
and
with a radius equal to E, draw

the four circles required.
T\%. 156.
Peoblem
To draw an inscribed and an
three given straight lines,
93.
escribed circle, tangential to
forming a
triangle
ABC.
Note.
An
escribed circle is also
called
an
excircle.
Bisect
the
lines
angles
BAC
and
in E.
ACB
by
intersecting
Erom E draw the line EH perpenWith E as centre, dicular to AD.

and
EH
as
radius,
draw the
in-
scribed
circle
required.
Bisect
the angle
BCD
by a
E.
line cutting
the line
AG in
and
Draw
the line
EK
perpendicular to AL.
With E
draw
Fig. 157.
as centre,
EK
as radius,
the escribed circle required.

Problem
94.
67
If a
A pri7ici2jle of inscribed triangle ABC be taken,
and
cscriled circles.
and AF, BD, and CE,
lines
drawn from the three angles

perpendicular to the opposite
sides,
they will
all intersect
at
the point H.
Join the
points D, E, E.
This will form
a triangle
of
which
being
is
the
" in centre,"
the
centre of the inscribed circle.
The
and
cles
centres of the escribed
circles will
be the points A, B,
radii of the cir-
C.
The
are
found by drawing
^^8- 158.
lines
from the centres per-
pendicular to the sides of the

triangle produced (Prob. 6), as the line
BK.
Problem
To dravj two
95.
circles tangential to three

tivo
given straight
lines,
of ivhich are iârallel.
Let
AB
and
CD
be the
two given
let
parallel lines,
line
F.
and
the
in
third
intersect
them
CEE,
and
Bisect
the four angles
AEF, BEE,
by
lines
and
at
DEE
meeting
and L.
line
Erom
per6).
H
159.
draw the
HM
(Prob.
as
pendicular to
CD
L
With
and a radius equal
to
and
centres,
HM,
draw the two required
circles.
68

;i{otc.
line joining
H and
will be parallel to tlie
two
civeu lines
AB
and CD.
Pkoblem
To draiu two
circles
96.
tangential
;
to
three given
straight
lines,
none of which are ixtrallel

cut the other two.
the third line to he draivn to
Let AB, CD, and

three given lines.
EF be
the
Bisect the
four angles
AFE, BFE, CEF,

by
lines
and
at
DEF
and
meeting
L.
From
and
L
6).
draw the
lines
HM
CD
;
and
(Prob.
LIST
perpendicular to
With
as centre,
circle
and radius
with
HM,
draw a
and
as
centre,
LIST as radius,
draw
the other circle required.

Note.
line
produced through the points
H and L would
AB
be the bisector of the angle formed by producing the lines
and CD.
Pkoblem
97.
To draiu dieect common tangents

circles
to txoo
given
of iinequal radii.
Let
AC be the radius of one circle, and BD of the other.
Join
the centres
radius
and B.
From
the centre
A
at
draw a
circle
1).
with a
= AC BD.
Bisect the line
AB
(Prob.
From
in the
E, with radius
EA, draw a
circle cutting
the circle
FKG
F and G. Join FB and GB. From F and B draw the lines FO and BE perpendicular to FB (Prob. 6) and from the points G and B draw the lines GP and BS perpendicular to GB
points
;
69
Draw
tlie line
HL througli
P and
S
the points
;
and R, and the
line
MN
through the points
these will be the tangents required.
Fig. 161.
Peoblem
98,
to tioo
To draio tkansveese common tangents

circles
given
of unequal radii.
circles,
Let
and
be the centres of the given
and
AC
and
BD their radii.
Join AB.
With
A as centre, and
a radius
= AC
70

circle.
+ BD, draw a
E
as centre,
circle
Bisect the line

to
AB
Join
in
E (Prob.
1).
With
and a radius equal

the points
EA, draw a
circle cutting the
FKG in
line
F and
and
G.
AF
and AG, cutting
the given circle
PCO
in
P.
Join
FB
and GB.
6), also
From B
the line
draw the
BS
perpendicular to
FB
(Prob.
BE
perpendicular to GB.
S,
Draw
the line
HL through the points

P and E
;
and
and the
line
MN" through
the points
these
will be the tangents required.
TANGENTIAL CIECLES AND ARCS.

Problem
Showing
99.
the principle of tangential circles.
One
nally,
line, as
circle
can touch another circle either internally or extercircles
and any number of
can be drawn to touch a given
well as each other, in the same point.
For instance take
the point
line in the
on the given line AB.
All circles that touch a given

at that point
;
same point touch each other

on a
and
all
their centres will be If they are
line perpendicular to the given line.

line,
on the opposite sides of the given

touch externally
;
they will
and
if
on the
same
side, will
touch internally.
If they are on the
same
side
of
the line, one circle will be entirely
within the other.

If their centres
F and E
is
are on
the same side of the given line the distance betMêen them
AB,
but
equal
;
to the difference of the radii

if their
centres
and
are
on
opposite sides of the given

the distance between
Fiff.
line,
them
is
equal
163.
to the
sum
of their radii.
their
The point of contact can always be found by joining

centres.
71
Peoblem
To draw four equal
D,
nally
circles
100.
to
with radius equal
given
line
loith their centres
on a given line
AB
two
to tottch exteris
and two
CG.
internally a given
circle,
whose centre
aoid radius
"With, centre C,
and radius equal
to the
sum
of the r adii,
i.e.
CG + D,
draw a
circle cut-
ting the given line
AB
to
in
and
With
the
centre C,
and
radius
equal
the
i.e.
difference of
radii,
CG D,
tino-
draw a
circle cut-
the given line
AB
in
L and M.
and
AVith H, L,
M,
N as
centres,
and radius
equal to D, draw the four

circles required.
-D
Fig. 164.
Problem
101.
To draivfour equal
radius equal
to
circles,
with
given line
D, with their
given arc
externally
centres
on a
touch
inter-
AB
two
to
and two
circle,
nally a given
centre is
whose
C and
radius CG.
of
for
this
The construction
problem answers word
the same as the
difference
Fig. 165.
word
last,
the only
being
the
words
line.
given arc instead of given
72
Problem
To
describe
102.
circle
tangential
to
and
including two
given
eqncd circles
2Joint
and
B,
and
toiicliing
one of them in a given
C
Find
tlie
centres of the
two
given circles
and E, and join

Join CD.
them
(Prob. 33).
Prom
C draw
in
it
the line
CK
parallel to
circle
DE, meeting the given

K.
till it
Join KE, and produce
meets
CD
produced iu
P.
With P
as centre,
and radius
circle.
PC, draw the required

Fifr.
166.
Problem
To
describe
103.
circle
tangenticd
to
and including two unegual
given
circles
and
B,
and touching one of them in a given
'point C.
Pind the centres

Join CE.
and E.
Cut
off
from CE,
CH
DH.
equal in length to the radius of

the
smaller
circle.
Join
Produce
the
angle
CE.
At
construct
angle
HDP equal to the DHP (Prob. 12). DP

CE
produced in
as
centre,
meets the line

P. as
With P
radius,
and
PC
reFig
]
draw the
circle
quired.
67.

Problem
To draw
the arc of
73
104.
inches,
circle
having a radius of 1\
which
shall he tangential to tivo given unequal circles
A and B and
circles
include them
Note.
The diameters and distance between the

2-0-
must
not be greater than
inches.
rind the centres

33),
D and E (Prob.
line
and jDroduce a
through
^p
them
in
indefinitely cutting the circles
K and L in both directions.

L
on this
Prom
the points Iv and

off
line, set
KF
and
LH
equal to the radius /^
of tbe required arc, viz. 1\ inches.
Witb D
to
as centre,
and a radius equal
DP, draw an
arc at
and with
E as centre, and EH as
M.
radius,
draw
at
an arc intersecting the other arc
Prom
draw the
line
MD,
cir-
and produce
it till it
meets the
cumference of the larger

C.
circle in
With
M as
centre,
and
MC
as
Fig. les.
radius,
draw the required
arc.
Problem
To
inscribe in
circle,,
105.
a segment of a
lohose centre is E, tivo
given equcd circles with a
radius equal
to line
D.
cut
Prom any
off
radius
EP
PL = D,
and describe a
circle
with radius EL.
Draw
the line
KL
parallel to the
D
Fig. 169.
base of the segment, and at a

distance equal to given radius
74

from
it
(Prob.
4).
Join
EL
and produce
Iv
it
till
it
meets the
circumference in F.
radius,
With L and
circles.
as centres,
and
LF
as
draw the two required
Problem
In
the
106.
of a
circle
circle
given
to
sector
ABC,
inscribe
it.
tangential to
Bisect the angle

line I) (Prob. 13).
ACB
At
by the draw
meet
a tangent
HL
(Prob. 84) to
the sides of the sector produced.

Bisect the angle
cutting
centre,
CLH
by a
line
CD
and
in E.
ED
as radius,
With E as draw
the circle required.
Problem
107.
to
Draw a
circle
having a radius of f of an inch tangential and B externally. given unequal circles
two
Note.
The
circles
must not be
more than f inches
apart.
Find the centres
and
of the
given circles (Prob. 33).
From
centre
i.e.
D, with the
sum
of the radii,
DK + f of an inch, draw an arc at H and from centre E, with the sum

;
of the other radii,

inch,
i.e.
EL + f
at
of
an
draw another arc
H.
With
as centre,
and radius
HK, draw
Fig. 171.
the circle required.

Peoblem
To draw
the,
75
108.
to tivo
arc of a circle tangential

externally,
given unequal
circles
and B
and touching one of them in a given
point C.
Find the centres

the
and
of
given
circles
(Prob.
it
33).
Join
CE, and produce
inde-
finitely.
Set off from C, on
CE
Join
produced,
CH
equal to the radius
of the larger given circle.
DH.
At
construct
an angle
HDF
to
equal to the angle
EHD,
With
meet
EC
produced in F.
as centre,
and radius EC, draw
the arc required.
Peoblem
To draio a
circle, ivith
109.
to
a radius equal
circles
given line C, tangential

B, to touch
to tivo
given unequcd
internally.
and
A externally
and
Note.
The
given radius must be greater than half the diacircle
meter of the enclosed
and the distance between the

Eind the centres
of the
33).
circles.
and
two given
circles (Prob.
J),
Erom
centre
i.e.
with the
-}-
sum-radius,
scribe
as
DH
;
C,
de-
an arc at
E and
with
centre,
i.e.
and the
difference-
radius,
C EK, draw
another
point
arc cutting the other

E.
at
Join
ED
and EE.
With E
radius,
as
centre,
and
EH
as
draw the
Fig. 173.
circle required.
-jd

Peoblem
To draxo a
circle
chap.
110.
o^cidius
of f of
an inch
tangential to the
given line
Note.
AB
and
the given circle
CDE.
line.
The
circle
must be
less
than | inches from the
Draw
to
the line
KL
parallel
it.
AB, and f of an inch from
Find the centre
of the given
circle (Prob. 33),
and with the

circles
sum-radius of the two
draw the
in
arc
HM
FM.
cutting
KL
M.
Join
With
radius,
M as
draw
centre,
Fig. 174.
and MIST as
circle.
the required
Peoblem
To
d.raiv
111.
series of circles tangential to each other,
and
to
tivo lines
converging toivards
an
inaccessible point.
lines.
Let
AB
and
CD
be the two converffiug
To draw the
bisector
MN,
first
draw any
line
EF, and at
;
construct the
angle
AEH
equal to the angle
CFE
then bisect the angle
HEF
by the line
perpendicular to
EK, and bisect EK in L. Draw a line through L EK, which will be the bisector. The bisector
VI
77
could also be drawn by finding a point
midway between the

Take
converging lines at each end, in the following manner.
any radius smaller than one-half the distance between the two
lines,
and with
it
draw four
arcs
from any points 0, P, Q, and

to these arcs
till
E, two on each
line.
Draw tangents
they meet
each other in M, which will be a point midway between the

converging
join them,
lines.
Find a similar point

will give the bisector.
at the other end,
and
which
From any point S draw the line ST perpendicular to AB. With S as centre, and ST as radius, draw a circle. From the point V draw the line YW perpendicular to MIST. With as From Y draw the centre, and radius WV, draw the arc YY. With X as centre, and radius line YX perpendicular to CD. XY, draw another circle. Eepeat the same construction as many times as required.
APPLICATION OF TANGENTIAL AECS TO DESIGN.

Jf two
circles,
or their arcs, meet each other on a line joining
their centres, they
must
he tangential to each other.
Fig.
circles
176
are
is
an illustration of this
rule.
The centres
of several
to
their respective arcs

Figs. 177, l78,
shown by the small circles, and are connected by dotted lines and arrow-heads.
and 182 are applications of
this principle
to design.
These designs should be copied to a larger
scale, after which.
the student should attempt to design other simple forms on the
same
principle.
This will not only tend to develop the inven-
tive faculty,
Fig.
but will impress the principle on the mind.

is
179
an example of a Trochilus or Scotia
it
usually
it
forms part of the base of a column.

is
When
it is
of small size,
generally
drawn by tangential
h (Fig.
arcs touching internally, as the
arc from
a to
176)
but when the curve forms part of

it
a large object, the pedestal of a statue for instance,
has a better
appearance
Figs.
if
constructed as shown.
180 and 181 are examples of continuous ornament.
JZ
Fix. 17G.
Fis. 177.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 179.
79
Fiff.
ISO.
Fm.
181.
Fis. 182.
8o
Fitr.
183.
ilg.
180
is called
a Guilloche:
it
would
afford
good practice to
the student to draw this between two concentric arcs instead of

parallel lines. rig. 183
shows how
different geometrical figures
maj
be
combined
to
form geometrical patterns.
CHAPTEE
VII
PEOPOETIONAL LINES
Proportional lines
may
be illustrated by the example of
sim2yle
e.g.
proportion in arithmetic, in which 2

:
we have
four terms,
10.
The
relationship or ratio
is
between the
first
two terms with
regard to magnitude
e.g.
the same as that between the second two,

;
as 2 is to 4, so is 5 to 10
therefore these four
numbers are
and the
said to be in proportion.
The
first
and fourth terms are called the

of the extremes equals the
ext7êmes,
second and third the means.
The product
means,
e.^.
product of the
x 10
=4x
5.
So, the first three
terms being given,
we can
the
find the fourth.
If
we divide
the product of the

e.g.
means by
first
extreme we get
all
the,
fourth proportional,
questions
-^
10.
Almost
proportion
geometrical
on
are
based
on
the
following
theorems
Take any
line
triangle
ABC, and draw any
DE
parallel to one side, then
CD:
:
DA CE EB
CD CE
CA CB CE :ED CB:BA CD;DE: CA AB.

:
Fiff.
184,
There are
five varieties of proportional lines, viz.
Greater fourth proportional.

82

Less fourth iJToportional.
chap.
Greater third 23roportional.

Less third prajMrtiooial.
Mean 23Toportional.
If the quantities be so arranged that
the second term

last
is
greater than the
first,
as 4
:
x,
the
term
is
called
the greater fourth proportional.

If the terms are arranged so that the second term
is less
than
the one preceding,

is
as 8
a',
x,
the
x
is
last or
unknown term
called tlie
less
fourth
p)rop)ortioncd.
When
the two means are represented by the same number,

:
thus
The
the answer or
is
called the third pro-
'portional.
third proportional
the second
by the
first, e.g.
found by dividing the square of
<o"
-r or
4
6x6 9. =n
4
If the terms are placed so that the larger
number
is re-
peated,
thus
x,
the
as 6
last
term
is
called the greater
third proportioned; but if the terms are arranged so that the
smaller number
the
less
is
repeated,
x,
the
result is called
thir el proportioned.
is
The mean proportional between any two numbers by extracting the square
the square root of 36
root of their product,
e.g.
found
4 X
36;
6,
which
is
the
mean
proportioned.
Problem
To find
to
et
112.
fourth proportioned
three given lines
A, B,
and
C.
THE
GREATER
FOURTH PROPORTIONAL.
Draw
line C,
EH
equal to given
at
and EF,
any angle
with
Fjo-.
it,
185.
Join EH, and produce
EH
to
PROPORTIONAL LINES
D, making
83
ED
Draw
4).
DK
parallel to
TH
:
till it
meets
EF
if
produced in
K (Prob.
8 feet,
Then
KE
feet,
will
i.e.
be the greater fourth frojiortionol to the lines A, B, and C,
C B A KE, KE = 16feet.
:
:
:
e.g.
=6
feet,
B=
A = 12
then
Problem
To find a fourth proportional
to
113.
three given lines A, B,
and
C.
THE LESS FOURTH PROPORTIONAL.
Draw
the line
DE
equal
to given line A, and
EF, at any
angle with
line B.
it,
equal to given
Join FD.
set off
From From
to
is
E,
along ED,
to
EG- equal
given line
C.
draw
(Prob.
less
GH
4).
parallel
G FD
the
to
Then
HE
A-
fourth proportional
the given lines A, B, and C,

i.e.
A B
:
C HE.
:
Fiff.
186.
Problem
114.
To find a third proportional

hetiveen
two given lines
and
B.
the
greater
D
'
THIRD PROPORTIONAL.
Draw CD
\
equal to given
at
line A,
and CE,
any angle
with
it,
Join DE.
With C
as radius,
as centre,
and
arc
Fig. 187.
CD
draw the
line
DG to meet CE produced
From
in G.
G draw the
84

parallel to
is
GF
DE
: :
till
it
meets
CD
produced in
(Prob. 4).
Then GF
and B,
the greater third ^proportional to the given lines

:
i.e.
B A
CF.
Problem
To find a
115.
tJiird jjroportioncd hettveen
two given lines
and
B.
THE LESS THIRD PROPORTIONAL.
Draw CD
angle with
it,
equal
to
the
given line A, and CE, at any
equal to given line
B. Join DE.
From C as centre,
and with radius CE, draw the
arc
EF
cutting
CD in F. Draw
FG
B^
Fig. 188.
parallel to
DE
the
(Prob.
less
4).
Then
CG
is
third
proportional to the given lines
A and B,
Problem
To find
the
i.e.
A B
:
B CG.
:
116.
MEAN proportional
CD.
letween
tivo
given lines
AB
a7id
See also the description to Fig. 222.
Produce the given line

to E,
AB
/
/
I
making
AE
equal to the
given line CD.
Bisect the line

1).
From H as centre, and with radius HB, draw the semicircle EKB. At
EB
in
(Prob.
E.
,
draw the
line
AK
5).
perpen-
dicular to EB, cutting the semicircle
D
Fig
189.
in
(Prob.
Then
AK
e.g.
is
the onean proportional to the given lines
AB
and CD,
if
AB = 9
feet
and
CD = 4
feet,
then
AK = 6
feet.
PROPORTIONAL LINES
Peoblem
To divide a
line in
85
117.
i.e.
medial section,
into
extreme
and mean proportion.

Let
AB
be the straight
line.
At
to
5).
draw
AC
perpendicular
to it (Prob.
AB, and equal

Bisect
AC
in
(Prob. 1).
With
as centre,
and
DB
as
radius,
draw the
and
arc cutting
CA
as
produced in E.
centre,
With
as radius,
the arc cutting
AB AF
:
AE AB in AF BF.
:
draw
Fio-.
F.
Then
190.
Problem
To divide any straight
line
118.
the point C, so that
AB in
At
AC:CB::3
:4.
draw the
length,
line
AD
at
of
indefinite
and
any
angle to
AB.
From
A, along
AD,
Join
mark
of
off
seven equal
distances
any convenient
length.
line
7B.
At
draw the
3
parallel to
7B
:
(Prob. 4).
:
3C Then
AC AC
Problem
To
construct
CB
:
4,
or,
AB
3.
119.
line
a triangle on a given
AB,
o/"
so that the three
angles
may
any
he
in the proportion
4.
From
B, with
radius, describe a semicircle
and divide
it
into nine equal parts (Prob. 15).
Draw
the lines
B4 and
B7.
86

three angles 7BC, 4B7, and
of
Then the
4BA
are in the proportion
2:3:4.
The sum
of
the
three angles are also equal to
two
right angles, because a semi-
circle contains 180.
They must
also
be the three angles of a

because the three angles
triangle
are
triangle,
of
Fis. 192.
any
together
equal to two right angles.
A
in
draw the
line
AD
parallel to
B7
till it
meets
From B4 produced
(Prob. 4).
Then
ABD
is
Problem
TJiis iirohlem ilhistrates
120.
an important principle in proportion.

sides of
Take a triangle ABC, the
which
shall bear a certain
Fig. 193.
ratio.
For exam-pie,
the angles
let
bisect
ABC
H K as centre,
duced in
and E.
AB BC as 2 1. Produce AB to D, and and DBC by lines meeting AC proWith Bisect the line HE in K (Prob. 1).
:
and
KE
as radius,
draw the
circle
EBH.
Now,
if
we
take any point
in this circle,
and join
MA and MC,
we
PROPORTIONAL LINES
sliall
87
find that they bear the
same
:
ratio as the lines
AB
and
BC.
In the example given
MA MC
as 2
1.
The same
result
would be obtained from any point
in the circle.
Peoblem
121.
To divide a rigid angle into five equal ârts.

Let
ABC
BC
and
be the right
:
angle.
:
Divide
in D, so that
BC BD
With C
BD:DC
centre,
(Prob. 116).
as
CB
;
as radius, describe F
the arc
BE
and with
radius,
as centre,
and
BD
as
describe
the
E.
quadrant DF, cutting
BE
on
in
FE
is one-fifth
of the quadrant
off
FD.
will
Fig. 194.
Arcs equal to
divide
it
it set
FD
into five equal parts.
Peoblem
To find
122.
the Arithmetic, the Geometric,

hetiveen tioo given lines
and
the
Harmonic
means
Bisect
AB
and BC.
AC
in
(Prob. 1).
draw the
semicircle
AEC.
> -V
y^^
/
/
----^.E
f/
'
/
1 1
'
/ \
/ /
/
*^N
With D as centre, and radius DA, At B draw BE perpendicular to AC Join DE. From B (Prob. 5). draw BF perpendicular to DE,
\ \
\
\
\
\
1
AD
is
the Arithmetic,
the
the
Geometric,
and
BE EF
beas
P)
Q_
Harmonic mean tween the two lines

required.
Fig. 195.
Pkoblem
Taking
the
123.
the given line
AB,
one inch long, as

is/
unit; find lines oêpresenting
and
V3
perpendicular to AB, and
7).
Draw AC
of the
same length (Prob.
Join CB.
CB = s/
Draw CD
If
perpendicular to CB, and
one inch in length. Join DB.
DB =
DB
^y/S.
s/^-
AB
is
the edge of a cube,

of
its
CB =
the
the
diagonal
face,
and
diagonal of the cube, which are therefore to one another as 1

:
v^2
CHAPTEE
YIII
EQUIVALENT AEEAS
It
the
is
advisable
that
the
student should thoroughly master

explanations on the relation
following illustrations and
between the various kinds of
triangles
and
quaclrilatercds
and
all
their several equivalent areas, as they
form the basis of

figures.
problems on equivalent areas in rectilinear

Triangles with equal hases
and equal
altitudes are also equal
in area.
Triangles standing
on the same hase and d^xtivn hetween

e.g.
parallel lines arc equal in area,
The
triangle
is
equal to the triangle
(Fig. 197).
A is an
Fig. 197.
Fig. 198.
isosceles triano-le,
and can be converted into the scalene triangle
or B could be converted into the isosceles triangle A. An equilateral triangle ABC (Fig. 198) could be converted into
the scalene triangle
ABD,
or either could be transformed into
the right-angled triangle
ABE.
e.g.
Precisely the same principle applies to parallelograms,

Parallelograms vjith equal hascs and equal altihidcs are also
equal in area.
The rectangle
The square
A is equal in area to the rhomboid B (Fig. 199). ABDC (Fig. 200) can be converted into the
Fig. 199.
Fig. 200.
rhomboid ABFE, or the rhomboid can be converted into an

equivalent square.
If triangles and parallelograms stand upon the same or equal bases, and hettveen the same parallels, the triangle is half the area
of the parallelogram,
e.g.
rhomboid ABFE,
The
triangle
ABF
(Fig. 200) is half of the
as well as half of the square
ABDC.
A triangle
and the same
standing on double the base of the parallelogram,

altitude, is
equal in area to the parallelogram..
EQUIVALENT AREAS
The
triangle
91
EBD
(Fig.
201)
is
equivalent to the
rhomboid
ABCD.
A triangle
parallelogram.
standing on the same, or equal base as the paralis
lelogram, and double its vertical height,
equal in area to the
The
triangle
ABF
(Fig. 201) is equivalent to
the rhomboid
ABCD,
as well as to the triangle
EBD
so each
of these figures can be converted into the other two.
Problem 124
On a
given line
AB
ABC.
to
construct
an
to
isosceles triangle
egual in area
given triangle
Bisect the base
the line
1).
AB in ED perpendicular
point
E,
to
and erect
AB (Prob.
CD
the the
Fi?. 202.
From
to
C draw
the line
parallel
lines
AB
(Prob. 4).
Draw
DA
and DB.
Then
ABD
is
triangle required.
Peoblem
125.
To construct a rhoniboid equcd in

area
V^
to
a given triangle
one
ABC,
angles
and having
equcd
to
of
its
given angle D.
Bisect the line

1).
AB AB
in
(Prob.
From
point
to
C draw
the line
4).
CK
parallel
(Prob.
At E
12).
construct the
angle
BEH
(Prob.
equal to the given angle

Tm. 203.
From
set
off
HK
BK.
equal
in length to
EB.
Join
Then
EBKH
is
the rhomboid required.
92
Problem
126.
To divide a given triangle

into
ABC
equal
any
numhcr
example
of
'parts, for
five.
tri-
Divide any side of the
angle into five equal parts (Prob.

10),
and
draw
angle.
lines
to
the
opposite
We
as
have now
they have
five triangles,
and
equal bases and equal altitudes,
they must
Fig. 204.
all
be equal in area to
each other.
Problem
127.
To transform a given trapezium
ABDC
into
an
equivalent triangle.
Join BC.
From
draw the
line
DE
parallel to
CB
till
it
meets
4).
AB
produced in
(Prob.
will
Join
CE.
Then
simply
ACE
be the triangle required.
We
have
converted
the triangle
one-half of the trapezium

into the triangle
BCD, which forms BCDE,
BCE
and as the
two
triangles have the
same
base,
Fig. 205.
and are drawn between parallel

lines,
they must be equal to each other.
Problem
To
convert
to
128.
a given regular pentagon
ABEDC
into
a trapezium, or
to that
construct
an
isosceles triangle
of an area equal
of
a given pentagon.
Join
and
to
D.
From
point
E draw
the line
EH
EQUIVALENT AREAS
parallel to
93
DB
till
it
meets
AB
Join
produced in
(Prob. 4).
DH.
Then
ACDH
AB
is
the required trapezium.
From
pro-
C draw
to
the line
till
CF
parallel
DA
it
meets
F.
is
duced
in
Join
DF.
Then
FDH
the isosceles
Fig. 206.
triangle required.
Problem
To
clrcao
129.
a triangle equivalent
to
any
rectilinear figure, for
example
Join
an irregular
hexagon
ACDEFB.
DA.
From C draw
(Prob. 4).
CH
parallel to
DA to
meet
AB
ir-
produced in
Join
DH.
We
now have an
to
regular pentagon
HDEFB
given
equivalent
the
hexagon.
Join EB.
From F draw
EB,
to
FK AB
EK.
parallel to
meet
Join
produced in K.
We now
zium
Fig. 207.
have a trapeequal in area
HDEK
to the fjjiven hexajron.
Join
it
DK.
From E draw
the line
EL
parallel to
DK
till
meets
AB
produced in L.
Join DL.
We
now have
the required triangle
HDL
equivalent to the
given hexagon.
Peoblem
To
construct
cc
130.
triangle equal in area to a given irregular polygon

the
ACDEFGB,
polygon having a re-entering angle
BGF.
it till it
Join CE, and at
draw the
line
DH
parallel to
94

Join
AC produced (Prob. 4). triangle CHE is equal to the

meets
EH.
It is clear that the
triangle
CDE, because they

lines.
have the same base, and are
between parallel
Join
EA.
From
draw
HK
to as
parallel to
EA.
The
triangle
AKE
AHE,
just
must now be equal

for the
stated.
same reason
Join
FB,
and
draw the
it.
line
GL
parallel to
Join
EL.
The
triangle
GLF
will then be equal to the
triangle
GLB.
We
have con-
verted the polygon so far into

the trapezium KEEL. Join EL, E draw EM parallel to EL till it meets AB produced in Join EM. Then the triangle ELM is equal to the triangle
and from
M.
ELF.
EKM is the required triangle.
Problem
To divide a given
triangle
131.
ABC
into two equal parts hy
line
draivn from a given point
D in one
Bisect
of
its sides.
the
side
AC
in
(Prob.
triangle
1), is
and join EB.
The
into
now
line
divided
two equal parts. JoinDB. From
draw the
EH
Join
parallel to
DB
(Prob. 4).
DH.
The
triangle
DBH
DBE,
is
equal to the
triangle
so the line
DH
must
Fig. 209.
bisect the given triangle
ABC.
EQUIVALENT AREAS
Peoblem
To
trisect
95
132.
a given
trianrjlc
ABC
ly
lijies
drawn from a
given 'point
Trisect the side
in one of
its sides.
AC
in the points
and
to
(Prob. 10),
Join Join
From E draw the line EH parallel DH. Draw the line FL parallel Then the to EH, and join DL.
DB.
lines
DB (Prob. 4).
DH
and
DL
trisect the
given
triangle
ABC.
be noticed that the conis
It will
struction of this problem
on the
same
principle as the last, only the
line joining
EB
it
is
omitted in this B^
instance, as
was only necessary
to elucidate the construction.
A
same
triangle can be divided into

Fig. 210.
any number of equal parts on the

principle.
Problem
To
trisect
133.
giveii triangle
ABC from
it.
a given point
Trisect
inside
the
line
AC
in
and
(Prob. 10).
Join
BH
DH.
join
parallel to
DE and DE (Prob.
parallel
DF.
4),
Draw
and join
Draw BL
DL.
Join BD.
to DF, and Then the lines
211.
BD, DH, and triangle ABC.

Peoblem
134.
DL
will trisect the given
To
bisect
a pjcirallelogram
'point
ABCD
and
hy a line
drawn from a
given
in one of
its sides.
Draw
the diagonals
AD
CB
intersecting in K.
From

96
CHAP.
the given point E, draw
EK, and produce

line
it
to
H,
Then the
EH will bisect the parallelogram ACDB. The triangle AEK

is
equal to the triangle
DHK,
equal
and the triangle

to the triangle
BHK
is
CEK,
straight
line
Note.
Fit?.
212.
drawn from any point in any

of
its
sides, if
drawn through
the centre, will bisect the parallelogram.
Pkoblem 135.
To hiscd a
Let
traiêzimii hy
line
drawn from one of its
angles.
ACDB be
the
it
the trapezium.
Draw
bisect
diagonal
AD
1).
and
Join
is
in
(Prob.
EC and
now
parts,
EB.
The trapezium
into
divided
two
equal
and
ACEB being one part CEBD the other. Draw the

E
draw
parallel
to
diagonal CB, and from
EH
CB
(Prob. 4).
Join CH.
The
triangle
CBH
is
213.
now equal
to the triangle
CBE,
therefore the line
CH
bisects the trapezium
ABCD
Pkoblem
136.
To divide a given irregular polygon
ABCDEFGHJK
example, twelve
into
any
numher of equal areas
for
hy lines
draivn through one angle E.
Join each angle to E.
From E draw
the line
EL
parallel to
EG till
it
meets
HG
produced in
(Prob. 4).
Erom L draw
EQUIVALENT AREAS
the line
97
LM
IST.
parallel to
line
EH
till it
meets
JH
produced in M.
meets
From
meets
M draw the
MN"
parallel to
line
EJ
till it
KJ
proit
duced in
From
draw the
"We
NP
parallel to
EK
till
AK produced in P.
PQ
now
treat the opposite side in
precisely the
Divide
into twelve equal parts, as
same way, and we eventually obtain the point Q. numbered. From point
draw a
till
line parallel to
it
PN
till
it
meets
KIST,
then parallel to
it
I^M
meets the given polygon, then draw
to
the
space cut off from the polygon by this line represents one of the
twelve divisions required.

to PN", then parallel to
From
point 2 draw a line parallel

it
NM
till
meets the polygon,
after
which join
required.
it
to
this line will cut off the second division

till
Eepeat
this operation
the whole of the twelve
required divisions are obtained.
CHAPTEE
THE EIGIIT-ANGLED TRIANGLE
AREAS
IX
AND EQUIVALENT
PROPORTIONAL
Before leaving the subject of equivalent

advisable to
Prob.
areas, it
would be
draw the
pupil's attention to Euclid, 1st Book,
47
triangle, the square
is
In any right-angled
which
is
descrihed on
the side opposite the right angle
equal
to the squares described
on the sides tohich contain

right angle
;
e.g.
the
The square described on

is
AB
the
equal to
the
sum
of
squares
described on
AC
and
CB;
i.e.
X& = AC + CBl
Let
ABC
(Fig.
216) be a right-angled triangle, on which
construct the three squares
AEHB, ACKL, and CDEB.

in the usual manner,
Find
the centre of the square
AEHB
by draw-
ing diagonals, and through this centre draw lines parallel to
CD
and CB.
These lines will divide the square into four equal
trapezia.
Bisect each side of the square
CDEB, and draw a
line
from each point of bisection in
from each point of bisection in

shall
is
CD and BE parallel to AB, and CB and DE parallel to AE. We

by these
lines
now
find that the small square a enclosed

a,
equal to the square
and that the four trapezia round the

equal to the trapezia in the square
square are in every
way
AEHB
e.g.
h',c = c',d d',
and
= e.
CHAP. IX
PROPORTIONAL AND EQUIVALENT AREAS

illustration.
99
Another
triangle,
Let
ABC
(Eig. 217)
be a right-angled
on which construct the three squares
AFHB, ACKL,
and CDEB.
If
we draw
lines
through the various angles parallel to the
Is.
CL
a'
''
/ c
*'
"^
Fig. 216,
different sides, as
shown by dotted
lines,
we
e.g.
are able to exhibit

that
the truth
of this proposition.
The
divisions
;
bear the
h',
same
letters
are equal to each other
a = a,
h =
is
etc.
Erom
square
this
we
can see that the rectangle

the rectangle
AENM
is
equal to
the square
ALKC, and CDEB.

this proposition
MISTHB
equal to the
Erom
we can prove
3^
that a triangle that has

its
sides of 3 inches
and 4 inches in length must have
hypote-
nuse 5 inches in length, for
+ 4^ = 5^.
Problem
To
137.
construct a square eqiicd in area to two given squares, the sides
of ivhich are equal
to the
given lines
A and B.
At one end
of the given line
erect a perpendicular equal
loo
chap.
to the given line
(Prob.
V).
Join
A with the
I.
end of
this line
D-
.,C
A^
Fig. 218.
C.
Draw
(Prob. 26),
DE equal to AC, and construct DELH is the square required.

Problem
138.
a square on
DE
To
construct
a square equal in area
to the difference
between
tvjo
squares tohose sides are equal
to the
given lines
A and B.
perpendicular
as centre,
Draw
E
the line
CD
equal in length to the given line B, and

at
y\
D
it
erect the line
DE
to
(Prob.
7).
With C
and
a radius equal to the given line A,
draw the
arc cutting
DE
in E.
On
DE
construct
the
square
DEHL
(Prob. 26), as required.
The areas of similar

responding
If
Jigtircs are to
one another as the squares on their corsides.
we were
to
draw similar
tri-
angles on the lines

rig. 219.
AB, AC, and CB,

would equal in
the triangle on
area the
AB
sum
of the other two.

If of
we
take
AC
then
and
AB
to represent the radii or diameters
two
circles,
AB
would represent the radius or diameter
of a circle having an area equal to
the
sum
If
of the other two.
AC
and
CB
represent the
sides
radii
of similar polygons, or the

or diameters
of circles deFig. 220.
scribing similar polygons, the area

of the figure constructed on
AB
represents the sum-area of the two figures constructed on
AC
and CB.
Peoblem
To
construct
139.
triangle similar to
a given triangle ABC, hut of
tioicc its area.
At
(Prob.
centre,
A
7).
draw the
line
AD,
perto it
pendicular to
AB
and equal
Join DB.
and radius
till it
With B as BD, draw the
arc
DE
meets
AB
produced
EF parallel to AC till it meets BC produced in F (Prob. 4). EBF is

in E.
From E draw
the line
As any
on
of
rectilinear figure draAvn
DB
must equal the sum-areas

figures
similar
drawn on
is
AB
and AD, and
as
AD
equal to
AB, the figure drawn on DB must be twice the area of the figure drawn on AB. The line EB is equal to the line DB, so the
triangle
Note.
EFB
must be twice the area

this
ratio
of the triangle
ABC.
figure,
By
means any geometrical

to
figure can be con-
structed of a given
e.g.
any similar geometrical
a quadrilateral, polygon, or circle could be constructed to
I02
chap.
equal any number of times a given quadrilateral, polygon, or

circle.
It
has been shown
(Prob.
116) that
lines
CD
in
Fig.
222
;
is
the
mean 2^'>'oportional between the means of the right-angled triangle

The three
^
triangles
AD
and
DB
by
ABC we
can extend the
analogy.
ABC, ADC, and CDB
are similar; they are
therefore equiangular.
Con: : :
sequently the line
AC: AD;
the
therefore
AB AC AC
is
mean
proportional
be-
tween
AB
and AD.
The
line
DB BC
:
BA;
BA.
The
line
therefore
BC BC is the mean
: :
:
proportional between
DB
and
proportional
DB DC DC DA between DB and DA.

:
:
therefore
DC
is
the
mean
If
three straight lines are proportionals, the rectangle contained

is
hy the extremes
cqnal
to the
square on the mean.
Peoblem
To construct a
140.
sqiiarc eqital in area to
a given rectangle
equal to
ABDC.
Bisect
Produce the line AB, and make
BIST
BD.
AK
E
in
(Prob.
1).
With
as centre,
and
EA as radius,
H.
describe the semicircle AHIST.
Produce
the
BD
to
BH
On
is
mean
proportional
be-
tween
AB
and BD.
BH
describe the required
square
BHKL
(Prob. 26).
103
Problem
141.
to
On a
given
line
AB,
construct
rectangle equal in area to
a given
square
CDEF.
to
Find the third proportional

the lines
AB
and
CD
(Prob.
115),
A.
iL
which
and
\yill
be the line
lines
AH.
At
A
B
Fig. 224.
B draw
(Prob.
7),
perpendicular to
AB
to
and make them equal
AH.
Join KL.
Then
ABLK
is
the required rectangle.
Problem
To
construct
142.
a 'parallelorjram on a
given line
to
AB,
equal in area
ijarallelogram
given
CDEF.
Find the fourth proportional
to
the lines
AB, DE, and

which
will be
DC
AH.
(Prob. 113),
Erect perpendiculars at
and
A^^t
equal to
AH (Prob. 7).
Join KL,
H^--.
Fis. 225.
which
will complete the rectangle
ABLK
Problem
required.
143.
To
construct a square equal in area to
a given triangle ABC.
First convert the given triangle into the rectangle
ABED,
by drawing the
bisecting
line
CK
line
perpendicular to
KC
by the
DE
parallel to
AB (Prob. 6), and AB (Prob. 1). Then
I04

lines AD and BE DE in D and E.
draw the
the line
perpendicular to
AB
till
they meet
Produce the
line
AB, and
Bias
make
sect
centre,
BH
equal to BE.
AH
in 0.
With
as
and
OA
radius,
describe the semicircle
ALH.
Draw
dicular
the
to
line
BL
perpen-
be
the
AB, which will mean proportional
between
AB
and BE.
the
On
will
BL
construct
square
BLNM
(Prob. 26),
which
be the square required.
Peoblem
144.
On a
given line
equal
AB,
to
drato a
to
triangle
in area
given triangle
CDE.
In the given triangle
CDE
draw the
to
line
EF
perpendicular
CD
(Prob.
5).
Find the fourth

to the lines
proportional
AH
CD, and
EF
(Prob.
line
113).
AB, At
up
any point on the
AB,
set
KL
equal to
AH, and
Join
perpendic-
ular to
AB.
AL
and LB.
ALB
is
Problem
To
construet
145.
an
equilateral triangle equal in area to
a given
triangle
ABC.
On
one side of the given triangle,
CB
for
example, construct

an equilateral triangle
16).
105
CBD (Prob.
From
the
point
draw
AE parallel to CB till it meets CD produced in E (Prob. 4). Bisect the line ED in H (Prob.
the line
1).
With
radius,
as centre,
and
HE
as
draw the
lines
semicircle
EKD. Find the mean proportional
CK
CD
between the
(Prob. 116).
EC
and
On
the line
CK
Fia:.
construct the required equilateral

trianoie.
228.
Problem
146.
Another method.
Let
ABC
be the given triangle.
Convert
it
into an isosceles 124).
triangle
(Prob.
Draw
to
the line
DE
5).
perpendicular
AB
(Prob.
On
16).
1).
the base
AB
construct the equilateral triangle
ABH
in
(Prob.
Bisect
DE
as
(Prob.
With
centre,
and
GD
as radius,
draw
the semicircle
229.
DEE.
Eind the
between
equal
mean
proportional
Set off on
EF
the lines
to
ED
is
and
EH
(Prob. 116).
ED,
EK
EF, and draw the lines
LK
and
KM
parallel to
AH
and
HB.
LKM
the equilateral triangle required.
Peoblem
To
divide a given triangle
147,
ABC
for
into th7'ee equal divisions hj lines
jiarallel to one
of
its sides.
Bisect one side,
CB
example, in the point
(Prob.
1).
io6
AVith
as
centre,
and
GB
as
radius,
draw the
semicircle
CFHB.
Trisect
the
line
CB
in
and
(Prob. 10).
Find
be-
the
-^
mean
proportional
OF
tween
CB
and
CD
(Prob. 116).
Make
tween
CK
equal to CF.
Also
find the
mean
proportional be-
CE and CB, viz. CH, and make CL equal to CH. Draw

the lines
to
KM
(Prob.
and
4),
LN
parallel
AB
which
will
divide the given triangle

Pier
ABC
230.
i^^to
three equal parts.
Pkoblem
To
construct
148.
a triangle
one-fifth the area of
a sirailar
triangle
ABC.
Produce the line
AB
F
to D,
making
in
DA equal to
one-
AB
F
and
(Prob.
1),
10).
Bisect
DB
(Prob.
and with
as centre
FD
as radius,
draw the semi-
circle
DEB.
the
At
perpendicular to
A AB
AB
erect
AE
7).
(Prob.
AE
is
mean
lines
proportional
between the
and DA,
Make
HB equal to AE,
and from
H draw HK parallel to AC. HKB is the triangle required.

Problem
149.
Construct a rectangle one-third the area of a similar

rectangle
ABC.
Produce the
line
AB
to E,
making
AE
equal to one-third

of
107
AB
(Prob. 10).
Bisect
radius,
EB
in
(Prob.
1).
centre,
and
draw the
line
HE as AK
draw the semicircle
With H EKB. From
as
perpendicular to
AB
(Prob, 7).
AK
is
the
mean
meets
is
proportional between the lines
EA
and AB.
Join
AD,
Make AL
equal to
in
AD
K
a
AK, From
Draw
LIST
perpendicular to
parallel to
AB
till it
draw
NM
AL,
ALNM
the rectangle required.
Peoblem
To
construct
regiilar
150,
polygon three-fourths the area of a similar

e.g.
polygon,
a hexagon.
Fig. 233.
Let
ABCDEF
be the given hexagon.
Produce
AB
to
H,
io8
CHAP.
making
BH
equal to three-fourths of
AB
(Prob. 10).
Bisect
AH
AL
(Prob.
1),
and from
its
centre describe the semicircle
AKH.
Set off
Draw
BK the
mean
proportional between
AB
and
BH perand
pendicular to AB. equal to
Join the points E, D, and C with A.
BK.
Draw
LM parallel to BC
the lines CD,
(Prob. 4),
MN,
Then
NO, and OP
parallel to
DE, and EE.
ALMNOP
is
the hexagon required.
Problem
To draiv a
circle three-fifths
151.
of the area of a given
circle.
Let
given
AB
BC
be the radius of the
circle.
Produce
AB
Find
to C,
making
of
three-fifths the length
AB
(Prob. 10).
the
mean
proportional
BD
and
between
the lines
AB
as
and
BC
(Prob. 116).
With B
radius,
Fig. 234.
centre,
BD
circle.
as
draw the required
Problem
To divide a given
Let
circle into
152.
any nwnher of equal
parts,
e.g. five.
AB be the
radius of the given circle.

Bisect
Divide
1),
it
into five
its
equal parts (Prob. 10).
AB
(Prob.
and from
centre describe the semicircle
ACB.
till
Erect perpendiculars on
each of the divisions of

the points C, E, H, and
the points C, E, H, and
AB
they meet the semicircle in
K (Prob. 8). "With A as centre, and K as radii, draw the circles required.
(Fig.
AB AC
:
AC AD
:
222)
therefore,
AD
being one-
IX
fifth of

AB,
the
circle
109
throuo-h
is
one -fifth of the jriven
Fig. 235.
circle.
Each
of the other radii can be proved in the
same way.
Peoblem
To divide
153.
the area of a given circle into
any number of equal

e.g. five.
'parts
which shall
also have equcd perimeters,
Draw
the diameter
AB, and
divide
it
Fig. 236.
(Prob. 10).
Bisect the 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 5th divisions in the
points C, D, E, and
(Prob.
1).
With C and F
as centres,
and
no

as radius,
chap.
CA
and
draw two
semicircles.
With
and 4 as centres,
lA
as radius,
draw two
semicircles.
With
and
as
centres,
and
DA
as radius,
draw two
semicircles.
With
2 and
3 as centres, and radius equal to 2A,
draw two
semicircles.
The
1, 2,
various semicircles will join each other in the points A,

3, 4,
and
5,
which
will divide the area of the circle as required.
Peoblem
To construct a triangle
eqiicd
154.
to
in area
237),
a given
circle
ABC.
perpen-
Draw any
dicular to
circle in
it
radius
(Prob.
AD
(Fig.
and make
AE
7),
and equal
to the circumference of the
length (Prob. 192).
Join DE.
The
triangle
ADE wilL
then be equal in area to the given circle

Note.
ABC.
Eor
practical purposes the circumference of a circle

its
may
be taken as equal to 3y times
diameter.
Fig. 238.
Peoblem
To
construct
155.
to
a jparallclogram equal in area

circle (Fig.
a given
circle.
Divide the given
238) into any number of equal
IX

by drawing
radii,
in
triangles
of these triangles.
Produce
the length of
AC.
4).
Draw ABC to represent one AC to D, and make AD eight times Draw BE parallel to AD and equal to it iu
say 16,
length (Prob.
Join DE.
Then
ABDE
will approximately
equal the given circle in area.

Note.
If the longer sides of a rectangle
were drawn equal

sides equal to the
to half the circumference,
and the shorter
radius, the rectangle
would equal the
circle in area.
circle
can therefore be converted into a rectangle, square, rhomboid,

or
rhombus
of the
same
area.
Table of Foeeign Eoad Measures and their

Equivalent in English Yards.
English Yards.
Austria
mile
55
8297
8059
Bavaria
Belgivim
.
kilometre
league
li
1094
5770
609
Berne
China
Denmark
England
France
mile
55
8238 1760
kilometre
.
1094
8101
Germany
Greece
mile
55
1640
Holland
jj
1094
2000 2025
India (Bengal)
Italy
coss
mile
kilometre
Netherlands
IsTorway
1094
12,182
mile
Persia
parasang
.
6076 2250
Portugal
Prussia
mile
55
8238 1167
Eussia
verst
Siam
Spain
roeneng
mile
55
4204
1522
11,690
Sweden
Turkey
berri
1827
CHAPTEE X
PLAIN SCALES, COMPAEATIVE SCALES, AND DIAGONAL SCALES
On
a drawing representing a piece of machinery the scale

:
is
written thus
Scale \fidl
size.
From
this
we know
that every
inch on
tlie
drawing represents 4 inches on the actual machine, between any part represented on the drawing and
is as 1
:
so the relation
a corresponding part in the real object

called the rejgresentative fraction.
or
\.
This
is
e.g.
Scale
On
:
A drawing representing a building has drawn upon it a scale

\ of an inch
to
foot.
One-quarter of an inch
the E.F.
is
is
contained forty-eight times in 1
foot, so
-^.
is
a large drawing showing a district the scale
written
thus
E.F.
xiVo-
^^
there are 1760 yards to a mile,

is is
it is
evident
that every 3 feet on the drawing
equal to 1 mile on the
land represented.
This, of course,
a very large scale.
Our Ordnance Survey comprises one

used for small districts or estates
iised for
;
of 25 inches to a mile,
which
is
one of 6 inches to a mile, commonly

1
maps
of counties
and one of
inch =
1 mile.
The
R.F. for the last would be

mile, yards.
1
-qq^q
feet.
inches.
1760
= 5280 = 63,360.
Problem
To
construct
156.
scale 6 inches long, shoioing inches
and
tenths of
an
inch.
Fig. 239.
it
Draw
a line 6 inches long, and divide

I
into six equal parts,
114
chap.
first
each of whicli will represent 1 inch.

inch
At
the end of the
mark
the zero point, and from this point
mark
the inches
to the right 1, 2, 3, 4,
and
5.
These are called primary divisions,

is
and the amount by which they increase

the scale length.
called the value of
The
and
division left of the zero point has to be divided into ten
equal parts.
The best way
to
do this
is to
take a piece of paper
set off along its edge ten equal divisions of
any convenient
size (Fig. 239).
Produce the perpendicular marking the division
at the zero point,
and arrange
this piece of
paper so as to
fit
in
exactly between the end of the division and this perpendicular

line.
If
we now draw
lines parallel to the perpendicular at the
zero point, they will divide the division into ten equal parts.
These are called the secondary divisions, and they have the
same zero point

this point
as the primary,
and
their
numbers increase from

Sup-
by the value of their

measure
scale length.
This scale will measure inches to one decimal place.
posing
6
we wish
to
3'6 inches, that is 3
primary and
dividers on
secondary divisions.
Place one
point
of the
division 3 of the primary parts,
and open them
till
the other
point reaches the division 6 of the secondary divisions.
Peoblem
To
construct
157.
to
scale
of
to
y'y,
or 1 inch
equal 3 feet
Fig. 240.
Number
of feet
be represented
may
be
assumed
at
pleasure, say 18 feet.
36
18
12
x,
whence x
=
36
6 inches.
Draw
a line 6 inches long,
and mark
off
each inch.
Trisect
each of these divisions by a piece of paper, as shown in Fig. 239.
We
now have
the total length divided into eighteen equal parts.
SCALES
115
Pi
T^-
cO
Oi
;.
CO
-3
ii6
chap.
At
the end of the
first
division
mark
the zero point, and
from this point towards the right figure the primary divisions
1, 2, 3, etc.
:
these will represent feet.
To the
left of
the zero
point
mark
by
off
twelve divisions
these will represent inches.

side of the zero
In
point
this scale the
numbers increase on each
unity.
This scale will measure feet and inches.
Peoblem
To
construct
158.
"^^
scale
with the E.F. 2\s To measure 50 yards.
>
'^^^'^^^
t^
equal 8 yards.
Fig. 241.
a;,
288 50
:
36
whence
36x50
= 6*25
inches,
288
Draw
division
is
a line 6'25 inches in length, and divide

i.e.
it
into five
equal parts,
1*25 for each division.
mark
the zero point.
equal to 10 yards,
At the end of the first As each of the primary divisions we must figure them from the zero point
and 40 yards.
to the right 10, 20, 30,
The
1 yard.
division to the left of the zero point
we
divide into ten
equal divisions.
Each
of these secondary divisions represents
Peoblem
To
construct
159.
3-g^, or 1 inch to
scale,
E.r.
g-g-
mile.
To measure 6
If 1 mile
miles.
Pig. 242.
1 inch, 6 miles
loncj.
=6
inches.
Draw
a line 6 inches
Mark
off
each inch.
of the first division
mark
1,
the zero point, and

2, 3, 4,
At the end number the primary

equal parts
these
divisions to the right

to the left
5 miles.
eight
Divide the division

:
of the zero point
into
secondary divisions represent furlongs.
SCALES
117
in
O.
CO
o
a'
;P-
CG-H
ii8
chap.
COMPAEATIVE SCALES.
Problem
160.
as Fig. 243.
On an old French map a scale of leagues is shown, Upon measuring this scale with an English scale, 30
found, to coincide with
leagues are
4 inches.
To
construct a comioarativc scale of IJnglish miles.
To measure 100
miles.
Fig. 244.
French league
French
leagues.
= 4262'84
4969'Q4
English yards.
English
30=-^^-^
1760
4262-84 X 30
.
x30
:
miles.
100
x,
1760
whence
4 X 100 X 1760
4262-84 X 30
= 5*5
inches nearly. ^
Draw
a line of this length,
and place the zero point
at the
left-hand end and 100 at the other extremity.

into ten equal divisions
:
Divide this line
each of these primary divisions will
represent 10 miles.
For the secondary
divisions, set
off
one
of the
it
primary
into ten
divisions to the left of the zero point,
and divide
equal divisions
each of these will represent 1 mile.
The repre-
sentative fraction of both the French
and English
scales will of
course be the same.
Problem
161.
is
On
a Russian
map
a scale of versts
shown, as Fig. 245, by
measuring which by an English scale 120 versts
=4
inches.
To
construct a com.'parative scale of English miles.
Scale to measure
100
oniles.
Fig. 246.
Eussian verst
1167 English yards.
SCALES
119
CTi"
o
?-oC
O-
o
00

yards,
versts.
miles.
120=
1167 X 120 1760
1167 X 120
:100 i-A-.x, 1760
whence
,/;
4x100x1760 =
1167x120
5 inches nearly.
Draw
divisions
:
a line of this length,
and divide
it
into ten equal
each of these primary divisions will represent 10 miles.

line,
Place the zero point at the left-hand end of the

the divisions towards the right 10, 20, 30, etc.
and
figure
Set off one of

it
the primary divisions to the

into ten equal divisions
:
left of
the zero point, and divide
each of these will represent 1 mile.
DIAGONAL SCALES.
In the preceding scales we have only primary and secondary
divisions,
and
if
we wish
to
measure a fractional proportion of a

it
secondary division, we cannot do
with any accuracy
but by
means
of a diagonal scale
we
are enabled to measure hundredths
of primary divisions, as will be seen from the following scale.
Problem
To
constonict
162.
a diagonal
scale 6 inches long, to
measure
incJies,
tenths of inches,
and hundredths of
inches.
Fig. 247.
Draw
a rectangle
it
ABCD
6 inches long
and about 1^ inches

the end of the
first
wide, and divide

division from
figure each
into six equal parts.
At
fix
the zero point, and to the right of this

2, 3,
division 1,
4,
and
5.
Divide
C,
AC
into ten
equal parts, and figure them from

parallel to
A towards
figure
then draw lines
AB
from one end of the scale to the other.
Divide
AO
into ten equal divisions,
and
them from
towards A.
Join 9 to C, and from each of the other divisions between
SCALES
cO
c V>
CM
^ y-
d
00
vi)
CO
i9
't
C(
J^
122

draw
lines parallel to 9C.
chap.
and
Note.
The
divisions between
and C are called diagonal
divisions.
To take
inches,
off
from
tins
scale
measurement equal
to
2'73
we
7,
place
2,
one point of the dividers on the primary
division figured
figured
and the other on the secondary division

is
but both points must be on the line that
figured 3
scale.
on AC.
The points
are
marked by a small
circle
on the
To take
off 3 "17 inches, place

3,
one point of the dividers on
the primary division
and the other on the intersection between
the secondary division 1 and the line 7 on

are
AC.
These points
shown by two
crosses on the scale.
Problem
To
construct
163.
a diagonal
scale shelving miles, furlongs,
and
chains, to shoiv 6 miles,
E.F. = -jj-ssô-o
Tig. 248.
The length
In
= 8 furlongs. 1 furloncc = 10 chains. of scale = 0^^3-60 o^ ^ miles = 6

1 mile
inches.
this scale there will be six primary, eight secondary,
and
ten diagonal divisions. Construct a rectangle

inches wide, and divide
zero point
at the
it
ABCD
6 inches long
and about
1|-
into six primary divisions.

first
Place the
end of the
division from A,
and divide
towards A.
AO
C.
into eight secondary divisions, figured from
Divide
AC
into ten equal divisions,
and
figure
them from
A to
Join the secondary division figured 7 to the point C, and
from each of the other secondary divisions draw lines parallel

to 7C, thus completing the scale.
To take
off
from
this scale 2 miles, 5 furlongs,

2,
and 7
chains,
take one point on the primary division
and the other where
the line from the secondary division 5 intersects the diagonal

division
7.
These two points are marked by small
circles
on
the scale.
SCALES
To take
will be
off 3
tlie
123
miles, 2 furlongs,
3,
and 3
cliains,
one point
on
primary division
and the other where the

00 vT
secondary division 2 intersects the diagonal

division
3.
These points are marked by a
tN
:E:
=
small cross on the scale.
7>
Pkoblem
The
diagonal
is
iJ
164.
<5
loo
scale
generally found
Fig. 249.
scales.
in
i
10
instrument-boxes
It consists of
shown in
two diagonal
In one,
TrIP
the distance between the primary divisions

is
half an inch, and in the other a quarter of

rie
an inch.
There
the
is
a small margin on each side of

:
a
2iX-^r
1
scale for figures
on one side the half

quarter inches
T ^
inches
are
figured,
and the
on the other.
One
divided
primary
into
division
at
each
end
is
-----^
ten
secondary divisions, and
dJ
1
there are ten diagonal divisions
drawn from
taken for
rf>_L
one end of the scale to the other.
"--"to
The primary
units, to
set
off
divisions
being
^1
1 1
the
numbers 5*36 by the

is
x^
diagonal scale.
This measurement
shown
1
by two
If
crosses
on the
scale.
ti__L-.
we reckon
the
primary divisions to
|H
1
stand for tens, the dimension would have one

place of decimals,
e.g.
"---;
00 <o
Fipr.
take
off 36"4
from the
diagonal
scale.
These
]3oints are
shown on
the scale by two small circles.
The primary
take off 227.
divisions being hundreds, to

is
pet
249.
This dimension
shown on
the scale by two small squares.

124
General Eule.
To take
off
any numher
to three, 'places
scale.
of figures from
a diagonal
On
the parallel indicated
by the
third figure, measure from
the diagonal indicated by the second figure to the vertical line

indicated
by the
first.
PROPORTIONAL SCALES.
These are used
proportion
:
for enlarging or
reducing a drawing to a given
three varieties are here illustrated.

is
The simplest form
that
shown
in Fig. 250.
:
Suppose we
1.
wish to enlarge a drawing in the proportion of 3
Draw
the line
AB
of convenient size, to suit the measure-
Fig. 250.
ments on the drawing, and produce

of
it to
make BC
any
one-third
AB.
On AB
and DC.
erect the perpendicular
BD
length,
and
join
AD
Divide
BD
AB.
into
any number of equal
parts,
and draw
lines parallel to
These lines are simply a guide
to enable the
e.g.
measurements
to be
made
parallel to the base
on placing a measurement from the original drawing on

SCALES
the scale,
125
we
find it occupies the position of cf ; the distance
between
e,
and g will then give the length of the measurement

i.e.
to the enlarged scale,
in the proportion of 3
1.
We
proceed
in the same
manner with every measurement we wish
to enlarge.
Should we wish to reduce a drawing in the same proportion,

viz.
3,
the original measurements would be placed on the
left-hand side of the scale, and the required proportion taken
from the risfht-hand
side.
^ ---.
In
etc.
Fig.
251 we have a
series of
measurements
ki. Ah, Ag,

:
which we wish
Draw
the line
to C,
to enlarge, say in the proportion of 3
2.
AB
BC
any convenient length
to suit size of
drawing.
From B draw
and make
BD
perpendicular to
AB
equal to half of AB.

till it
AB. With
;
Produce
centre A,
and radius AC, draw an arc
meets
BD in D
and join DA.
From each
of the points,
Ai', Ah',
i,
h, g, f, etc.,
etc.,
draw
lines parallel to
BD.
The distances
measurements
2
Ag,
will then give the original

:
to the enlarged scale of 3
2.
i.e.
To reduce the
3. With A From E draw the
:
original
drawing in the same proportion,
as centre, and radius

line
EF
parallel to
AB, draw the arc BE. BD. AF will then repre-
126
PRACTICAL TLANE GEOMETRY
sent
AE
reduced in the
prox:)ortion of 2
3,
and
so
on with any
other measurement that

Fig.
we may
require.
252
is
the problem generally used for dividing a line into
Fi- 252.
a given
number
of equal parts, but
it
can also be used for
enlarging or reducing a drawing to a given scale.
Fig. 253.
Let Fig. 253 represent a portion of the plan of a
field
which
we wish
5 :3.
to
draw
to
an enlarged
scale,
say in the proportion of
First enlarge the triangle
ABC.
This can be done by draw-
ing the line

thirds of
CE
at right angles to
AB, making
DE
equal to two-
CD, and drawing

and
FH
through
parallel to
meets
CA
CB
produced in
F and
H.
Then
AB till it CFH will be
X
the enlarged
as 5
:
SCALES
triangle,
127
bearing the
same proportion
to
ABC
3.
Divide the line

points
g, f,
e,
CB
d,
into
any number of equal parts in the

lines at
and
and draw
these points perpen-
dicular to CB.
Draw
the line
at
AB (Fig.
angle.
252) any convenient length, and from

the length of length to the
draw
BC
any
AB, and
join
CA.
Make BC three-fifths From B set off BfZ equal in
perpendicular at d (Fig. 253).

perpendicular at
e,
Make
de equal to the length of the
and
so
on with
all
the other points.
From
each of these points draw lines parallel to AC.
The
divisions
on
AB
so
will then represent the corresponding divisions on

i.e.
CB
:
to
3,
the enlarged scale,
Bd' bears the proportion to
Bd
as 5
and
on with
all
the other points.
Divide the corresponding side of the enlarged triangle

(Fig.
CH
253) into the same num.ber of equal parts, and erect per-
pendiculars at these points.
Make
these perpendiculars equal
in height to the corresponding divisions on
AB
(Fig. 252).
Join
the tops of the perpendiculars by an irregular curve, which will
represent the curve on
CB
enlarged in the proportion of 5
3.
Proceed in the same manner with the side AC.

Hote.
The above problems could, of
course, be
used for any
other proportions than those chosen.
very interesting proportional scale could be constructed
from the principle of Euclid, 1st Book, Prob. 47.

Let
ABC
(Fig.
254) be a right-angled triangle.
Construct a
proportional scale equal to the three sides of this triangle.
The
point
F may
be in any convenient position above the line DE..

figure,
Let ah represent a measurement from a given
then ca
and hd
will represent corresponding
measurements of similar
to the area
figures, the
combined area of which would be equal
of the given figure.
Also ca would represent the measurement
of a figure, the area of
which would be the
difference
between
the areas of two similar figures, the corresponding measurements

of Avhich are represented
by the
lines ai
and
hd.
In the same
128

Id would represent a figure Avliose area
is
chap, x
way
equal to the
Fig. 254.
difference of the similar figures represented

lines ab
by the corresponding
and
ca.
Note.
These
similar
figures
may
be of any conceivable
shape.
CHAPTEE
XI
ETC.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING ANGLES,
A protractor is
angles
;
an instrument used
for
measuring or setting
off
it
may be
either semicircular or rectangular in shape, as
shown
in Fig. 255.
The point C marks the
centre from
which
the radiating lines are drawn, and corresponds with the centre
of the circle.
The degrees
from B.
is
are
numbered in primary
divisions, equal to ten
degrees each, on the outside line from
and on the inside
line
In the actual instrument each of these primary divisions
subdivided into ten secondary divisions, each of which repre-
sents one degree.
Only one
of these
is
divided in the figure.
130
Problem
To construct a
165.
scale of chords.
scale
of chords
is
constructed in the following
manner
(Fig. 256).
Draw
5).
the lines
AC
and
CD
perpendicular to each
other (Prob.
With C
as centre,
draw any quadrant AED,
and divide the arc into degrees (only the primary divisions
are
shown
in the figure).
Join
AD.
With
A as centre, and each
7e--'<-"
of the
primary divisions as
will
radii,
draw arcs cutting the chord

an angle
AD, which
To use
draw a
form the scale of chords.
this scale in setting off
for
example, to
line that will
make an
angle of 40 with line

to
CB (Fig. 256).
the scale of
With C
chords,
as centre,
and radius equal
AGO on
draw an
arc
BFD.
With
a pair of dividers, take the

it
distance
B.
A40 from
the scale, and set
off
on the arc
BF
from
Join FC.
Note.
Then
is
FCB
will be the angle of 40 required.
60
always equal to the radius of the quadrant

is
from which the scale of chords
constructed.
XI

Peoblem
To
construct
ETC.
131
166.
any angle
luitliout
])rotractor.
Draw CD
and
perpendicular to
AB
(Prob. 5).
With C
as centre,
CA as radius, draw tlie DCB in E and F (Prob 14). K (Prob. 15). Bisect FK
semicircle
ADB.
2).
Trisect the angle
Trisect the angle

in
ECB
Then
in
and
(Prob.
DE = 30,
EH = 20, HE = 10,
Divide the angle
and
FL =
5.
is
Therefore between a multiple of

5.
and
we can construct any angle that
ACD
by the
lines
M, As
A set off AE equal to DE. 36 and AE = 30, AN AE = 6,ME = 12, AM = 18, AN = and EO = 24. Therefore between A and D we can construct
^^,
0, and
(Prob. 121).
From
a.ny angle that is a multiple of 6.
If
we
subtract the multiples of 5 from those of 6

e.g.
obtain any desired angle,
we can
= 1 12-10 = 2 18-15 = 3 24 - 20 = 4 30-25 = 5

5
etc.
6-
etc.
etc.

132

All the regular polygons, with the exception of two
chap.
the
heptagon and undecagon

are multiples of 5 or 6
can
be constructed with angles that
If the polygon is to be inscribed in a circle, the angle
would
be set
off at
is
the centre of the circle
but
if
one side of the
polygon
given,
the angle would be set off externally, as
shown
The
in Fig. 94, Chap. III.

exterior angle of a
Pentagon
is
72 a multiple of
6.
Hexagon
an Octagon
a
60
6.
5.
45
Nonagon
Decagon
Duodecagon
40
36 30
5. 6.
5and
6.
THE SECTOE.
The
the
Sector is
an instrument of great
utility for facilitating
work
of Practical Geometry.
It consists of graduations
it is
on
the two radii of a foot-rule, and
used by measuring the arc
between the graduations.
Hence
its
name.
The
line.
legs can be
opened to contain any angle up to a straight
In the
Practical
illustration (Pig. 258) only the lines

:
mostly used in
Geometry are shown

;
viz. line
of
lines,
;
marked L on
and a
line of
each leg
polygons,
a pair of lines of chords,
marked C
marked POL, on the inner

sectoral lines
side of each leg.
The
proceed in pairs from the centre of the
hino'e alonsj
each
lecj,
and although the
scales consist of
two
or
three lines each, all measurements

lines of each scale,
i.e.
must be made on the inner
the lines that radiate from the centre.

is
When
the sector,
the measurement
it is
confined to a line on one leg of

;
called a lateral distance
but
when
it is
taken
from a point on a line on one leg to a similar point on a corresponding line on the opposite
Simple proportion.
of sectoral lines,
leg, it is called a transverse distance.
Let AB and AC
BC
and
(Fig.
259) represent a pair
and
DE
two transverse measurements
XI
ETC.
133
^/^-^
inL
7^
i^
\p\
^l
c\\
Fig. 258.
134

;
taken between this pair of lines
then
:
:
AB
:
is
equal to AC,
lines
and AD to AE, so AB BC AD DE.

: : : :
that
AB AC
:
AD
AE, and the
The Line of
The primary
divisions only are
Lines.
shown
in the illustration
in
the real
these
is
instrument, each of
subdivided
into
ten
secondary divisions.
To find
portional
to
the three
fourth
given
'prolines.
From
the
centre
measure
along one leg a lateral distance

equal to the
first
term
then
open the sector

verse
distance
till
the transthis
between
point
and
corresponding
is
point on the other leg

to
equal
the
second
term;
then
measure from the centre along

one
equal to the third term
;
leg
lateral
distance
the transverse distance from this point
to a corresponding point
on the opposite leg will then give the
fourth term.
Example.
3, 4,
To
find the fourth proportional to the
numbers
the
first
and
9.
From
the division
till
marked
3,
which
is
term, open the sector
the distance between this point and

is
the corresponding division on the other leg

this will
equal to 4 divisions
be the second term.
Then
9 being the third term, the
transverse distance between the corresponding divisions at this
point will give the fourth term, viz. 12.
To find
the third proportional to two given lines or mimbers.
Make
To
a third term equal to the second, then the fourth term
will give the required result.

bisect
a given
line.
Open
the sector
till
the transverse

XI
ETC.
135
is equal to the then the transverse distance between 5 and 5 will bisect the given line.
distance between the end divisions, 10 and 10,

;
given line
To divide a given
line
AB
into
any member of equcd parts
AB
1
for example, eight (Fig, 260).
is
ADC
best performed
I
When
the
number of parts are a power by successive bisections.

I
of 2, the division
Thus,
make
I
Fig. 260.
a transverse distance between 10 and 10, then the distance
between 5 and 5 will give
AC = half
AB.
Then make the

the distance be-
transverse distance between 10 and 10
= AC,
tween
and 5 will then give
AD = one
quarter of
AB.
By
repeating the operation each quarter will be bisected, and the
given line divided into eight equal parts as required.
"When the number

seven
(Fig. 261),
example, of divisions are unequal, make the transverse distance between 7 and 7
for
A
Fig. 261.
AB
then take the distance between 6
and
6,
which will give AC.
The distance
CB
will then divide
the line into seven equal parts.
Hmo
Example.
to
use the sector as

scale of 1
scale.
inch equal 5 chains.
Take one inch on the
dividers,
and open the sector
till
this
forms a transverse distance between 5 and 5 on each
line of
lines ;
then the corresponding distances between the other divisions and

subdivisions will represent the
number
of
chains and
links

136

:
chap.
indicated by these divisions
for instance, tlie distance 6'5
between
4 and 4 represents 4 chains,

chains 70 links,
etc.
=6
chains 50 links, 3"7
=3
Note.
1 chain is equal to
100
links.
To construct a
scale of feet
and
inches, in %vliich 3|- inches shall
equal 20 inches.
Make
3| inches
inches.
the transverse distance between 10 and 10 equal to

;
then the distance between 6 and 6 will equal 12

(Fig.
Make AB
262) equal to this length.
Bisect this
B
Fig. 262.
distance in C, as described for Fig. 260 in
then bisect
AC
and
CB
.
and
in the
5,
same manner.
Take the transverse distance
between 5 and
which will give
AF EF
;
will then trisect
each of the four divisions already obtained.

divided
into
AB
will then be
twelve
divisions,
which
will
represent
inches.
Produce the line
AB
to
H, and make
BH
equal to AB.
BH
will then represent one foot.
Sow
the sector
may
he
used for enlarging or reducing a drcaving.
Example.
let it he
Let
ABC (Fig. 263) represent three points in a drawing,

to
required
reduce this in the proportion of
4:
to*J:
Make
the transverse distance between 7 and 7 equal to

4,
then take the distance between 4 and

equal to this length.
and make
AB DE (Fig. 264)
4,
Also make the distance between 7 and 7
equal to
AC
then take the distance between 4 and
and from
arc.
as centre,
with this distance as radius, describe an
In
XI

make
ETC.
137
the same manner
the distance between 7 and 7 equal to

4, 4,
EC
then with a radius equal to
describe another arc from
Fiff.
263.
E, cutting the other arc in F.

will be a reduced copy of
Join
EF
and DF.
Then
DEF
:
ABC,
in the proportion of
4 7
as
required.
To enlarge a draiving in
the ijroportion of 7 to 4.
In this instance the sector would be opened so that the

transverse
distance
between 4 and 4 should represent the
original measurements, while those required for the copy
would
be taken between 7 and
7.
The Line of Choeds.

In the scale of chords already described (Prob. 1G5) we are
limited to one radius in setting off angles
viz,
a radius equal to
the 60
marked on the
is
scale; in the double line of chords on the
sector there
no such limitation
we
can set
off
any radius
equal to the transverse distance between the two points 60 and

60,
from their nearest approach to each other up to the

of.
fullest
extent the opening of the sector will admit
138

To
construct
an angle of
50".
Open
the sector at any convenient distance.
Take the trans-
verse distance between the points 60
and
60,
and construct an arc with

Let
this
radius.
AB (Fig. 265) represent this

take the transverse disit off
radius.
Now
on the
Join
tance between 50 and 50, and set
from
'C
Fig. 265.
B
i^g
arc,
which
will give the
point C.
^-jj
AB and AC.
Then
BAG
5Q0 ^^ required.
A
than
greater angle than 60 cannot be taken from the sector

;
with one measurement

60, additional
if
the angle to be measured
is
more
measurements must be taken.
On an
arc Ih inches in radius, to construct
an angle o/
125.
Make
1| inches.
the transverse distance between the points 60 and 60
Let
an arc with
AB (Fig. 266) represent this distance. Describe AB as radius. Take the distance between the
points 50 and 50 from the sector, and set
it
off
on the arc from

it off
to C.
Also take the distance from 40 to 40, and set
from C
125.
to D.
set it off
Then take the distance between 35 and 35, and from D to E. Join EA. Then the angle BAE will be
50
+ 40 + 35 = 125.

XI

Construct
ETC.
139
an angle of
on the same
arc.
With
the sector open at the same angle as before, take the

it off
transverse distance between the points 47 and 47, and set
on the arc from
to
H.
Join
HA
and CA.
Then
HAC
will
be 3 as required.
50
- 47 = 3.
The Line of Polygons.

This pair of lines
is
used for dividing a
circle
into
any
number
of equal parts between four and twelve,
by joining
which the regular polygons are formed.

between the points 6 and 6
circle to
is
The transverse distance
always used for the radius of the
be divided; because the radius of a circle containing a

i.e.
six-sided figure,
a hexagon,
is
always equal to one side of
the figure.
Open the
6
is
sector
till
the transverse distance between 6 and

;
equal to the radius of the circle
then the distance between
the points 4 and 4 will divide the circle into four equal parts,
the distance between 5 and 5 into five equal parts, and so on
up
to twelve.
If
line,
it
be required to construct a polygon on a given straight

till
open the sector
the transverse distance between the
numbers answering
between the points
to
the
number
of
sides
line,
of the required
polygon shall equal the extent of the given

6
then the distance

circle to
and 6 will give the radius of the

the required number
be divided by the given line into

parts.
of equal
Example.
On a given
line 1
inch in length,
to construct
heptagon.
Open
the sector
till
the transverse distance between the
points 7 and 7 shall equal 1 inch; the distance between the
points 6 and 6 will then give the radius of a circle, to which the
given line will form seven equal chords.
CHAPTEE
XII
PLANS OF SUEVEYS AND MEASUREMENT OF AREAS
Plans
line
of land
:
are
drawn from distances measured

and
lateral distances,
in
two
directions
viz.
direct distances, or distances

;
measured along the

distances measured
AB
(Fig.
267)
i.e.
yards
25
18
^D
12
Fig. 267.
Fig. 26
on lines perpendicular to AB, as

left of
CD
to the right,
and
EF
to the
AB.
These distances are recorded in a field-book, from

is
which the plan
plotted to scale on a drawing.

;
Let us suppose
A to be the starting or zero point from A to C = 8 yards, from A to F = 18 yards, and from A to B = 25 yards. These dimensions
268).
would be placed in a column in their consecutive order
(Fig.
Then
let
let
CD
represent 12 yards (this would be entered
to the right-hand side of 8, because 8 represents the position of

C),
and
EF = 9
yards (this would be entered to the
left of
18, the figure corresponding to F).
From
these figures
we
could
draw a plan of the piece
of land measured.
CHAP. XII
SURVEYS AND MEASUREMENT OF AREAS

the plan of a field from the following dimensions
of an inch
141
Draw
10 yards, E.F.
^-ig-fj.
yards
155
50
125
110
55
60
80
55
30
25
40
Fis. 269.
Fiff.
270.
This plan
is
plotted to a scale of
of an inch to 10 yards in
Kg. 270.
Suppose we wish
6 inches long, to
make
first
the plan in
its
greatest dimensions
we must
construct a scale of yards.
Let the
scale length
=100
yards.
yds.
ins.
:
yds.
:
Then 155
im-.x,
inches.
whence x
=
155
= 3*9
nearly. ^
Draw
a line this length, and divide
it
into ten equal parts
each of these primary parts will represent 10 yards.
Divide the
left-hand division into ten equal parts to represent yards, as
shown
in Eig. 241.
The E.F.
of this scale
is g-g^..
142
Problem
To find
ilie
167.
2}iece
area of a
of land.
just
The
field
we have
plotted
represents an irregular polygon, which
could be transformed into an equivalent

triangle, as Prob.
129
but the more

to divide
it
practical
method would be
into triangles, as
in Pig. 271.
shown by dotted
lines
The sum
To find
midtiply
of the triangles
would give
a
the area of the piece of land.

the
area
hy half
of
triangle,
its hase
its altitude.
CHAPTER
XIII
SIMILAR FIGURES
Similar figures have their angles equal and their corresponding

sides proportional.
All regular figures
such
as equilateral
triangles,
squares,
and regular polygons

triangles
are
similar.
Other quadrilateral figures

be constructed similar to
and irregular polygons
can
168.
given ones by making their angles equal.
Problem
To
construct loithin
the sides of
to the
it,
a given triangle ABC, and equidistant from a similar

triangle, the hasc of
which
is
equal
given line D.
Fig. 272.
Bisect the angles
BAG
and
ACB
On
by
lines
meeting
off
at the
centre
to the
it
(Prob. 13).
Join EB.
the line
AB set
AF equal
given line D.
cuts
till
EB
it
at
BC
cuts
From F draw a line parallel to AE till G (Prob. 4). From G- draw a line parallel to EC at H. From H draw a line parallel to AC
at
till it
cuts
EA
K.
Join
KG-.
KGH
169.
will be the similar
triangle required.
Problem
To construct about a given triangle ABC, and equidistant from

sides,
its
a similar
triangle, the base of ivhich is equal to
given line L.
Fig. 272.
Set off on the base
AB produced, AN
144
L,
From ISTdraw
produced
at 0.
a line parallel to
EA
(Prob. 4)
till
it
meets
till
EB
From
draw a
liue parallel to
AB
it
Fig. 272.
meets
till it
EA
produced at M.
From
at P.
M draw a
Join PO.
line parallel to
AC
meets
EC
produced
Then
MOP will te
the similar triangle required.
Pkoblem
170.
ivitliin
To construct
a given square
ABCD, and
it,
equidistant
from
a square, one side of which

equal
to the
is
given line E.
Draw the diagonals AD and From A on AB set off AF equal to the given line E. From F, parallel to AD, draw a line till it meets CB at G (Prob. 4). With M as centre, and radius MG, set
CB.
Fig. 273.
off the points
H, K, and L, and
will be the square
join
GH, HK, KL, and LG.
Then
HGLK
required.
SIMILAR FIGURES
145
Problem
To
construct
171.
a triangle similar
to
a given triangle CDE, and
having
its
'perimeter equal to
a given straight lineAB.
On
tlie
given line
AB
construct
a triano'le
triangle
at
ABF
similar to the oiven
CDE, by making
the angles
A and B equal at the angles at D respectively. Bisect the angles at A and B by lines meeting
C and
at G.
From
till it
G-
draw a
line parallel
to
FB
;
meets
AB
it
at
(Prob.
line
4)
and from
draw another
meets
parallel to
AF
till
AB
at
H.
Then
HLG
will be the similar
triangle required.
See also Figs. 216, 217, 221, 231, 232, and 233, as well as
the problems in Chapter
XIV.
" Principles of Similitude"
CHAPTEE XIV
peinciples of similitude
Peoblem
172. join each angle to

in K,
Draw
E.
a rectangle
ABCD, and
any point
(Prob.
1).
Bisect
EB
in G,
EA
in Y,
ED
and
EC
in
Join FCt,
GK, KH, and HF, then
FGHK
will be a rectangle
with sides one-half the length of the rectangle
ABCD.
If
we draw the diagonals
BC
and GH, we
shall
find
they are
Fig. 275.
parallel to each other,
and that
it
BC GH
:
as 2
1.
If
we
take
any point
in
in
BD
and draw
to point E, it will intersect
GK
is
M, and
will
divide
GK
in the
same proportion
as
BD
divided.
On the principle
to a given figure, If
of this problem,
we can draw
a figure similar
e.g.
and having any proportion

draw a rectangle having
desired,
we wish
to
sides equal to one-
CHAP. XIV
PRINCIPLES OF SIMILITUDE
147
third of a given rectangle,
we should
trisect the lines
drawn
from the angles of the given rectangle
to E,
The point
figures
is
called
the centre of similiHide of the two
ABCD
and
EGHK,
which in
this instance are said to be
in dwect similitude.
The following problem shows the
principle
of inverse similitude.
Peoblem
To draw a
trarpezium similar
to
173.
a given trapezium
ABCD,
ivith
sides two-thirds the length of the given trapezium, in
invekse
SIMILITUDE.
Take any point

from
E
to
in a convenient position.
Produce a
line
A through E
K, making
EK
equal to two-thirds of
AE
(Prob. 10).
Proceed in the same manner with each of the points
B, C, and D, which will give the points H, G, and E.
Join
KH,
HE, EG, and GK.
Then
EGHK will be
Peoblem
174.
the trapezium required.
To dravj a
circle
one-half the radius of a given
circle,
hij
DIEECT and inveese similitude.

circle.
1).
Let
be the centre of the given

Bisect
Take any con-
venient point E.
AE
in
(Prob.
Erom E draw
148
tangents to the given circle (Prob. 84).

to the tangent
Draw KB perpendicular
as centre,
EO
(Prob.
5).
With B
and
BE
as
Fig. 277.
radius,
draw the
circle
required,
This
would be by
direct
similitude.
To draiu
it
hy inverse similitude.
C,
Take any convenient point
and draw a
line
from
A through
to B,
making CB equal
to one-half of
AC.
it
From C draw
in the points
tangents to the given circle (Prob. 84) touching
H
C
and K.
Draw any
convenient radius
AD.
Through point
draw
till it
GF parallel to AD (Prob. 4). Produce a line from D through meets GF in G. BG is the radius of the circle required. Note. C is called the internal, and E the external centre
If
of similitude.
we
find the centres of similitude,
the direct
common
tangents or the transverse
we can easily draw either common tangents to

illustra-
two
circles (see Probs.
97 and
98).
Let the two

tion be given,
circles,
it is
with centres of similitude, in the
and
required to draw the two sets of tangents
just described.
Join the centres
A and B.
Draw any
convenient radius
AD,
and draw
to
BF
parallel to it (Prob. 4).
Join DF.
Produce
BA
M, and draw a line from to the point where DE cuts the circle. Join DL. Through the point of intersection N draw the
149
Hue
OP
perpendicular to
AB
(Prob.
5).
These are the points

Join
of contact for the direct
common
tangents.
OE
and PE,
1),
two of the tangents required.
Bisect
CA
in S (Prob.
and
through S draw a line perpendicular to AB,
IVhere this line
cats the circle are the points of contact for the transverse
common
tangents,
which can be drawn through
C.
Peoblem
175.
To draw an irregular polygon similar
to
a given polygon, tut with

polygon
sides tvjo-thirds the length of the given
ABCDEFG.
should be
It is not necessary that the centre of similitude
taken outside the figure ;

the angles of the figure,
if
e.g.
more convenient, we can use one of

let
be the centre of similitude.
Fio;.
278.
Draw
lines
from
all
the angles of the polygon to A.
Make
IST,
AK
and
two-thirds of
AD
(Prob. 10), and divide all the other lines in
the same proportion, which will give the points L,
M,
0,
H.
Join
NM, ML, LK, KH,
and HO, which will give the and the corresponding
polygon required.
Note.
The
figures are similar,
sides
are parallel to each other.
150

Pkoblem
176,
to
chap.
To draio an irregular ^pentagon similar
a given pentagon
ABODE,
Draw FG
hut
ivitJi
sides one-half the
length of the given
pientagon, toithoid using
any
centre of similitude.
in any convenient position parallel to
AB, and
Fig. 279.
half
its
length (Prob,
its
4).
From
G-
draw
GH
parallel to
BC
Join
and half
remaining
length.
Proceed in the same way with the
sides,
which will give the points
and
L.
HK, KL, and
LF, which will give the pentagon required.
Peoblem
177.
to
To draw a curve or pattern similar
a given figure,
hut to ttvo-thirds the scale.
Enclose the given figure in a convenient rectangular figure
ABCD, and
(Prob. 10).
into a
divide the sides of the rectangle into equal parts
Join these divisions, which will divide the rectangle

of equal squares or rectangles.
number
Draw
it
another
rectangle
EFGH
with
sides
two -thirds
the
length of the
in a similar
rectangle enclosing the given figure, and divide
manner.
XIV
151
Draw
figure.
the curves to intersect these smaller divisions in the

as the larger divisions are intersected
same places
by the given
r>
/
1
r>
/
\
ti
"^
/
/"
<N^ f)
\
\A
1 -0
L^
/ ) I \ ^\ U x" "î^ 6 y
/
A
Fig. 280.
Iôfe.
This method
any
is
used for enlarging or reducing maps
or drawings to
scale
when they
are composed of curves
or irregular lines.
CHAP TEE XV
CONIC SECTIONS
conic section is obtained
by intersecting a cone by a
plane.
There are
five different sections to a cone, viz.

1.
A A
triangle,
when
the
plane
cuts the cone through

2.
its axis,
circle,
when
the plane cuts

base, as at A,
the cone parallel to

rig. 281.
3.
its
An ellipse, when
the plane cuts
the cone obliquely, without intersect-
ing the base, as at B.

4.
parcibola,
when
the
plane
cuts the cone parallel to one side, as

at C.
Fig. 281.
5.
An
liypcrliola, its
when
i.e.
the cone
parallel
is
cut
by a plane that
is
perpendicular to
base,
to its axis, as at
D, or inclined to the axis at a
less angle
than
the side of the cone.
These curves can be drawn with the greatest accuracy and

facility
by the following arrangement.
Cut a circular opening
in a piece of thin card-board or stiff paper,
and place
it
a short
distance from a lighted candle

(Fig. 282).
to a
this will
form a cone of light
If
we
place a plane
or
it,
a piece of paper pinned
drawing-board
so as to allow the light

fall
coming through
the circular aperture to
upon
we
can,
by placing
it
in
the several positions, intersect this cone of light so as to
form
CONIC SECTIONS
the required sections, which can then be traced.
candle,
153
is
the
is
the circular aperture, and
the plane.
4^
Fig. 282.
In Fig. 282 the plane

section obtained
is
is
parallel to the aperture, so the
circle.
C^>
FiR. 283.
If the plane is placed obliquely to the aperture, as in Fig.
283, the section obtained
is
an
ellipse.
154
By
placing the plane parallel to the side of the cone, as in
Fig. 284, the section gives the 'paraljola.
Fig. 284.
If
we
place the plane at right angles to the aperture,
we
obtain the hyperhola, Fig. 285.
By
adjusting the positions of the candle, aperture, and plane,
Fig. 285.
we can
obtain a conic section to suit any required condition,

size.
is
both as to shape or
truncated cone or frustrum
the part of the cone below
section A, Fig. 281.
CONIC SECTIONS
155
The
Ellipse.
An
riglit
ellipse
has two unequal diameters or axes,
wliicli are at
angles to each other.
The longer one

is
is called
the trons-
versc diameter,
and the shorter one the conjugate diameter.

also called the major axis, as
axis, as
The transverse diameter

(Fig. 286),
AB
and the conjugate diameter the minor
CD.
Problem
The two axes
178.
AB
and
CD
leing given,
to
construct
an
ellipse.
Take a
strip of
paper and set off upon
it
the distance
FH,
equal to half the major axis,
and the distance FG, equal to

half the minor axis.
By keeping
axis,
the point
G-
on the major
and the point

axis, the
on the minor
will
point
give
point in the ellipse.
succesFiK. 2SG.
sion of points can be found in

this
manner,
through
which
will give the required ellipse.
draw a
ellipse
fair curve,
which
An
and
has two
foci,
as the points
and B,
is
Fig. 287,
the
sum
of the radii from these
two points
Let
always equal.
and
represent two
pins,
and
ABC
a piece of thread.
By
ing
placing the point of a pencil
inside the thread at C,

it
and keepon
the
the
drawn
tight, the pencil
being
ellipse.
Fig. 287.
moved
would
the
trace
As
is
length
of
thread
constant, the
sum
of the
also.
two
radii
must be constant
iS6
PRACTICAL PLANE GEOINIETRY

Problem
179.
The
transverse
and
conjugate diameters of
to
an
ellipse being given,
find the foci.
Let
AB
at
and
CD
angles
be
the
two diameters bisecting

other
right
or
each
in E.
5 With C
the
as centres,
and
on
the
radius equal to
EA,
set off
transverse
diameter
points
and G, which will be
the foci required.
To
construct
an
ellipse
hy
means of intersecting
arcs.
Divide the space between each focus and

of parts.
E into
any number
if
Tliey need not be equal
in fact,
it
would be better
B4,
they were closer together as they approached the foci
From
B3,,
F and G A2 and
as centres, with radii equal to
A4 and
L,
A3 and
B2,
Al and
draw a
Bl, describe arcs cutting each other on

in the points
curve,
each side of the line

these points
required.
AB
H, K,
and M.
Through
fair
which
will
give the ellipse
Peoblem
To draw an approximate
axis
180=
ellipse ivith arcs
of
circles, the
major
AB
and
the
minor axis
CD
being given.
Let
AB
and
CD
with
intersect
each other at right angles in E.
From
radius,
point A,
CD
F
as
mark
off
the point
on
AB, and divide
FB
into three
equal parts (Prob. 10).
From
the
E, with two of these parts as

radius,
mark
off
on
AB
points
H and K.
From
and
K, with radius equal
to
HK^
XV
CONIC SECTIONS
arcs in
157
draw intersecting
and radius equal
L and M.
Produce
AVith
lines
through
LH
and LK, and through ]\IH and

to
MK.
and
as centres,
HA, draw
the arcs
PAN
to
and OBR.
With
L and
as centres,
and radius equal
MN", draw the arcs

ellipse.
XCO
and PDE,
w^liich will
complete the required
Peoblem
To
construct
181.
lines, the transverse
an
ellipse
hy means of intersecting
the conjugate diameter
diameter
AB
and
CD
heing given.
Draw
6).
the lines
AB
E
and
CD
intersecting each other at right
angles in the point
(Prob.
Draw
AB,
to
and
to
HK and FG parallel HF and KG

CD
and
equal
(Prob.
4).
parallel
Divide
AH
of
BK
into
any
say
number
parts,
four (Prob. 10), and
AE
and
EB
Join
in
into
the
same number.
the three points
C with
from
in
AH
and BK, and produce
lines
points
D through the three AE and EB. Where
these lines
intersect
those
drawn from
and draw a
C, points in one-half of the ellipse will be obtained.

for the other half in the
Find corresponding points

fair
same manner,
curve through the points obtained, which will
give the required ellipse.
Peoblem
182.
lines, the
Another method of drawing an ellipse hy intersecting major and minor axes heing given.
Let
AB
and
CD
be the major and minor axes
draw them
intersecting each other at right angles in

as centre,
E
;
(Prob.
6).
With E
as centre,
and
EA
as radius,
draw a
circle
and with
158
and
EG
as radius,
draw another
circle.
Divide the quadrant

in
FB
into four equal parts
the jDoints H, K, and L.
Join
these points to E, cutting the
inner circle in the points
M,
N, and 0.
Eroni the points

lines parallel
H, K, and
to
L draw
;
FE
(Prob. 4)
and from M,
lines parallel
N, and
to
draw
till
EB
they meet the lines
from H, K, and L.
Fi?. 291.
These will
give the points for one-quarter

of the ellipse.
for the other three-quarters in the
fair
Eind the points
same manner, then draw a
curve through
all
the points obtained, which will give the
required ellipse.
Peoblem
To find
the
183.
normal and tangent
to
a given
ellipse
ABCD,
at
given point P.
"With
as
centre,
and
radius equal to
arc
EA, draw the

will
EH, which
foci in
give the
,
->
two
the given point
E and H. Join P with E and
/I
\^
H, and by the
bisect the angle

line
EPH
13).
'
^
D
-i-yv.
j
PK
(Prob.
PK
line
is
the normal.
Draw
is
the
NO
through P, perpento
vT"
184.
dicular
PK.
This
the
Fig. 292.
tangent required.
Peoblem
To complete an
Let
ellipse from
an
ellipticcd curve.
AB
be the given curve.
Draw any two
sets of parallel
CONIC SECTIONS
chords and bisect tliem (Prob.
in each set
C.
1).
59
Join
tlie
points of bisection
by
lines
meeting in
Produce one of these lines

meets the given curve in
as centre,
till it
J),
With C
and
CD
AD.
as radius, set off
on the given
Join
line
curve the point A,
Throuoh C draw
parallel to
line
HK
'_^-'''
293.
AD
(Prob. 4), also the

to
to
CL
6).
perpendicular
AD
M,
Also
(Prob.
Produce
CL
making
JjM
CM
equal to CL.
make
CK
equal to
CH
Then
will be the transverse

ellipse
and
HK
the conjugate diameters.
The
can then be completed by any of the constructions

If from
already described.
L]\'r,
A and D
lines are
drawn
parallel to
inter-
and with C
as centre,
and radius CD,
arcs are
drawn
secting these lines in
and P, these will be two more points in
the ellipse.
Problem
To draw an
Join
ellipse to
185.
pass through three given points A, B, C.

it
AC and
bisect
in D.
Join BD.
Prom
A and C draw
Fig. 294.
the lines
AE
and
CF
parallel to
BD.
Through
B draw
the line
i6o

parallel to
EF
BD.
Divide
AD
AC. Produce BD to H, and make DH equal to and DC into any number of equal parts, say-
four,
and
also divide
AE
and
CF
into a corresponding
of equal parts.
Join the divisions on
AE
and
CF
to
number B. From
H, throngli the divisions on AC, draw

corresponding lines drawn to B.
lines
till
they meet the

curve through
Draw
fair
these points, which will give half of the required ellipse.

in the
Proceed
same way with the other
half.
Pkoblem
To determine
iJoints for draivivg
186.
the focus
a -parahola,
leing given.
and
the
directrix
BC
Drawthe line EAD perpendicular to

which
will give the axis.
the directrix
BC (Prob. 6),
which
will
Bisect
AD
in
(Prob.
1),
Â
H
F
a.
be the vertex of the curve.

i
Take any points

e
a,&, c,d,
and
in the axis, and
draw per-
pendiculars through them.
From A
as centre,
mark
ctD,
off
on the perpendiculars, arcs
K/^
E
c
with radii equal to
&D,
cD, ^D, and eD, cutting the

perpendiculars in a h
,
,
\
C
j'jo.,
c ,d!
and
e.
required for the lower half

of the parabola.
a.
The points
e
295.
above the axis are found in

the same manner.
To dra%o a tangent
Join
to
to
a,
parabola at a given
"point
H.
AH.
Join
From
set off
AK
on the axis produced equal

This
AH.
KH, which
will be the required tangent.
could also be found by drawing a line from

axis
till it
parallel to the
meets the directrix in B, and then
bisectinfr the anale
CONIC SECTIONS
i6i
AHB
by the
line
KH (Prob. 13), which

HL perpendicular
Peoblem
187.
is
the tangent.
it
If
from
H Ave
draw the
line
to the tangent,
will be
the normal.
To draiv a ]jardbola, an
abscissa
AB
and an ordinate
BC
heing given.
Complete the rectangle
ABCD.
Divide
BC into any number
of equal parts, say six (Prob. 10),
and
CD
into the
same number.
From
each division in
BC draw
(Pi'ob. 4),
lines parallel to
CD
and from each of the divisions

in
CD
draw
lines to the vertex
A.
Where
these lines of cor-
responding numbers intersect,

e.g.
w^here 1 intersects with
1',
wdth
2',
etc.,
are points in
the
parabola.
Find
correaxis,
sponding points on the opposite side of the

fair
and draw a
curve through them.
Peoblem
To draw an
188.
hyperhola, the diameter
AB, an
ordinate
CD, and
an
abscissa
BD being given.
Draw
^
CD
III
1
BE
parallel
to
(Prob. 8),
and complete
Produce BD,
equal
the rectangle.
and
R
make
AB
to
E
_J^:'jf
the given diameter.
Divide
C a
e
Fis
D
297.
\
M
CD and CE into any number

of equal parts, say four (Prob.
10), a,
b,
c.
The
divisions
on
CD join to A, and those on CE to B. The intersection
l62

e.g.
of tlie corresponding lines,

c c
,
"wliere
a intersects a,
h h
and
are points in the hyperbola required.
Find corresponding
points for the other half, and
draw a
fair
curve through them.
Pkoblem
189.
is
A
shown
lola.
form of hyperbola frequently nsed by engineers

in the following figure,
that
and
is
called a rectangular liyper-
Let
AB
and
AC
it
represent two axes, and
the vertex
of the curve.

to A.
ABDC.
Take any point
in
CD
and join
Let
fall
a perpendicular from
Fig. 298.
till it
meets
it
HA
in
(Prob. 6).
Erom
draw
to
OK
parallel to
AB
till
meets a line from
H parallel
AC
in the point
(Prob. 4).
This will be one point in the curve, and any
number
of other points
treating
may be found by
taking fresh points on
CD
and
them in a
similar manner.
this figure is that, if
it
The peculiar property of

lines
we
take any
point in the curve and draw lines from
perpendicular to the
AB
and AC,
for
example,
is
KN
and
KM, the
i.e.
rectangle
contained by the two lines
always equal,
KIST
KM would
be the same for any point in the curve.
Peoblem
190.
mechanical methocl of clraioing a 'parabola or hyperbola.
Let
AB
represent the edge of a drawing-board and
CD
the
CONIC SECTIONS
edge of a tee-square.
to
163
Take
a piece of string equal in length
CD,
fix
one end at
is
and the
other at E, which
the curve.
against the
the focus of
If a pencil be held
string,
and
kept
it
tight against
will
the tee-square,
trace
half
a parabola on
moving the tee-square upwards.
AB
this
is
the directrix, and
the
vertex of the curve.
Compare
299.
method with the construcIf the angle
tion of Prob. 186.
DCA were
an acute or obtuse angle instead of a

trace
right angle, the pencil
would
an hyperbola.
Pkoblem
To draw an oval hy arcs of
191.
transverse diameter
circles, its
AB
and
Set off on
diameter.
its
conjugate
CD
Icing given.
AB
the distance
AE
equal to half the conjugate
Through
draw the
line
EG
perpendicular to
5).
AB
(Prob.
With E
as centre,
and
and
EA
as radius,
draw the
semicircle
F
5-
'
^ E
D
BH
set off
~ ~y
i
equal to
off
From C CE and DG EA. From B set

to
CAD.
4
v\ ^
^
^'
equal
half of
\V
^ ,'
H.'
EA
lines
From F and
through H.
draw
With F
and
arcs
kS<
Yi^y.
Vl
300.
and
as centres,
as radius,
^1^^
draw the
ED DL
CK,
With
H as centre,
draw the
and
arc
HK
as radius,
KBL, which
Tlie curves
will complete the oval required.
formed by the conic sections are of the utmost
164

:
CHAP. XV
importance both in science and art
they are traced in space by

;
the heavenly bodies in their courses
they are used by engineers
where great strength

bridges
;
is
required, such as the construction of

etc.
and they form the contour of mouldings,

:
They
among the most beautiful of art forms those subtle curves that we admire so much in the outline of Japanese handare also
screens and vases are modifications of them.
Fig. 301.
rig.
301
is
an
illustration
showing how these curves are
applied to art forms.
To draw the curve CB.

angles to each other (Prob.
Draw
8).
the lines
AB
and
AC
at right
Divide each into the same
number of equal parts (Prob. same manner with the other
10),
and join them.
Proceed in the
curves.
CHAPTER XYI
CYCLOIDAL CURVES, ETC.
If a circle
rolled along a line in the
is
same
plane, a point in
the circle will describe a curve of a class called cydoidal.
The
line along
is
is
which the
circle rolls is called a director,
and
the point itself
called the generator.
The curve
is
called a Cycloid
when
the generator point
in the circumference of the rolling circle
and the
is
director is
a straight line, but a Teochoid
when
the point
not in the
circumference of the
circle.
"When the
another
circle,
director is not a straight line, but the outside of
and the generator
is
in the circumference of the
rolling circle, the curve described is called
an Epicycloid
but
when
the point or generator

it is
is
not in the circumference of the
rolling circle,
called an Epitrochoid.
If the director is the inside of a circle
and the generator a

circle,
is
point in the circumference of the rolling

called a
the curve
is
Hypocycloid
but
if
the generator
called a
is
not in the circum-
ference of the rolling circle,
it is
Hypotrochoid.
In constructing a cycloid
it
necessary to
make a
circle
line
equal in length to the arc of a semicircle.
The exact
relation
between the diameter and circumference of a

be definitely
to arrive at
1
cannot
fixed,
but the following problem will enable us

is
an approximation, the error of which
only about
OOjOOO-
i66
Peoblem
To draw a
Let
192.
line equal to the length of
semicircle.
AC
AC
represent the radius.

to
Draw
the semich^cle
it,
Produce
D, and draw
BC
perpendicular to
ABD. Prom A
a
and
draw tangents
parallel to
BC, and through

set off
B draw
tangent parallel to
AD.
Prom B
BE
equal to the radius,
and draw the
line
BF
through E.
Produce the tangent through
Fig. 302.
to
H, and make
AH
equal to
AD.
Join HP, which will be
the line required.

If
we
take
AC
to represent a length equal to the diameter
of a circle, then
HP
will equal the circumference.
We
means
If
;
are also enabled to find the length of an arc

e.g.
by
this
the arc to the chord formed
by one
side of a pentagon.
PH is equal to
the circumference, then
PH =
the length of the
arc required.
CYCLOIDAL CURATES, ETC.

Problem
To draw a
Let
193.
cycloid.
167
AB
be the director, and
rolling circle AM|?.
circumference of the
p the generator or point in the Draw AB equal in length to half the circle AM^, and divide it into any number
and
of equal divisions (Prob. 10), say six, d, c,f, g, h,
Divide
the semicircle into the same

14),
number
of equal divisions (Prob.

to
and draw
(Prob.
lines
from each division parallel
the director
AB
parallel
Draw the line CK from the 4). to AB. Draw lines perpendicular
centre of the circle

to
AB
(Prob. 5) at
the points
points
d,
c,
f, g, h,
and k
till
they meet the line
CK
in the
D, E, F, G, H, and K.
Gr,
With each
of the
points
to C^,
D, E, F,
H, and
as centres,
and a radius equal
draw
arcs cutting the parallel lines

IST,
drawn from the
divisions
in the semicircle in the points
0, P, Q, E, and T.
This will
give points in half the cycloid.

for the
Find the corresponding points

fair
remaining
half,
and draw a
curve through the
points,
which
will give the cycloid required.

to the curve at
till
t
To determine the tangent and normal

point t
any
Draw
the line
t'.
parallel to
t'A.
AB
it
meets the
line
generating circle at
Join
Through
draw the
WW
parallel to
is
t'A..
This will be the normal to the curve.
The
tangent rs
at rioiit angles to this line.
i6S

Peoblem
To
Let
drct'W
194.
a trochoid.
;p
AB
be the director, and
the generator outside the

it.
rolling circle D, but to revolve with
Divide the
circle
into
any number of equal
parts, say twelve (Prob. 14).
Through
and
the centre of the circle draw a line parallel to
AB
(Prob. 4),
from C, along
Y, and
this line, set off eight divisions
N, 0, P, E,
S, T,
W,
each equal to one of the divisions on the circle D.

as centre,
With C
and radius Qp, draw the
circle E,
and
Fig. 304.
produce the divisions in

r, G,
to
circle
till
they meet
it
in the points
lines parallel
H, K, L, and M, and from these points draw

V, and
d,
e,
AB. With the
points C,
J^,
0, P,
Pt,
S, T,
c,
W, and
M.
a radius
equal to Gp, set off the points

parallels
fair
a, 6,
'F,
f, g,
and h on the
drawn from the points
G, H, K, L, and
Draw
curve through these points.

Note.
Half of the trochoid

continued to
curve
is
would be from p to /, but the show the loop which is characteristic of

is
trochoid curves
when
the generator
outside the rolling circle.
To draw a tangent and normal
at
any point
t.
Draw
the
XVI
CYCLOIDAL CURVES, ETC

tt'
169
line
parallel to
tlie
AB
vjt
till
it
meets the
circle
in
t.
Join
t'm.
Draw
normal
it.
parallel to t'm,
and the tangent
rs at right
angles to
Problem
To draw an
Note.
195.
cjjici/doid.
The length of the arc of

;
director is to the
whole
circle
as the radins of the rolling circle is to the radius of the director

e.g.
if
radius of rolling circle
6 inches
then the
= 1 inch, and = director ^ of a circle.

is
that of director
=
]j
Let
AB
be the director, which
a part of a circle, and
Fig. 305.
the generator.
circle
AlNI^j),
e,
Make AB
it
equal in length to half the

into
rolling-
and divide
f, g, h,
any number of equal

14).
divisions,
say
six, d,
and k (Prob.
Divide the semicircle
into the
same number of equal
divisions,
and draw
lines
from
these points, as well as from the centre of the circle, concentric
with the arc AB.

the arc
From
lines
the centre of the circle that contains

d, e,f, g, h,
AB
draw
through the points
and h
till
they meet the arc drawn from the centre of the rolling
circle.
With D,
E, r, G, H, and
as centres,
and a radius equal
to
I/O

draw
arcs
till tliey
C/?,
meet
tlie
concentric arcs
'N,
drawn from
and draw a
tlie
divisions of the semicircle in the points
0, P, Q, E,
and
T.
rind corresponding points on the opposite

curve
througli all
side,
fair
the
points,
which will be the epicycloid

to the curve,
required.
At any
till it
point
to
draw a tangent and normal
proceed as follows.
Draw
the arc
tt'
concentric to the arc
AB
t
meets the generating
circle in t.
Join
t'A.
With
as
at
centre,
w'.
and radius equal

tio,
to t'A,
it
draw an arc intersecting

iv.
AB
Join
and produce
to
it.
This
is
the normal.
The
tangent
rs is at right angles to
Problem
To drcao an
Let
196.
epitrochoicl.
AB be
the director, which
is
the arc of a circle, and
'jo
the
generator outside the circumference of the
rolliiisc
circle M'.
XVI
171
Make AB
M, and
14).
equal in length to half the circumference of the circle

it
divide
into
any number of equal

circle
parts, say six (Prob.
Divide half of the
M'
into the
same number
of
equal parts.
With C
lines
as centre,
and radius Gp, draw the
circle
^SR, and draw

circle till
from
C through
the divisions in the semiIST,
they meet this circle in the points L, M,
0, P,
and
E,
Through each of these
points, as well as the centre C,
draw
meet
"With
off
arcs concentric with the director

circle containing the arc
AB.
Prom
the centre of the
AB
draw radiating
lines till they
the arc drawn from
in the points D, E, P, G,
H, and K.
each of these points as centres, and a radius equal to Cp, set

the points T, V,
W,
X, Y, and
divisions of the circle ^:>SE.

points,
Z on the arcs drawn from the Draw a fair curve through these
at
which
will give half of the epitrochoid required.
The tangent and normal

follows.
any point
are determined as
Draw
the arc
t',
tt'
concentric to the arc

^'A.
BA
till it
meets
the circle jjSR in

to t'A,
line to
Join
With
as centre,
and radius equal and produce the

rs is
draw an
10.
arc cutting
BA in id.
Join
tio
This will give the normal.

it.
The tangent
drawn
at
right angles to
Peoblem
197.
To draw a liypocydoid.
Let
AB

is
is
the arc of a
circle,
and
^j
the generator, which

rolling circle
]\'I.
a point in the circumference
of the
Make AB
into
14).
equal in length to half of the circle

parts, say six, d, e,f, g,
M, and
li,
divide
it
any number of equal
and k (Prob.
Divide the semicircle into the same
number
of equal parts,
and from the centre

arcs
of the circle con-
taining the arc
AB
draw concentric
from these points, as from the points

d, e,f,
well as from the centre C.

g, h,
Draw
lines
and h towards the centre of the

till
circle containing the arc
AB
they meet the arc from the centre
in the points
D, E, F, G, H, and K.
With each
draw
arcs
of these points as centres,

till
and a radius equal
to Qp,
they meet the concentric
172

drawn from the
T.
arcs
divisions of the semicircle in the points
N, 0, P, Q, E, and
Find the corresponding points
for the
/.
Fig, 307.
other half, and draw a fair curve through all the points, which
will give the hypocycloid required.
at
any point
arc
t
are thus obtained.

till
it
Draw
the arc
tt
concentric to the
^'.
AB
meets the
generating circle at
Join { K.
With
v:
.
as centre,
and radius
equal to ^K, set

the line to
ano;les to
it.
off
on
is
AB
the point
Join
t%o
and produce
rs is at right
%o.
This
the normal.
The tangent
Pkoblem
198.
To draw a hypotroclwid.
Let
AB

is
is
the arc of a circle, and
the generator, which
a point outside the rolling circle
M, but
made
circle
to revolve with
it.
Make AB
equal in length to half the

of equal parts, say six,
M, and
li,
divide
li
it
into
any number
d, e,f, g,
and
(Prob, 166).
Divide' half of the circle
M into
the same
number
of equal parts.
With C
as centre,
and radius
Cp, draw the circle S, and draw lines from the centre
C through

the divisions in the semicircle
points
/,
173
till
they meet the circle S in the
m,
n, 0,]),
and
r.
From
the centre of the circle containing the arc

these points, as well as
d,
e,
AB
draw
C.
concentric arcs from
from the centre
Draw
arc
lines
from the points
f, g, h,
and h towards the

till
centre of the circle containing the arc
AB,
they meet the
drawn from C in the points D,
E, F, G,
H, and K.
With
each of these points as centres, and a radins equal to
C^j, set off
Fi-. 308.
the points
IT,
0, P, Q, E,
and T on the concentric
arcs
drawn
from the divisions in the circumference of the
circle S.
Draw
Note.
loop.
fair
curve through these points, which will give half
of the hypotrochoid required.
The
thick dotted line shows the completion of the
To determine the tangent and normal

as follows.
circle
t
at
any point
till
t,
proceed
Draw
t'.
the arc
t'A.
tt'
concentric to
t
AB
it
meets the
to
S in
off
Join
With
The
as centre,
and radius equal
A, set
on
is
AB
the point lo.
Join tw, and produce the line

it.
to w.
This
the normal.
tausfent rs is at ri^ht angles to
174

The
liypocycloid possesses a very peculiar
and important
property,
which
is
illustrated in Fig. 309.

is
If the diameter
Ap
of the circle containing the generator^:)
half of the diameter

will
of the circle containing the director
AB, the generator p
describe the straight line j;B instead of a curve.
"While the point
;p
is
describing the straight line pB, the point
A will
describe
the straight line A^.

If the generating circle
were to make a complete revolution

the points
round the directing

the diameters
circle,
and
'p
would describe
DB and AE
to the larger circle, at right angles to
each other.
XVI
CYCLOIDAL CURVES, ETC

If a point
175
be taken anywhere on the diameter AE, either
inside or outside of the directing circle, this point will describe
an
ellipse,
one-quarter of which
is
shown.
This principle has

286.
been used in drawing the

ellipse
ellipse in Fig.
So both the
and a straight
line belong to the cycloidal series.
Problem
To draw
199.
the involute of
circle.
The involute
a flexible line
is
is
a particular kind of epicycloidal curve.
If
unwound from
a circle or curve, and at the same
time kept straight, any point in this line will describe a curve
called the involute of the circle or curve.

or curve is called its evolute.
The generating
circle
Let
A be
a given circle, Fig. 310.
From B draw
the tangent
BC
(Prob. 84) equal in length to half the circumference of the

circle.
given
Divide this tangent into any number of equal

D, E, F, H, and K, and divide half of the
parts, say six (Prob. 10),
circumference of the given circle into the same

parts
d, e,f, h,
and
h.
to the semicircle.
From Make del' = BD,
each of these points

ee
number of equal draw tangents

/'
= BE,
= BF,
hli
176

kh'
BH, and
curve,
= BK.
Through the points thus found draw a

any point T are obtained
fair
which
will be the involute required.

at
thus.
it
Draw the W. This
line
is
TP
tangential to the circle A, and produce

;
to
it.
the normal
the tangent
ES
is at
right angles to
Problem 200.
To
construct a continuous curve,
radii, tlirowjh
Tjy
a conibinaiion of arcs of different

])oints
a numhcr of given
A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, and H.
Join the points AC, CD, DE,

the
circle
etc.
Find the centre

(Prob.
34).
of
containing
the
arc
ABC
Join
CK.
Fis. 311.
Bisect the line
CD
(Prob.
1),
and produce the bisecting per-
pendicular
the line
Join DL. Bisect DE, and produce the bisecting perpendicular till it meets DL produced in M. Find the remaining points N, 0, and P in the same manner. The points Iv, L, M, N, 0, and P are the
till it
meets
CK
produced in L.
centres of the circles containing the arcs necessary for joining
the given points.

Problem
201.
177
To draw a comonon sjnral of Jive revolutions on a given

diameter
AB
hy means of sem icircles.

(Prob. 10).
Divide
division
With C
radius,
AB into ten equal parts from A in C (Prob. 1). as centre, and CK as

as centre,
Bisect the sixth
draw the semicircle KL.
With
and radius
KL, draw the semicircle LH.
With C
as centre,
and
radii
all
CH,
the
CP, CE, and CD, draw
semicircles above the line
AB
radii
Fio:.
and with
as centre,
and
KF, KE, KD, and KA, draw

all
312.
the semicircles below the
line
AB, which
will complete the required spiral
Problem
202.
revolution.
To construct an Archimedean sjnral of one
Draw
a circle and divide
it
by
radii
into
any number of
Cl-^
178
PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRV

a, h,
c,
equal parts, say twelve (Prob. 14),

radius o into a corresponding
etc.
d,
etc.
Divide the
1, 2, 3, 4,
number
of equal parts
(Prob. 10).
till
Prom
it
the centre of the circle, with radius

till
1,
it
draw an arc
completed.
etc.,
meets the radius a in A, and from 2

in B,
meets the radius
and
so
on
till
the whole twelve are
Draw
a fair curve through these points, A, B, C, D,
which
will give the spiral required.
Problem
203.
revolutions.
To construct an ArcMviedean spiral of two
Draw
a circle and divide
it
into equal parts
by
radii,
as
Fig. 314.
described in the preceding problem.

circle,
Prom
i.e.
the centre of the
with half
its
radius,
draw another
circle.
The part
of
the spiral contained in this inner circle,
one revolution, will
be drawn precisely the same as the one described in the preceding problem.
Divide the outer half of radius

(Prob. 10),
o into
twelve equal divisions

circle, as
and describe
arcs
from the centre of the
before described,
and draw the curve through these
points,
which
will complete the spiral required.
CYCLOIDAL CURVES,
ETC.
179
LOGARITHMIC SPIRALS.
The logarithmic
spiral
was discovered by Descartes.

constant.
It is
also called the equiangular spiral, because the angle the curve
makes with the radius vector
is
The curve
also bears
a constant proportion to the length of the radius vector.
K
A
_
^
sP
\
// /
/
//
D
H
\
^
/
/
/e
pA
\^
>
7
--^
X.
p
\^
Fig. 315.
Take any
(Fig. 315).
line
AC
for the radius vector,
and bisect
it
in
With D as centre, and radius DA, draw the semicircle ABC. From the points A and C draw any two lines AB and CB cutting the semicircle. Then ABC is a right-angled
triangle.
Bisect the line

.
BC
in E.
With E
as centre,
and
EB
as
radius,
draw the semicircle BFC.
Make
the angle
BCF
equal to
i8o
the angle
in
F.
ACB, and produce

The
the line
till it
meets the semicircle

then similar to the
Join BF.
triangle
BFC
is
triangle
ABC.
all
By
repeating this construction
succession of similar triangles radiating from a

C,
we obtain a common centre

The
etc.,
and
forming equal angles at this point.
exterior
points of these triangles, viz. A, B, F,

in the required spiral.
M, N,
0,
are points
Fig. 316.
As each
evident
triangle with its curve forms a similar figure,
it
is
that
the
i.e.
curve must form a constant angle with
its
radius vector,
the line radiating from C, and the portion of
the curve accompanying each triangle, must also bear a constant

proportion to the length of
If
its
radius vector.
we
bisect the angle
ABF
by the dotted
;
line
HB,
this line
will be the
normal
to the curve
is
and the
line
KL, being drawn
at right angles to
HB,
the tangent to the spiral.
As
all
the angles at
are equal, the spiral could be con-
xvr

by
first
i8i
structed with greater facility
drawing a
circle
and
in
dividing
Fig. 316.
it
into an equal
number
of parts
by
radii, as
shown
Let
centre,
AC
be the radius vector.
Bisect
it
in D.
With
as
and radius DA, draw an arc cutting the next radius
CB
in B.
sion,
Proceed in the same manner with each radius in succes-
which will determine the points H, K,

a fair curve through these points,
spiral.
Draw
M, IST, 0, P, etc. and we shall obtain a

L,
logarithmic
The greater the number
of radii used in the construction,
the larger will be the angle
BAG
but the angle
ABC
will
always be a right angle, as will be seen by the construction in

Eig. 315.
Peoblem
To draiv a
204,
spiral adapted for the Ionic volute hy
means of arcs.
Divide the given height
AB
into eight equal parts (Prob.
Fig. 317.
l82

Bisect the fourth part in the point
10).
it
(Prob.
1),
and from
this line
draw a
AB
is
(Prob. 5).
Make
equal in length to four of the divisions of

the eye of the volute D.
AB, which
will give
This
shown
to a larger scale at E.
With
as centre,
draw a
circle
with a radius equal to C4.

its
Inscribe a square in this circle (Prob. 56), and bisect each of

sides in the points
1, 2, 3,
and 4 (Prob.
1).
Join these points,
and draw diagonals.

parts
Divide each semi-diagonal into three equal

10),
and join them (Prob.
thus making three complete
squares parallel to each other.
The corner
of each of these
squares in succession will be the centre of one of the arcs,
commencing
at
1,
with
as radius, as
shown by dotted
lines
and arrow-heads.
Diagram, showing special forms of
eccentrics or cams.
The half
of the figure
drawn
to the left of the line
AE
shows
the form of a
cam
that will produce a rectilinear riiotion that

its
is
equable throughout
Let
length.
BE
represent the
amount of
rectilinear
motion required.
xvi
CYCLOIDAL CURVES,
ETC.
1S3
One-half of
BE
will give the shortest radius of the cam,
and one
any
and a half times
BE
the longest radius.
Draw
a circle with a
it
radius equal to one and a half times BE, and divide
into
number
of equal parts, say eighteen,
and draw
radii.
Divide
BE
into half this
number,
i.e.
nine (Prob. 10), and draw con-
centric arcs, with

radii in succession.
as centre, stopping each arc against the
Draw
a fair curve through the points thus
obtained.
This will give half of the cam.

to the right of the line
The form of the half cam

in
AE
is
one
which the radius varies by a law more

construction
easily understood from
the
than by any description (Prob. 152).

of traverse.
DE
represents the
semicircle
amount
it.
Bisect this line, and draw a
upon
Divide this semicircle into the same number

i.e.
of equal divisions as are contained in half the large circle,

nine,
and from these divisions draw

(Prob.
5).
lines
perpendicular to
DE
From
the bases of these perpendiculars draw
concentric arcs from
till
they meet the radii in succession,

fair
and join the points thus obtained by a

linear motion produced
curve.
The
recti-
by
this
cam
is
not equable.
Pkoblem
To draw a
205.
conchoid.
The conchoid
century.
It
is
a curve invented
by Nicomedes
in the fifth
has the peculiar property of always approaching

it is
nearer a straight line as
produced, but would never meet
it.
Draw
is
the line
it
AB,
called the asyni-ptote,

5).
and the
line
CT
perpendicular to
called the
(Prob.
On CE
select the point P,
which
foU:
Erom
C, along
AB,
set off
any number of points
at pleasure,
1, 2, 3, etc.,
and draw
lines
from
through these points.
Pro-
duce the perpendicular
OF
below C, and select the point D.
CD
-
is
called the diameter.
Set off along the lines radiating from

as
distances equal to
points.
CD,
IH, 2K,
etc.,
and draw a curve through these
This

is
called the inferior conchoid.

as Ih, 2k,
If
etc.,
we
set off these distances
above the line AB,
and draw a curve through
these points,
it
would be
called the superior conchoid.
If
we
take the diameter greater than the length CP, the curve would
have a
loop.

Pkoblem
To draw
a,
185
206.
cissoid.
The
cissoid
was invented by Diodes in the second century.
Take any
Bisect
line
CD
in
AB, and draw CD perpendicular to it (Prob. 5). With E as centre, and EC as radius, (Prob. 1).
iS6

circle.
draw a
etc.,
Select
any points on
AB
etc.,
at pleasure, as
1, 2, 3,
and join them
to C, cutting the circle in the points F,
H, K,
from
etc.
Take the lengths IF, 2H, 3K,

Jc,
and
set
them
off
in/, h,
etc.
Draw
a curve through these points, which will
be the required cissoid.

This curve occurs in the mechanism called link-motion.
The catenary curve

its
is
formed by a chain suspended between
ends,
which are
fixed.
similar curve
its focus,
is
found by rolling a
parabola and fixing a point at

called a centcnoid.
which will trace a curve

hyperbola would trace
j)oint fixed at the focus of a rolling
a curve called a nonoid.
Problem
To drav) an
Note.
ogee or
207.
cyma
reversa.
Tlie
cyma
recta has the
hollow part of the moulding
at the top.
E+
Fig. 321.
Let
A and B be the extreme points of the moulding.
Join AB,
XVI

C.
187
and take any point

radius,
With B and C
as centres,
and with any

as centre,
draw the
intersecting arcs at E.
With E
and
EB
as radius,
draw the arc BHC.
Divide
BC
into
any number
of parts.
These divisions should be closer together towards the
ends of the curve.

to
On
these divisions draw lines perpendicular
BC till they meet the arc BHC. From these same divisions on BC draw lines parallel to the base DB. Take the lengths of
them
etc.
the perpendiculars and set
off
on the horizontal
lines,
e.g.
make
Iv]\I
equal to
KL,
Treat the line
AC
in the
same
manner.
Note.
Draw
a fair curve through the points thus found.
The
line.
curve of the moulding will depend upon the
radius of the intersecting arcs at
e.g.
if
we
take a smaller
radius, BIST for instance, the curve will be sharper, as
shown by
the dotted
very important application of the principle of Practical

is
Geometry
to ascertain the several
movements
of the various
portions of a piece of
links to determine
mechanism
e.g.
in a series of connected
is
what kind
of a line or curve
traced by the
as a cycloidal
motion of the individual

curve
is
parts, in the
same way
determined from a
rollinsj circle.
Peoblem
208.
An
oscillating
arm
or lever
AB
is
connected hy a link
centre C, to
2ôint
BD
to
crank
DC
revolving
round a
determine
the
path of a curve traced hy amy

double oscillation of the
d through complete
arm AB,
i.e.
from
to h,
and
hack CLgain from h
to
m.
circle,
With C
divide
it
as centre,
and radius CD, draw a complete
and
into eight equal parts in the points
D, E, E, G, H, K,
M, and N". Join each of these points to centre C. This will show the crank in eight positions. With A as centre, and radius AB, draw an arc. With K as centre, and radius equal to BD, set off on this arc the point k.
i88

KJc.
chap.
Join
Eepeat
tliis
;
operation from eacli of the points on the
circle in succession
e.fj.
with the same radius BD, set
off
from M, n from N,
letter.
etc.,
and join each with

k,
its
corresponding
Join each of the points
m,
n, etc.,
with A.
This will
show the lever
in eight positions.
Set off on each of the lines
7-1^
K.k,
Mm,
etc.,
from the points on the
circle,
a distance equal to
Dd', which
will give the points e, /',
g',
k',
and n.
Draw
a fair curve through these points.

of the required curve traced
This will complete one-half

of the lever
by the movement
to
AB
from
to h.
The return from h
m is
found in the same way,
and
is
shown by dotted
lines in the diagram.
The point
k' will
trace the dotted part of the curve.
XVI
It is a great
189
advantage sometimes to be able to show variaThis can be done geometrically,
tions of quantity graphically.
by
setting off these variations from a standard or fixed base line,
according to given or ascertained data.
An
pressure
irregular
is
line
showing the variations of barometric

illustration of this practice.
the most
common
A
grains
cubic foot of air at the earth's surface weighs about 1700

;
at the height of
;
3| miles
it
would weigh
3| miles
its
one-half, or
850 grains
and
for every additional
weight would
be decreased by one-half. From these data construct the following

diagram.
Problem
209.
Drmu
a diagram
phere
slioioing the
comparative density of the atmosof the

earth
to
from
the
surface
an
cdtitude
of
21
miles.
Draw
a line
AB, and
divide
it
into six equal parts.
Let
2.1
^MIU^,
be the zero point, and figure each division with a multiple of

3|.
These will represent the various altitudes in miles.

l, c,
From
each of these points draw the lines C,

to
d, etc.,
perpendicular
AB.
Let the line AC, which niay be drawn to any convenient
I90
chap, xvi
length, represent 1700 grains.

to half of
Make
the perpendicular J equal
AC.
This can be done by joining

c,
C with
line.
I.
the bottom
of the perpendicular
as
shown by dotted
Make
the
perpendicular
c
c,
half the height of perpendicular

etc.
In the same
way, d half of
Draw
a fair curve through the top points

will be the curve required.
of these perpendiculars,
which
If
we
let
AC
stand for 30 inches, the height of the mercurial
column
at
the earth's surface,
then the curve will show the
comparative heights of the mercurial column at the different

altitudes shown.
EXEECISES
N"oTE.
IN^
PLANE GEOMETEY
clash
('),
Feet
(")
are
;
represented by one
and inches by two
dashes
3 feet 6 inches
would be written thus
3' 6".
Chapter
1.
Draw
lines of the following lengths
3",
4|-",
2|",
1|^",
2 "25",
3-50", 1-75".
2. 3.
Draw an acute angle, and an obtuse angle. Draw the following triangles, viz. equilateral,
Draw Draw
scalene, isosceles,
obtuse-angled, right-angled, and acute-angled.

4.
a triangle, and Avrite the following names to
its different
parts, viz. hypotenuse, vertex, base, median,

5.
and
altitude.
the
following
figures,
viz.
rectangle,
rhombus, square,
trapezoid, rhomboid, trapezium, isosceles trapezoid,

trapezoid.
6.
and right-angled
Draw
circle,
and
illustrate
the different
parts,
viz.
sector,
radius, chord, arc, diameter, segment,
and tangent.
Chapter
1.
II
2.
Draw two parallel Draw a line 3"75"

;
lines 2|" long
and If"
apart.
long; at the right-hand end erect a perpenit,
dicular 2'25" high
then, 1"50" from
another perpendicular
1|^"
high
it.
and
bisect the remaining length

3.
by
a line 3" long, at right angles to
4.
Draw Draw
a line 3f " long, and divide it into seven equal parts. a line 2f " long ; from the left-hand end mark off a
line 1'75" long,
distance equal to 1^, and from the right-hand end a distance of |"
draw another
and divide
it
in the
same proportion.
192
5.

Mark
the position of three points A, B, and
from B,
6.
to be 2-^"
from C, and
to
If" from
C A to be A; and join them.
If"
Draw an
and
angle equal
it.
the angle
ACB
in
the
preceding
question,
7.
bisect
Draw
a right angle, and trisect
it
on the same figure construct
and mark the following
angles, viz. 15, 30, 45, 60 ,75;
and
also
7V, 22r, and 37^.

8. Construct a triangle with a base If" long; one angle at the base to be 60, and the side opposite this angle 2" long.
9.
Construct a triangle with a base 2 '25" long, and an altitude
of 1-75". 10.
On
a base If" long, construct an isosceles triangle
the angle
at its vertex to be 30.

11.
Draw
a scalene triangle on a base 2" long; and construct a
similar triangle on a base 1*75" long.

12.
On
a base
2f" long draw a triangle with the angle at
its
vertex 90.
13.
Let a
line 2*25" long represent the diagonal of a rectangle;
complete the
figure,
making
its
shorter sides f " long.

sides
14. Construct
rhombus with
If" long, and
one of
its
angles 60.
15.
Draw any two
converging
lines,
if
and through any point

produced, would meet in
between them draw another
line which,
the same point as the other two lines produced.

16.
Fix the position of any three points not in the same

arc of a circle through them.
line,
and
draw an
17.
Draw an
on these
arc of a circle,
and on
it
mark the
position of any three
points
points, without using the centre,
draw
5'6",
lines which, if
arc.
produced, would meet in the centre of the circle containing the

18.
Construct a triangle, the perimeter to be

:
and
its sides
in
the proportion of 5
3.
Chapter
1.
III
Inscribed
in
circles
of
varying diameters, draw the regular
polygons, from a pentagon to a duodecagon, by a general method,
and
figure the angles
formed by their
sides.
EXERCISES IN PLANE GEOMETRY

2.
193
In
circles of various radii,
draw
all
the preceding polygons by
special methods.
radii,
3.
Join their angles to the centre of the circle by
and
figure the angles

lines
between the
radii.
On
varying in length, draw the same polygons by a general
method.
4.
Construct on lines of different lengths the same polygons by
special methods.
5.
Construct an
irregular
hexagon
l^",
from
the
following
data
Sides,
AB
130,
1",
BC
l^",
BCD
6.
CDE
1-25",
110,
CD |", DE DEF 120.

1-3",
EF
1^"; Angles,
ABC
140,
Construct
an irregular
pentagon
1-2",
from the following data

1-3",
Sides,
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
1-4"; Diagonals,
AC
1-8",
7.
AD
1-6".
Construct a regular polygon with one side 1" in length and one
angle 140.
8.
How many
1
degrees are there in each of the angles at the centre
of a
nonagon
9.
Construct a regular polygon on the chord of an arc of 72.
10. Inscribe in
any given
circle
an irregular heptagon whose angles
at the centre are respectively 52, 73, 45, 63, 22, 36,
and
69.
Chapter IV
1.
Within a given
circle inscribe
a square, and about the same
circle describe
2.
an equilateral
a rhombus
triangle.
Construct
with sides
l^-"
it,
long,
let
and
its
shorter
diagonal D75"; inscribe a circle within

scribe
3.
and
the circle circum-
an equilateral
triangle.
its
Construct a trapezium with two of
sides If"
;
and two 1^"

it
respectively,
and with
let
its
longer diagonal 2i"
inscribe within
square,
-e;
and
the square circumscribe an equilateral triangle.

let it
4.
Draw
;
a regular hexagon with 1" sides, and
circumscribe a
square
5.
6.
inscribe a regular octagon within the square.

triangle,
Draw any
and describe a
circle
about
it
it.
Construct a square of 2^" sides, and in
inscribe an isosceles
triangle with a If" base; inscribe within the triangle a rectangle, one
side of
which
is
l^.
194
7.
"witli

Within a square
of
;
1"75" sides, inscribe an isosceles triangle
angle at vertex 60'
inscribe a circle witbin the triangle.

radius, inscribe a regular duodecagon,
8.
Within a
circle of
any
and
let it
9.
circumscribe a hexagon.
Construct a rhomboid Avith sides 2" and 1^",

;
its
contained angle
to
be 60
10.
inscribe within
it
a rhombus.
of 3" sides, inscribe a circle,
Within an equilateral triangle

it
and
within
11.
3 equal circles.
Draw
;
a circle of 1^" radius; inscribe within
it
an equilateral
touching each
triangle
inscribe within the triangle three equal
circles
other and each one side of the triangle only.

12.
Construct a square of 2"

;
sides,
and
let
it
circumscribe four
equal circles
each circle to touch two others, as well as two sides
of the square.
13.
circles
Construct a square with sides of

within
it
;
2-3",
and inscribe four equal
each
circle to
touch two others, as well as one side
only of the square.
14 Within
15.
a triangle of 2 '7" sides, inscribe six equal circles.

circle of 1"7" radius, inscribe
Within a
seven equal
circles.
16.
Draw two
concentric circles, and between them, six equal circles,
to touch each other as well as the

17.
two concentric
equal
circles.
circles.
In a decagon, inscribe
five
Chapter
1.
V
1|^"
Construct an equilateral triangle of
sides,
and about
it
describe a trefoil having tangential arcs.

2.
foil
Construct a pentagon of f" sides, and about having adjacent diameters.
it
describe a cinque-
3.
Draw a pentagon
arcs.
of ^" sides,
and about
it
construct a cinquefoil
having tangential
4.
In a
circle of l^'' diameter,
draw nine equal
semicircles having
adjacent diameters.
5.
In a
circle of 1" diameter, inscribe
a qua trefoil having tangential
arcs.
6.
Construct a regular decagon in a
circle of
f " radius, and within
it
inscribe a cinquefoil.

Note.-
195
Foiled figures
can be inscribed in
all
the regular polygons
that have an even
number
of sides,
by
first
dividing them into

in Prob.
trapezia and then proceeding

or they can be
by the method shown
65
drawn
in circles divided into
any number
of
equal sectors, by Prob. 106,
Chapter VI
1.
Draw
Draw
a circle 1"7" in diameter
at
any point
in its circumference,
draw a tangent.
2.
a circle 1 "25" in radius

to
it.
from a point one inch outside
the
circle,
3.
draw a tangent
Draw
a circle 1^" in diameter
from any point outside the

centre.
;
circle,
4.
draw two tangents without using the
Draw two
lines,
enclosing an angle of 45
draw a
circle
1^" in
diameter, tangential to these lines.

5.
At any point
in the arc of a circle
draw a tangent, without
using the centre.

6.
Draw two Draw two

;
circles of 2"
and
1" radii,
with their centres 3" apart;
draw transverse common tangents

7.
to them. 1" radii,
circles of
1"7"
and
with their centres 2"75"
apart
8.
draw
direct
common
at
tangents to them.
of 30
Draw two
all
lines at
an angle
with each other, and a third

;
line cutting
them both
any convenient angle
draw two
circles
tangential to
9.
the three lines.

1-8",
Construct a triangle with sides 2"25",
and D25"; draw an
inscribed and three escribed circles tangential to the lines forming
the sides.
10.
Draw two
through
lines enclosing
an angle of 45
lines,
fix
a point in any
circle that
lines.
it
convenient position between these two

shall pass
11.
this point
and draw a
to the
and be tangential
two
Draw
a circle 1"25" in diameter, and half an inch from

;
draw
a straight line
circle
draw a
circle
of
|-"
radius, tangential
to
both the
and the
line.
12.
Draw two Draw two
circles of
1"
and
radius,
with their centres 2|"
apart
draw another
circle tangential to
both externally.
13.
circles
D50" and
1" in diameter, their centres to be
196

;
2*25" apart
draw another
circle
3h" in diameter, touching the larger

internally.
circle externally,
and the smaller one
Chapter VII
1.
Draw
three lines 1"25", 2"3", and 2 "75" respectively, and find
their greater fourth proportional.

2.
Draw two
lines 2 "7"
and
1'5" in length,
and
find their less third
proportional.
3.
Draw
a line 2 "5" in length, and produce

its original
-I"
it
so that its extra

:
length shall be in proportion to

4.
length as 3
5.
Draw two
lines
2|-"
and
in
length,
and
find
their
mean
three
proportional.
5.
Construct a triangle on a base 3 "25" in length, so that

3, 4,
its
angles are in the proportion of

6.
and
5.
Divide a line 3 "4" in length into extreme and mean proportion. Divide a line 2 "7 5" in length so that one part
:
7.
is
in proportion
to the other as 2
8.
4.
Draw two Draw
lines
1*25" and
2 '3" respectively,
and
find
their
greater third proportional.

9.
three lines
3", 2^",
and 1^"
in length,
and
find their less
fourth proportional.
Chapter VIII
1.
Draw
;
a right-angled triangle, with a base of 1^" and an altitude

area.
of 2"
2.
on the same base construct an isosceles triangle of equal
Draw
a square of 1'75" sides; and construct a rhomboid of

its
equal area, two of

3.
angles to be 60.
Draw a
regular heptagon on a f" side ; and construct an isosceles

it
triangle equal to
4.
in area.
;
Construct a triangle with sides of 2"75", 1'75", and 2"

it,
from
any point within

5.
trisect its area.
Construct a square having an area of five square inches, and
make an isosceles triangle equal to it. 6. Draw a pentagon on a 1 "5" side

to it
and construct a rectangle equal
on a 3"
side.

7.
197
Construct a trapezium with sides of 1^",
2|-", 3^1",
and 2^"
it.
one
of its angles to be 60.

8.
Through one
of its angles bisect

it
Construct any irregular octagon, and divide
into seven equal
parts.
Chapter IX
1.
Construct a square equal in area to the
sum
of
two other squares,
of 1"
2.
and 1^"
sides respectively.
Construct an equilateral triangle equal in area to the difference

of
between two other equilateral triangles with sides

respectively.
3.
1'5"
and 2 "7"
Draw a
1;|"
circle
equal in area to the
sum
of
two other
circles of
f" and
4.
diameters.
Draw
a regular heptagon on a side of
1 "5"
and construct a
similar polygon three-fifths of its area.

5.
Construct an equilateral triangle on a side of 2i"
draw a
similar triangle four-fifths of its area,
and divide
it
into
two equal
parts
6.
it
by a
line parallel to
one of
its sides.
Draw a
circle three-fourths
circles into three
the area of a given
circle,
and divide
by concentric
equal parts.
Chapter
1.
X
;
Construct a scale to measure feet and inches

length value 15 feet.
the E.F. to be
^,
-^-^^
and
its scale
2.
Construct a scale to measure yards and
feet,
the R.F. to be
to
measure 18 yards.
3.
Construct a diagonal scale to measure feet and inches, R.F.

feet.
-^-^,
to
measure 36
4.
Take
off
a length of 17'
to be
9".
;
On
a map, a distance
known
20 miles measures 10"
conto
struct a diagonal scale to measure miles
and furlongs, long enough
measure 12 miles.
5.
Construct a diagonal scale to measure yards and
feet,
E.F.
y^^-,
to
measure 30 yards.
6.
On
map showing
is
a scale of kilometres, 60 are found to equal
3".
What
the R.F.
Construct a comparative scale of English
miles, to
measure 100
miles.
198
Chapter XI
1.
On
a line 4" long,
draw a
semicircle,
and upon
it
set out the
primary divisions of a protractor, by construction alone.

2.
Construct a scale of chords from the 2>rotractor set out in the
preceding question.
Chapter XIV
1.
Draw
Draw
a regular hexagon on a side of 1"; construct a similar

^",
figure
2.
on a side of
using one angle as the centre of similitude.

I'b"
;
a rectangle with sides of 2-7" and
construct
similar figure
by inverse
:
similitude, with sides in the proportion to
those given as 3
3.
5.
;
Draw
first
a regular pentagon in a circle of 2|" diameter
construct
a similar figure by direct similitude, with sides in the proportion to

those of
pentagon as 4
7.
Chapter
1.
XV
Select
to
it.
Construct an ellipse
in the curve,
major axis 3"75", minor axis 2"25".
any point
2.
and draw a tangent

;
Construct an ellipse
the foci to be 2^" apart, and the transverse
diameter 3f".
3. 4.
Draw Draw
an
a rectangle 3'25" x 2"3", and inscribe an ellipse within

a parallelogram 3|" x 2|", two of
its
it.
angles to be 60
inscribe
5.
ellipse
within
it.
;
Construct an ellipse by means of a paper trammel

4-g-",
the transverse
diameter being
6.
and the conjugate diameter 3" (Prob. 178).

aji
Draw Make
the two diameters of an ellipse each 3" long, and at

;
angle of 45 with each other

7.
complete the
ellipse.
a tracing of the ellipse given in question 3,
and
find the
diameters,
8.
foci,
tangent, and normal.

abscissa 3" long
With an
and an ordinate 2"
long, construct a
parabola.
9.
With a diameter
1'4",
an ordinate
1'8",
and an abscissa
1'4",
construct an hyperbola.

10.
199
sides represent
its
Draw
a rectangle 3" x
2",
and
;
let
two adjacent
off
the axes of a rectangular hyjjerbola
measure
along one of
;
longer
edges V, and
the hyperbola.
11.
let this
point represent the vertex of the curve
complete
Draw
a line 4" long to represent an abscissa of a parabola;

line 3" long, at right angles to
it,
at one
end draw a
;
to represent the
directrix
from the
;
directrix, along the abscissa, set off 1" to
mark
draw
the focu-S
a tangent
complete the parabola.
At any point
in the curve,
and normal to
it.
Chapter XVI
1.
In a
circle of
2" radius, construct an
Archimedean
spiral of 3
revolutions.
2.
With a
rolling circle 2" in diameter
and a generating point 1^"

in the curve,
from
its centre,
construct a trochoid.
At any point
draw
a tangent and normal.

3.
With a generator
epicycloid.
1"6" in diameter,
and a director
of 3 "4" radius,
construct an
At any point
in the curve,
draw a tangent
and normal.
4.
Starting with a radius vector 2" long, find points for two complete
;
convolutions of a logarithmic spiral

position of the radius vector to
the angle between each successive
be
20.
Draw a
fair
curve through the
points found.
5.
At any point
draw
a tangent
in the curve,
draw a tangent and normal
Draw
the involute of a circle 2 "75" in diameter.
At any point
in the curve,
6.
and normal.
circle 2-Q" in diameter.
;
Construct a cissoid to a
7.
Construct an inferior conchoid

|".
the pole to be 1"7" above the
asymptote, and the diameter

8.
With
a generator 1"8" in diameter and a director of 4"7" radius,
draw the hypocycloid.

normal.
At any point
in the curve,
draw a tangent and
SOLID GEOMETEY
CHAP TEE
XVII
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding subject, Plane Geometry, we have
restricted to figures having length
been
and breadth only, but Solid

to
Geometry
treats of figures that
have thickness in addition
length and breadth.

Practical Solid
jection,
is
Geometry
is
a branch of Orthographic Pro;
and
is
frequently taken up after that subject

easier for a student to
it
but as
it
somewhat
comprehend, especially in
it first.
the elementary stage,

It is easier for this
will be better, perhaps, to take

:
reason
to
the solid figure assists the eye and
enables the student

relation
understand better the direction and
between
lines
and planes
than would be possible
without this help.
The
objects taken to illustrate the principle of this subject

I.)
are described under the head of Definitions (Chap.
By means
of Practical Solid
Geometry we are enabled
to
represent on a plane
such
as a sheet of paper
solid objects in
various positions, with their relative proportions, to a given scale.
Let us take some familiar object, a dressing-case for instance,
ABCD,
paper
Fig. 1,
and having procured a

it
stiff
piece of drawingits
HKLM, fold
it
in a line at X, parallel to one of
edges
then open
at a right angle, so that
HX
will represent the

;
edge of a vertical jplane, and
XL
the edge of a horizontal plane
SOLID GEOMETRY
the line at X, where the two planes intersect,
is
;
called the line
of intersection, intersecting
line,
or
ground
line
is
it
shows where
the two planes intersect each other, and
generally expressed
by the
letters
and Y, one
at each end.
Fiff. 1.
Having placed the dressing-case on the horizontal

with
its
plane,
back parallel to the vertical plane,
let
us take a pencil
M
a'
M
Fig.
and trace
along
its
its
position on the horizontal plane

;
by drawing a
line
lower edges
also its shape on the vertical plane.
This
its
can be done by placing the eye directly opposite each of
INTRODUCTION
front corners in succession
203
and marking
their apparent position
on the vertical plane, and joining them.

will
Having done
this,
we
remove the dressing-case and spread the paper out

:
flat
upon
a table
this is
shown in
Fig.
2,
We
is
have now two distinct
views of the object.
The lower one
called a plan,
and repre-
sents the space covered by the object on the horizontal plane,

or a view of the dressing-case seen from above.
The upper view

is
shows the space covered on the vertical plane, and

ELEVATION
:
called
an
it
represents the front view of the object.

all objects are
In Solid Geometry
represented as they would
appear traced or projected on these two planes at right angles

to
each other
they are called co-ordinate planes.

be parallel
to
It is not
necessary that the object should

Fig. 1
:
them, as in
possible
we can
arrange
it
in
any
position,
making any
angle with either plane, but the line connecting the point on
the object with
its
respective plane
must always be perpen-
dicular to that plane.

refer to Fig. 3, in
We
its
shall understand this better if
we
which we
will imagine the dressing-case sus-
pended in mid-air, with

plane, but
will
its
back
still
parallel to the vertical
under side inclined to the horizontal plane.

it
We
now
trace
on each plane as
before,
then by spreading
in Eig. 4.
the paper out
flat
we
get a drawing as
shown
204
SOLID GEOMETRY
The student should compare

Fig. 3
Fig. 1
with Fig.
2,
as well as
with Fig.
4, so
as to thoroughly
understand the relation
between the co-ordinate planes.
The
lines
Aa,
;
B&', Ee' (Fig. 3), are all
vertical plane
and the
lines
Aa, B&,
Cc, etc., are perpendicular
to the horizontal plane.
These lines are called
projectors,
and
Fig.
are here represented

lines
by dotted
lines.
The points in which these

projections
:
meet the two co-ordinate planes are called

on the horizontal plane horizontal
;
if
they are on the vertical plane they are called vertical projections,
and
if
'projections,
of the dif-
ferent points
is its
e.g.
a' is
the vertical projection of point A, and a
horizontal projection.
The length
of the horizontal pro-
jector
shows the distance of the point from the vertical plane,

vertical projector its distance
and the length of the

horizontal plane.
from the
All through this subject the points of the object are distinguished by capital letters, as A, B,
projections are represented as
etc.,
while their horizontal

vertical pro-
a, h, etc.,
and their
XVII
INTRODUCTION
a',
205
jections as
etc.
by
this
means we
are enabled to dis-
tinguish the plan from the elevation.
V.P. will also be used to

;
express the vertical plane, and H.P. the horizontal plane

letters
the
XY will
always stand for the ground
line.
The student should take particular notice that the lower

points in the plan always represent the front points in the
elevation.
It is not necessary to
its
have an object to trace
if
we know
dimensions, and
its
distances from the
two planes, we can

and
it
construct the drawings as

It is impossible to
shown
in Figs. 2
4.
see
an object as
the
is
represented by
orthographic
projection,
because
eye
is
supposed to be
directly opposite each point at the
same
time.
As
the positions
it is
of the points are found
by projectors
parallel to each other,
called parallel projection.

Figs. 1
and 3 are perspective views, and
Figs. 2
and 4 are
were
geometrical drawings of the same object.
If the latter
drawn
to scale,
we could
find out the length, breadth,
and thick-
ness of the object from these drawings.
Each perspective view

fixed point,
i.e.
is
supposed to be taken from one
the eye
and
lines
drawn from
different parts of
the
object converge towards the
eye considered as a point.

object,
These lines represent rays of light from the

called visual rays
:
and are
is
they form a cone, the vertex of which

;
the
position of the eye
consequently. Perspective
it
is
called Conical,
Radial, or Natural Projection, because
represents objects as
they appear in nature.
There are other kinds of projection,

gonal, Isometric,
viz. Stereographic,
Ortho-
and Horizontcd, but these

take four simple solids,
will be described later.
We will
solid,
now
viz. a cube, a
rectangular
different
a pyramid, and a triangular 'prism, and
show the
positions they can occupy with reference to the co-ordinate
planes,
i.e.
the V.P. and H.P.
Fig. 5 represents the four solids in

positio7is, i.e. parallel to hoth the
what
is
called si^nple
V.P. and H.P.
2o6
SOLID GEOINIETRY
a'
X
\
\
3'
;
/:.\
/
i
^
A A A /A
' 1
/c\
Fig. 5.
A is
B
C
the plan of the cnbe

:,
and A'

its elevation.
.,
rectangular solid
B'
jj
pyramid
triangular purism
C
D'
.,
.,
Fig.
6.
Fig. 6 represents the
same
solids
with their bases on the H.P.

V.P.
as before, but their sides are
now
inclined, to the
XVII
INTRODUCTION
Fig. 7
207
shows them with their fronts and backs parallel

5,
to the
V.P., as in Fig.
but with their bases inclined
to the
H.P,
Fi^. 7.
Fig.
8.
They
are here represented inclined- tohoth the V.P.

still
and H.P., but they
have one
set of edges parallel to the
H.P.
FiR. 8.
Fig. 9.
Here
:
they are shown with every line inclined to
both planes
in Fig.
8,
instead of having one edge resting on the H.P., as
they are each poised on a corner.
To distinguish
this
2o8
SOLID GEOMETRY
8,
chap, xvii
position from the one illustrated in Fig.
we
will call
it corn-
Tig. 9.
pound
ohlique
although Figs. 8 and 9 generally come under one
head, as objects inclined to both planes.
CHAPTEE
XVIII
SIMPLE SOLIDS IN GIVEN POSITIONS TO SCALE

Note.
Feet are indicated by one

thus
dashes
dash,
and inches by two
3'
6" represents 3 feet 6 inches.
Peoblem
To
'project a
1.
(quadrilateral 23rism 5"
J'''
2^^ vnth one of
its
it.
smaller faces on the H.T., parallel to the V.P.,

Seale \full
size.
and
^'^
from
Fig. 10.
First
draw the
Ll
line
XY;
then draw the plan ahcd f inch
Fig. 10.
Fig.
IL
below
it.
Draw
perpendicular lines above

p
XY, immediately

2IO
SOLID GEOMETRY
h,
chap.
over the points a and
5" in height,
is
which give the points
a and
V.
Join ah'.
This
the elevation of the solid.
Peoblem
To
i^rojcct the satiu solid tvith
2.
one of
its
longer faces resting on the

it,
H.P., ijarallel to the V.P.,

Fig. 11.
and 1^" from
to the
same
secde.
Draw the plan cfgh, 5" X 2^/, and If inches helow XY. Draw perpendiculars above XY, high, and directly over the
2|-'''
points
and/, which will give the points

elevation.
and/'.
Join
c'
and/',
which completes the
The student should now

in Fig. 5 in
project the four solids illustrated
the positions there shown, but to the following

:
dimensions and scale
A
B
C
to
have a base 4" x
4", to
be 4" high and 2 J" from V.P.

2!'
8"
X 4" X 4"
4"
6"
8"
,,
4"
,,
4"
size.
2r 2r ir
>,
V.P.
V.P.
>,
, ,
VP.
Scale I full
Problem
To
'project
3.
a quadrilatercd prism 10" X 5" X
5",
^vith one
of
its
smaller faces on the H.P., at an angle of 45 loith V.P., aiid

07ie
edge 3-|"
from V.P.
Scale \ full
d,
size.
Pig. 12.
Draw XY.
with XY.
high above
Take the point
3^" below
its
XY, and draw the

an angle of 45
square abed below this point with
sides at
This will be the plan.
Erect perpendiculars 10"

h,
XY, and
directly over the points a,
and
c.
Join the
tops of these perpendiculars, which completes the elevation.

xviii
simple solids in given positions to scale

Problem
4.
211
To project the same

ivitli its
solid lying on one of its longer faces on the
H.P.
longer edges forming

its
an
angle of 30 with the VtP.,

the
cmd
one of
corners If'' fro7n V.P., to
same
scale.
Pig. 13.
Draw
the point
h,
If" below
XY, and
at the required angle
below
this point.
construct the plan efgh Erect perpendiculars 5"
high above
XY, immediately
over the points
g,
c,
and
/.
Join
the tops of these perpendiculars, which completes the elevation.
The student should now project the four

sions
solids illustrated in
Fig. 6, in the positions there shown, but to the following
dimen-
and
scale
A to
B
C
to
have a base
5" X 5", to be 5" high, with one side inclined at an angle of 30 with the V.P., and 2" from it.
5", to be 2 J" high, with both sides inclined an angle of 45 with the V.P., and 2" from it. 5", to
have a base 10" X

at
to
have a base 5" x
be 10" high, with one edge of the base
212
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
making an angle
2"
of 60 with the V.P.,
and
its
nearest point
from
it.
D to have
2"
a base 8"
5
",
to be 5" high,
with both sides of
its
base
making an angle of 45 with the V.P., and the nearest point

from
it.
Scale } full
size.
Problem
5.
To project a quadrilateral prism 7|" X 3|"

its
3f", resting
on one of
shorter edges on the H.P.,
to the
V.P., hut inclined at
and with its longer edges parallel an angle of 60 to the H.P. one
;
of
its
faces
to he
i\.t
2V
from V.P.
e
Scale
-^
ftdl
size.
Pig. 14.
at
Draw XY.
point
draw the elevation
c'a'b'e
the
Fig. 14
required angle.
2|" below
,
XY
c' ,
draw the
line
df parallel
to
it.
Let
fall lines
from a\ V and
long.
at right angles to
ac,
XY, and make

plan.
da and fc each 3f"
Join
which completes the

XVIII
213
The student should now

Fig. 7
project the four solids illustrated in

:
from the following conditions
A
B
C
to be
2V X 2V
H.P.
;
2i",
with
its
base inclined at an angle of

it.
45''
to
to
be parallel to the V.P., and 2h" from

1^",
to be 5"
X 2|" X
;
with
its
base inclined at an angle of 30
to H.P.
to be 2|"
to
to be parallel to the V.P.,
and 2|" from
it.
2-|-"
5",
with
its

its
H.P.
to
have the edge of
base parallel to the V.P.,
to
and 2h" from it. be 4" X 2h" X 2^", with

to
its

it.
H.P.
to
have
its
ends parallel to V.P., and If" from

size.
Scale i full
Before proceeding with the next problem, Fig. 15,
it
will be
necessary to understand thoroughly the angles which the solid
forms with the co-ordinate planes.
The longer edges
are
still
inclined to the H.P. at an angle of
60"; but instead of being parallel

to the V.P., as in Fig. 14,
tJieij
are in planes inclined to the V.P.

at
an angle of 45.
This does
not
mean
that
they form an
angle of 45 with the Y.P.
Let
us illustrate this with a model.
Take
a sheet
of notepaper
to each of
and draw a diagonal

its
inside pages, as ah
ISTow stand
it
and
ic,
Fig.
16.
on a table
FiK. 16.
against the 45 angle of a setsquare.
The two pages
will then
represent two planes at an angle of 45 with each other.
Let
the page a represent the V.P., and the line he one of the edges of
the solid.
The angle which

45".
he
makes with the page a
will be
considerably less than

214
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Peoblem
To project a quadrilateral lorism
its
7-i-"
6.
X 3f" X
3f", resting
on one of
shorter edges on the H.P., with its longer edges inclined
to the
H.P. at an angle of
60,
4:5
and in vertical planes

;
inclined
to he
to tlic
V.P. at an angle of
Scale
l^
one of
its
lower corners
ll"froviY.l\
full
size.
Pig. 15.
XY, and draw the Make nm and nk Draw the line Id equal in length to df and da (Fig. 14). Join Ini. Make kg parallel to nm, and of the same length. and lo equal to ae and cb (Fig. 14). Draw gh and op perpendicular to Id. This will complete the plan. As every point in
Find
tlie
position of point n, 1^" below

nJc at
lines
nm
and
an angle of 45
to
XY.
the elevation
is
found in precisely the same way,

:
it
is
only
necessary to explain the projection of one point
o',
for
example.
Draw
of point
.
a perpendicular from o on plan
till
it
meets a hori-
;?ontal line
drawn from
h'
(Fig.
14).
This gives the position
The student should now project the four

8
solids
shown
in Fig.
from the following? conditions

to be 4"
4"
4",
with one set of edges parallel to H.P.
its
other edges to be
inclined to H.P. at an angle of 45,

to V.P. at
and in vertical planes inclined

its
an angle of 30
nearest corner to be 4" from V.P.
to be 8"
4"
2",
with one set of edges parallel to H.P.
its
longest edges inclined at an angle of 30 to H.P., but which,
with
its
shortest edges, are to be in vertical planes inclined
to the V.P. at
an angle of
30.
Its nearest corner to

"
be 4"
from V.P.
to be 4"
4"
8"
;
its
base to be inclined to the H.P. at an
angle of 45
at
its
axis in a vertical plane inclined to V.P.

its
an angle of 30; and
nearest corner 4' from V.P.

to the centre
Note.
The axis
X
4"
is
a line
;
drawn from the vertex

cch,
of the base
as
Fig.
8.
to be 6"
4", to
have one side inclined
at
an angle of 30

with H.P., and
at
its
:i5
ends in a vertical plane inclined to V.P.
an angle of
60.
The nearest corner
to be 4"
from
A^.P.
Scale ^ full
Note.
size.
The heights
in these elevations are obtained

objects, as
by
first
7.
drawing side views of the
shown
in Fig.
The connection
is
fully
shown
in Figs. 14
and
15.
Problem
To
]orojcct
7.
a quadrilateral prism.
6|-"
X 3J" X
an
oh," resting
on one
it,
corner on H.P.,
and
V.P.
its
faces forming equal angles luith

angle of 60
to
with
its
longer edges inclined at

to
HP.,
V.P.
and parallel
Its nearest edge to he 1^"
from
Fig. 17. Scale ^ full size. Draw XY, and 1\" below it draw
the line mn.
In any con-
Fig. 18.
venient position draw the line
ccc
perpendicular to moi, and
from
draw
ch
3|" long, at an angle of 45.
From
h as centre.
2i6
SOLID GEOMETRY
raclius he,
chap.
a.
and with
draw an
to
arc cutting ca in
Join
ha.
Also
draw hd perpendicular
ca.
This represents one-half of the
actual shape of the base of the prism.
At any
c,
point
on
XY
draw the
e'h'
e',
line c'f G-^" long at

it.
an
angle of 60 to
XY, and
the line
perpendicular to
From
a, d,
c.
along
e'h',
set off the distances
g', li,
equal to those of
At each
of these points
draw
lines parallel to e'f,
and equal
to
it.
Join the tops of these
lines.
This
completes the elevation.

Ever}^ point in the
Draw
lines
from
and a parallel
to tnn.
lines.
plan must come on one of these three

/' at right angles to
Drop a
line
from
5
;
XY till
it
meets the horizontal line from

is
this gives the point/.
Every other point in the plan
found
in the
same manner.
Problem
To
2')roject
8.
the
same prism,
ivith its longer edges still inclined at
an
angle of 60 with H.P,,
and
its
faces mciking equal angles

to
vnth it; hnt instead of heing ijarallel

let
V.P.. as in Fig. 17,
them
he
in vertical planes, inclined at an angle of 45
with V.P.
Beale
Note.
The nearest corner of prism

size.
to he
X^f from V.P.
\fidl
Fig. 18.
line to be contained in a
not.
"We can always imagine any

is
vertical plane,
whether the object contains one or

contained in the vertical plane
In Pig.
but in
15 the line A;V
k'o'l'g' ;
this instance s'w' (Pig. 18) is not contained in one, as the solid
does not contain a vertical plane.
At any point
with XY.
Pig. to
o
og'
lY
below XY, draw oq
at
an angle of 45"
Make
equal in length to
mn
(Pig. 17).
The
j)lan
18
is
precisely similar in shape to the plan Pig.~17, but turned
make an
angle of 45 with
XY
so if
we
take the line qo to
represent the line mn,
we can complete
is
the plan from Pig. 17.
Every point in the elevation

erect a perpendicular
line
found in the same way

till
upon point
;
it
meets a horizontal
r',
drawn from
/' (Pig. 17)

is
this gives the point
and
so
on
till
the elevation
completed.
217
Problem
To
9.
project a regular hexagonal i^r ism 10" long,
and
'with sides 3-|"

to
wide, standing on its hase on H.P., with one face parallel
Y.P. and 2^' from
it.
Scale ^ full
size.
Pig. 19.
Draw the
line
XY, and
2-|"
below
plete the hexagon.
Above
XY
c,
it draw the line cd). Comdraw perpendiculars 10" long d.
immediately over the points
e,f
Join the tops of these
perpendiculars, which completes the elevation.
r
/
x_
Fm.
20.
PPtOBLEM 10.
To iJroject
the
same prism lying on one face on

;
the H.P., with its
longer edges 'parallel to the Y.P.
its
nearest edge to le If"
fiôm Y.P,
Sccde l-ftdl
size.
Fig. 20.
Draw the line Im, 10" long, If" below XY and Draw the lines Is and m2} perpendicular to hn.
distances m, n,
19).
0, p>
parallel to
it.
Set off the

e',
on m2} equal to the distances

n,
0,
c',
f,
d' (Fig.
Draw
Is.
lines
from
and ^?,
parallel to Im,
till
they meet
the line
This completes the plan.
2lS
SOLID GEOMETRY
Draw perpendiculars above

s,2J,
XY
immediately above the points

equal to the distances K, H,
s
and
set off the distances u', s, r'
(Fig. 19).
till
Draw
lines
from the points
and
parallel to
XY
they meet the perpendicular
ii'd.
Tliis
completes the
elevation.
Problem
To project a regular licxcigonal
wide, standing on
to the
its
11.
j'lrisin T^-" long,
and
ivitli
sides 2-|"
base
on the H.P.,
%vith one face inclined
Y.P. at cm angle of 45.

Sccde
Its nearest edge to he 1|"
from Y.P.
^fidl
size.
Fig. 21.
it
Draw the
line
XY, and
If" below
mark
the position of point
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
a.
From a draw the
line ah. If" long, at
an angle of 45 with XY.
Complete the hexagon.
Above
XY
draw perpendiculars
e,
7|-"
long inmiediately above the points

these lines.
h, c, d,
and join the tops of
This completes the elevation.
XVIII
219
PROBLEM
To yrojed
tlic
12.
same prism, lying

he inelined to
vjith one face
on H.P.
its
longer
;
edges to
the V.P. at an angle of 30
its
nearest corner to he
lY from V.P.
below XY.
Sccde ^full
size.
Fig. 22.
Fix the point

at
/ 1^"
g,
Draw
the line fg, 7|" long,

lines perpen-
an angle of 30 with
XY
and from/ and ^ draw
dicular to fg.
g,
From
h,
along the line gh, set off the distances

c, i, ]j,
m,
I,
k,
equal to the distances

I,
(Fig.
21).
From
the
points, m,
and
draw
lines parallel to
fg
till
they meet the line
fh.
The heights K, H, G, which give the horizontal

elevation, are obtained
21).
lines in the
(Fig.
from the distances

heights,
h, i,
d in the plan
lines Jik'
Having obtained these

they meet these
draw the
and
n'm'.
till
Carry up perpendicular lines from the points in the plan

lines,
which give the corresponding points
in the elevation.
Join them as shown.
Problem
13.
long, ivith sides 4" tvide,
;
To ijroject a regular hexagonal 'jpTism 12^"
resting on one of its smcdler edges on the H.P.

to he
its
longer edges
to
inclined at
an angle of 60
to the
H.P.,
and pccrcdlel
the V.P.
size.
Its nearest edge to he 2" from V.P.
Sccde ^q full
Yi'y.
23.
In any convenient position draw the hexagon
AEDF
with
4" sides, with lines joining the opposite angles, as shown.
Draw
and cd'
cch',
XY, and
at
any point
a'
draw the
a'
line
c'
etc',
12|" long, at an angle

lines a'h'
h'
of 60 with
XY.
From
cic.
and
draw the
perpendicular to
Set off the distances ',/',
along
equal to the distances E, B,
of hexagon.
From
these points
c'd'.
draw
lines parallel to
ac
till
they meet the line
This
completes the elevation.
Draw
a line 2" below
XY, and
parallel to
it.
From L on
220
SOLID GEOMETRY
and on
it
chap.
this line let fall a perpendicular,
L,
K, H,
Gr
equal to the distances A, B, C,
of hexagon.
From
let
fall
each of these points draw lines parallel to XY, and

lines from the various points in the elevation
till
they meet
these lines.
This gives the corresponding points in the plan.
Join them as shown.
Fi". 23
Peoblem
To
j)roject the
14,
the H.P., ai
same p7'ism standing on one of its shorter edges on an angle of 30 loith V.P., with its longer
edges inclined at
vertical ^/cMies inclined
an angle of 60 vAth the H.P., and in at an angle of 60 to V.P. its

;
nearest corner to he 3" from V.P.
Scale -ôfutt
size.
Fig. 24.
Fix the position of point
o"
below XY, and draw the line

This represents the line
is
mp
at

Fig.
23.
hh in
The plan
in Fig.
24
precisely the
same
as
xviii
221
that
shown
in Fig. 23, turned to a different angle.
Complete
point in
the plan against the line

the elevation
to describe
is
mp, from Fig. 23.

it
As every
is
found in the same way,
only necessary
one point.
it
Erect a line on point r at right angles

line
to
XY till
meets a horizontal
drawn from point
e'.
This
gives the point r.
Find the other points in the same way, and
join them, as shown.
Problem
To
lyvojcet
15.
loith faces
a regular liexagonal prism, ^\" long,
2V wide,
resting on one corner
on the H.P.
its
longer edges to he
;
inclined at
p)arallel to
an angle of 45 luith the H.P. one face to he the V.P. and 21/ from it. Scale ^full size. Fig. 25.
Construct a hexagon with 2h" sides, and join the opposite

angles
by
lines
at
right
angles
to
each
other,
as
shown.
FiR 25.
Fiff.
26.
Draw
the line
XY, and
at
any point a draw the
line
a'h',
7j"
222
SOLID GEOMETRY
an angle of 45" with XY.
lines clc
chap, xviii
tlie
long, at
From
points
.
a'
and V
draw the
distances
lines
and Vd' perpendicular

h'd'
to ah'
Set off the
c,f, d on
equal to A, B, C,
j)ai'allel
D of hexagon, and draw

they meet the line
from these points
to
Ij'a'
till
ac.
Draw
draw the
H, D,
the line
line
mk 2V
below XY.
vik,
From
and
on
mk
produced
HL
perpendicular to
equal to the distances E, B,

to
of hexagon.
Draw
lines
from these points parallel
XY.
All the points of the plan
must come on these three
lines,
and can easily be determined
by dropping perpendiculars from the corresponding points in the

elevation.
Problem
To
project the
16.
same
solid, ivith its longer edges still

to the
inclined at
an
angle of 45
H.P.
hut instead of heing parallel to the

let
V.P., as in the last prohlem,
them
he
;
in vertical pkmes,
its
inclined at
to the
an angle o/ 30
to he 1 1"
ivith the
V.P.
nearest corner
Fig. 26.
Y.P.
from
it.
Scale
full
size.
Fix the position of point n 1^" below XY, and draw the
line
-no
at
an angle of 30 with
it.
The plan
in this problem is
precisely similar to the plan in the last problem, but turned round
at
an angle of 30 with XY, and the line no corresponds with
the line /:m (Fig. 25).
Complete the plan

is
as
shown.
Every point in the elevation

horizontal line
found in the same manner.

o till it
For example, erect a perpendicular on point
meets a
drawn from point
e';
this will give the point o\
Proceed in the same
way with
all
the other points, and join them.
The student
should
now
pass
on
to
Chapter
XXIIL,
Orthographic Projection, before proceeding with the remaining
problems in this subject.
CHAPTEE XIX
THE EEGULAE SOLIDS
Theee
number
are five regular solids,
and they are named

;
after the
of faces they each possess
viz.
the Tetrahedron has four
faces, the
Hexahedron six
faces,
faces,
the Octahedron eight faces, the

faces.
Dodecahedron twelve
and the Icosahedron twenty

properties, viz.
:
They possess the following

The
its
faces of each solid are equal,
and similar in shape, and
edges are of equal length. All their faces are regular polygons.
All the angles formed by the contiguous faces of each solid
are equal.
If they were each inscribed in a sphere, all their angular
points
would be equidistant from
its centre.
Problem
To project a tetrahedron with
on the H.P.
;
17.
edges 9" long, vnth one face resting

to te
one of its edges
at
an OMgle o/16
ivith V.P.,
and
size.
its
nearest angidar iôint 2)^' from V.P.
Scale ^ full
Fig. 27.
All the faces of this solid are equilateral triangles.
Draw XY, and

line db construct
fix
the position of point a of" below
it.
From
a draw the line ab 9" long, at an angle of 16 with
XY.
On
the
an
equilateral triangle ale.

c
Bisect each of the

d.
angles at
a,
h,
and
by
lines
meeting at
This completes
the plan.
224
SOLID GEOMETRY
To
find the altitude of the elevation, produce the line hd to
at
e,
and
d draw the
he,
centre,
and radius
and make
df perpendicular to cb. draw an arc cutting df in /.

line
With
1)
as
To draw the
above
d,
elevation, erect
d'g'
a perpendicular d'g' directly
equal to
df.
Carry up the points

d' to a',
a,
c',
c,
h till
&'.
they meet
XY
in
a', c,
and
b'.
Join the point
and
Fie. 27.
Fiff.
28.
Peoblem
To
2)^'oject
18.
the
same
solid tilted
on
to
one of
its
angulccr joints with

Scale ^ full
its
base inelined at
an angle of 20 with H.P.
size.
Fig. 28.
k'
Fix the point

of 20 with
it,
on
XY, and draw
the line k'h' at an angle
and equal in length
to the line b'a' (Fig. 27).
As
from
this elevation is precisely similar to the last,
complete
it
that figure on the line
h!k'.
Draw
lines
from the points
a,
b,
d,
and
(Fig. 27) parallel
THE REGULAR SOLIDS

to
225
XY.
All the points of the plan mnst come on these four

lines at right angles to
lines,
and are found by dropping
XY
from the corresponding points in the elevation.
Problem
To project a hexahedron or
edge
07i the
19.
cube with edges 3|-" long, resting on one

its
H.P.,
and
base malcing
it; the side nearest the V.P. to

it.
an angle of 22 with be parallel to, and 1^" from
Scale Ifidl
size.
Fig. 29.
All the faces of this solid are squares.
Draw
the line
XY, and
at
any point
a'
draw the
line a'b'
at an angle of 22.
Complete the square
a'b'c'd'.
Fig. 29.
Fig. 30.
Below
and d'd
a'b',
XY draw the line ef If" from

XY.
g.
it.
Draw the
lines
b'b, cc
at right angles to
cc
Make
Join
eb
and fd each equal
to
and join bd ;
cuts ef in
eg.
226
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
To project
the
20.
resting
same
the
solid
with
its
edge
it,
still
on
the
H.P. and
forming
same angle
its
ivith
hut inclined
to
the V.P. at
an angle of 30;
I full
size.
nearest corner to he 1" from V.P.
Scale
Pig. 30.
Fix the position of point h 1" below
XY, and draw
the line
hk equal tofe
this plan
(Fig. 29) at

is
Complete
from Fig. 29, which
precisely similar in shape.

h', c',
Draw
to
lines through the points
and
d' (Fig. 29) parallel

till
XY.
Draw
perpendiculars from the points in the plan

lines,
they meet these

the elevation.
which give the corresponding points in
Join these points as shown.
Peoblem
To
'project
21.
an
octahedron, tvith edges 4" long, poised on one of

the
its
angular points on
H.P.,
H.P.
its
axis to he perpendicular to
to,
and
it.
its
edge nearest to the V.P. to he parallel

size.
and If"
from
Sccde \full
Fig. 31.
All the faces of this solid are equilateral triangles.
Draw
the line
XY, and
If" below
it
draw the
line ah 4" long.
Complete the square ahcd, and draw

the plan of the solid.
its
diagonals.
This will be
As every angular point

a sphere circumscribing the
of the plan of the sphere
is
equidistant from the centre of
solid,
the point
must be the centre
and ad
its
diameter.
e.
Draw
the line
points
c
the projector
ee'
from the point
Make cf
solid.
equal in
length to ad.
c'd'
This will be the axis of the

parallel to
till
Bisect
ef by
and
d'.
XY, and
erect perpendiculars
from the
c'
and d
they meet this line in the points
Join
c'e'
and cf,
d'e'
and
d'f, to complete the elevation.
THE REGULAR SOLIDS
227
Pkoblem
To project
the
22.
same
solid with one face Questing

to,
on the H.P.
it.
the edge
nearest the V.P. to he jpa.rallel
and 1^" from
Scale ^
full
size.
Kg.
32.
Fix the positions of the points
g'
and
h'
on
XY
the same
Fi!?.
31.
Fig. 32.
distance apart as the points
and
in the preceding problem.

31.
On
this line complete the elevation lines
from Pig.
Draw XY. All
from the points
i, e,
and d
(Pig. 31) parallel to
the points of the plan mnst
come on
these three lines,
and are found by dropping perpendiculars from their corresponding points in the elevation.
228
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Peoblem
To j^t'ojcd a dodecahedron with
on
the H.P., one edge of
it.
23.
edges 3-|" long, v:ith one face resting
which
is ^;a?'a//eZ
to
V.P. and 4|"
from
Scale
^ fidl
faces
size.
Pig. 33.
Each
side of this
solid is
a regular pentagon, with

to
opposite
parallel
each other, and their
angles alternating.
Draw the
solid
line
XY, and 4i-" below
it
draw the
line ah 3|" long.
This will be one edge of the pentagon forming the base of the
;
on the
line ah complete
this,
the pentagon.
Draw
another
equal pentagon on
with alternating angles, to represent
the top face of the solid.
To
so
get the position of point
w we will
ac,
imagine another face of the solid hinged on the line

lying
fiat
and
on the H.P.
ac.
construct the pentagon

is
acUVW
against the line
This face of the solid
said to be " con-
structed " on to the H.P.
Also construct one side of a similar
pentagon
.W
in connection with the line ah.
It is evident that the distance
between the points u and

from the point
must be the same
as
between
U and W, so draw lines from U and

;
W perpendicular
intersect each
to the line ca
also
dicular to the line ah.
Where
and with
these lines from
perpen-
and
other give
;
the point w.
Find the centre

as centre,
of the pentagon ahcde
this point
and
lines
radius
Ow, describe a
circle.
Prom
the centre
draw
through the angles of the pentagons forming the base and top
of the solid
s, t,
till
iv,
they meet the
circle in
the points m,
is
n, p, q, r,
u, V,
and
by joining which the plan

all
completed.
In the elevation
the angular points of the solid are at

L'.
four distinct levels, viz. X, U", Y"", and

levels
To obtain these
we must
find the angle the pentagon

it is
acUVW
(on plan)
will
its
form with the H.P. when
rotated on the line ac into
proper position.
cu,
We
its
know
that
cU
is
the real length of

is
the line
and that
perpendicular distance from ca
CU
THE REGULAR SOLIDS
229
230
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
till it
SO take
as centre,
and radius CU, and draw an arc UU'
meets the line
uV
drawn perpendicularly
to
UC.
Join CU'.
till
it
With C
as centre,
and radius CV", describe another arc
meets CU' produced in V.

Consider
Then V'CV"
is
the angle required.
V"C
as the level
of the H.P., then the line uTJ' is
the perpendicular height of height of XV"".

in elevation,
XU"
in elevation,
and Y"'V' the

through the
To get the
level of the highest series of points
make Y""L'
equal to XU".
to
Draw
lines
points U", V"", and
U parallel
XY.
lines.
To obtain the points of
the solid in elevation, erect perpendiculars from corresponding

points in plan
till
they meet these
To save unnecessary complication and confusion, one face

only of the solid (the top one)
jectors.
is
connected with plan by pro-
All the other points are found in the same way.
Peoblem
To project
the
24.
relative to the Y.P.,
same
solid in the
same position
hut tilted on one of its angular points at
an angle
of 30
with H.P.
Scale
e'
^ full
size.
Pig. 34,
e'c'
Fix the point

30 with
it.
on XY, and draw the line
at
an angle of
On
this line complete the elevation
from that of
the preceding figure.
To draw the
parallel to
Fig. 33.
plan, let fall lines
from the various points of

till
the elevation, at right angles to
XY,
they meet lines drawn
XY
from the corresponding points in the plan of
To avoid
confusion, the uppermost face of the solid only
is
taken, and the
same
letters
are retained throughout, both as

;
regards the preceding problem as well as the one following

this
by
means the same points can be recognised throughout

The
axis of this solid is determined
their
various positions.
by drawing
projectors
from the points
f and
d' till
they meet a line drawn from

P.
(Fig. 33) in the points
and
xix
the regular solids

Problem
231
25.
To
'project the
same
the
solid,
poised on the same angidar point,
and
forming
same angle with
the H.P., hut turned rozcnd so

j^laoie
to
that its axis
OP
is
in a vertical
at
it
an angle of 60
as in the
last
with V.P., instead of being pa^âllel

2yro'blcm.
Scale
e
^ fidl
size.
Pig. 35.
The point
turned
it
remains unchanged in position throughout the

it
three problems, as
;
forms the pivot on which the object

e
is
so fix the position of
the same distance below

the axis
it
XY as
is
shown
c
in Pig. 34.
as there
Draw
;
OP
the same distance

at
from point
shown
only
it
must be
an angle of 60
with XY, instead of parallel to
as in Pig. 34.
As
the plan
is
precisely similar to Fig. 3,4 turned round
to a different angle, comj^lete the construction
from that
figure.
To draw the
elevation, erect lines
from the various points

Pig.
in the plan, at right angles to
XY,
till
from the corresponding points in the elevation of

parallel to
34,
XY.
lines for
The connecting
to avoid confusion.
one face only of the solid
is
shown,
Peoblem
26.
6" long ; one face to rest on
To project an icosahedron with edges

the H.P., xvith one of the edges
forming
the base at
an angle
of 4:^ with V.P.,

to be
and
the corner of the base nearest the V.P.
b^" from
it.
Scale
\ full
size.
Pig. 36.
This solid
its
is
composed of twenty equilateral
triangles
opposite faces are parallel to each other, with
their angles alternating.
Draw
the
line
the line
cd)
XY, and
and
5f" below
at
it fix
the point
a.
6" lono;,
an
ang^le of
cd)C.
45 with V.P.
Draw On
ah construct the equilateral triangle
This represents the
232
SOLID GEOMETRY
plan of the base.
On
this base,
clef ;
with alternating angles, draw

this represents the top face of
an equal and similar triangle

the solid.
If
triangles are connected
we analyse the solid we shall find that these two by shallow pentagonal pyramids, and by
Fig. 37.
projecting one of these pyramids
we
shall be enabled to complete
the
solid.
On
the line
he
construct two sides of a regular pentagon

hf,
cH and HE.
H.P.
These represent the lines ch and
forming part
to the
of the base of the pentagonal
pyramid constructed on
and IF
To
find the angle this base forms with the H.P.

I.
Bisect
the line Ic in
Join
IF.
With
as centre,
as radius.
XIX
THE REGULAR SOLIDS

till it
233
draw au arc
Join Yl.
meets a line drawn from

is
/ parallel
to he in P'.
Then FZF'
the
angle
required.
To
find
the
position of the vertex
Find the centre
K of
the constructed
pentagon, and join IvH.
From K draw KK' perpendicular to KH.

equal to the length of one edge of
in K'.
With
H as centre, and radius

(6"),
the solid
centre,
draw an arc intersecting KK'

to lY,
and IK radius, draw an arc cutting lY in K".

line
With / as From K"

to
draw a
K"K"' perpendicular
and equal
KK'
in
length; and from K"' draw a line K'"Z; parallel to he
till it
meets IF in
Ic.
This gives the position of vertex

of the triangle ahc.
circle
;
Ic.
Find the centre

radius Ok, draw a
scribing sphere.
With
centre 0, and
this is
the plan
of the
circum-
Draw
0,
lines
radiating from
clef till
through the
circle
angles of the two triangles ahc and

in the points
Jc,
they meet the

;
n, g,
m, and
of the
7i.
Join these points

triangles ahc
also join
them with the angles

completes the plan.
two
and
clef.
This
The points in the elevation

viz.
all
come
at four distinct levels,
X, K"", H"', and F".
If
we
take the line F^ on plan to
represent the level of the H.P., F/F' will represent the angle the
base of the pentagonal pyramid forms with

the perpendicular height of F" above
it
so the line
fY is
XY.
In the same way the
height of
W"
is
found by taking the perpendicular height of

F/.
K"' above the line
To obtain the height

till
of H"',
draw a
line
from
H (on
I
plan) perpendicular to F/
it
meets FZ in H'.
till it
With
in H".
as centre,
and
IW
as radius,
draw an
arc
meets
l^
The perpendicular height

K"", H"',
of this point above the line
Y
to
gives the height of H'" above X.
From
and F" draw
lines parallel to
XY
and
complete the
elevation
draw perpendicular
till
lines
from the
lines,
corresponding points in the plan

join them.
they meet these
and
The projectors
letters to those
to one face only are
shown
(the top face),
to save confusion, but the angular points bear corresponding
on plan.
234
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
To project
the
27.
its
same
solid, iMisecl
on one of
angnlar points, at
an angle of 30 with H.P.,
hut hearing the same relation to

Scale ^ full
size.
V.P. as in the preceding p)ToUem.
Pig. 37.
Fix the position of point c on XY, and draw the line c'h' at an angle of 30 with it. Complete the elevation on c'h' from the
elevation Pig. 36, which
is
precisely similar.
Let
fall
lines
from the various points in the elevation, at

till
right angles to
XY,
they meet lines drawn from the corre(Fig.
sponding points in plan

face
is
36) parallel to
XY.
Only one
shown thus connected
(the top face), to save confusion
of lines, but the points bear corresponding letters throughout
both problems.
Pkoblem
To find
28.
the relative lengths of the edges of the five regular solids.
Pig. 38.
Let
AB
be
the
diameter of the
circumscribing sphere.
Bisect
AB
in C.
With C
as centre,
and
CA
as radius,
draw
THE REGULAR SOLIDS

the semicircle
23s
AFB.
Trisect
AB
in
and 0.
Draw
DE per-
pendicular to AB, and join EB, which gives the edge of the
tetrahedron.
Join EA, which gives the edge of the hexahedron.
At C draw CF perpendicular
oives the edge of the octahedron.
to
AB, and
join
EB, which
At E draw EL perpendicular to AE, and half its length. With L as centre, and LE as radius, draw an arc cutting LA in M. With A as centre, and AM as radius, draw an arc cutting
AE
in
AE
will
then be medially divided in
IST,
and
AN
it
gives the edge of the dodecahedron.
At B draw
length.
Join
BK perpendicular to AB, and equal to KC by a line cutting the semicircle in H.

AB:EB AB:AE :V3:1. AB:rB :V2:L
in
Join
HB, which
gives the edge of the ieosahedron.
Take a line HB equal to

and construct an
HB (Fig. 38),
triangle
equilateral
;
upon
about
it it
;
(Fig.
39)
describe
circle
and inscribe a regular pencircle,
tagon in the same

of the pentagon
(Fig. 38).
is
then each side
equal to the line
AN
Fig. 39.
From
this the student will
see that the opposite faces of the dode-
cahedron and ieosahedron are the same

distance apart
of the
when they
are both circumscribed
by a sphere
same diameter.
CHAPTEE XX
OCTAGONAL PYEAMIDS, CONES, AND CYLINDERS
OCTAGONAL PYRAMIDS.
Peoblem
To
-project
29.
a regular octagonal pyramid, 8" high, with each

base
its
2-|-"
side
of
its
ividc,
standing on
its
hase
on
the H.P., tvith

it.
an
edge of
hase parallel to the V.P. a7id 2^" from
Scale ^
fidl
size.
Eig. 40.
2|-"
Draw XY, and

up
below
it
draw ah 2 J"
long.
On
ah
construct a regular octagon, and join the opposite angles.

projectors from the points d,
c'
e,
Carry-
/,
the point
the point
c
immediately above
d',
c,
^ perpendicular to XY. Fix and 8" above XY. Join
to
e,
and
g',
which completes the pyramid.
Peoblem
To project
its
30.
'
the
same
solid lying tvith one face

to
on the H.P., hut with

Scale ^ full
size.
axis in
a plane parallel
the V.P.
Fig. 41.
On
Let
XY
mark
off the distance h'k'
equal to
g'c'
(Fig. 40).
Complete the construction of elevation from

fall lines
Fig. 40.
from the various points of the elevation, at right

they meet lines drawn from the corresponding
angles to
XY,
till
points in the plan (Fig. 40), parallel to
XY.
The
intersection of
CHAP. XX
OCTAGONAL PYRAMIDS, CONES, AND CYLINDERS

give
237
these
lines
the
required
points,
by joining which we
obtain the plan.
Peoblem
To 'project
its
31.
its sJiorter
;
the
same
solid resting
on one of
edges, tvith
base inclined at
an angle of 30 with H.P.

V.P.
Sccde
|-
its
axis to he
Fig. 42.
in a plane
imrallel to the
fix
fidl
0'.
size.
Draw XY, and

c
the position of point
Draw
oj/ at an
Fig. 40,
angle of 30 with
XY, and
equal in length to
Fig. 41.
h'n' (Fig. 41).
Complete the elevation from
In any convenient position draw the line

to
h',
DG perpendicular
G
equal to
to
XY, and
I',
set
off
upon
it
the distances D, E, F,
m, n' From the

angles to
(Fig. 41).
Draw
lines
XY.
various points in the elevation let
fall lines at right
XY
till
they meet these
lines,
which give the
corre-
sponding points in the plan.
CONES. Coxes are projected

pyramids.
in precisely the
same way
as polygonal
After finding the points
in
the base, instead
of
238
SOLID GEOMETRY
joining
them by
lines, as in
the case of pyramids, a fair curve
is
drawn through them.

examples here given
purposes.
to select a
:
Eight points of the base are found in the

a
number deemed
sides
sufficient for ordinary

it
Should more points be required,
is
only necessary
pyramid having more
than eight to construct
the cone upon.
Peoblem
To
project
32.
a cone 8" high, with base 6|" in diameter, resting

the
on
H.P.
in
Scale ^ fall
size.
Fig. 43.
it
Draw XY, and

circle
6-|-"
any convenient position below
draw a
in diameter.
Fiff.
45.
from
Carry up projectors from g and h till they meet XY also k, and produce the same 8" above XY. Join h'g' and k'h'.
;
Peoblem
To project
at
the
33.
its edge,
its
same
solid resting
ivith
on
;
with
its base
inclined
an angle o/30
to the
H.P.
axis to he in a vertical plane

size.
parallel
V.P.
Scale ^ full
Pig. 44.
cchcd,
Inscribe the circle (Fig. 43) in a square
the side nearest
XX

parallel to
it.
239
XY to be
four
Draw
diagonals,
and through the centre
draw diameters
points
parallel to the sides of the square.

circle
Through the
where the diagonals cut the
draw
lines
parallel to the sides of the square.
Fix the point

of 30 with
it.
on XY, and draw the
line m'r' at
an angle
Set off the distances m'o'i3(ir equal to the disI',
tances
li,
n,
c,
(Fig. 43).
Complete the elevation from Fig. 43,
Let
fall lines
from the various points of the elevation at

till
right angles to
XY
they meet lines drawn from the corre(Fig. 43).
sponding points of the plan

the
points
Draw
lines
fair
curve through
s
forming the base, and
from the vertex
tangential to the base,
Problem
To
^project the
34.
same
solid, resting
on
its edge,
with
its base still
inclined at
vertical plane, inclined at
an angle of 30 with H.P., htit with its axis in a an angle 0/ 60 loith V.P. Scale
Fig. 45.
J full
size.
Draw
the lines enclosing the base with the parallel lines
intersecting each other
where the diagonals cut the

line
circle
from
the plan (Fig. 44).

to be inclined at
The
xg that passes through the axis Complete the plan
from Fig. 44.
Draw
angles to
lines
from the various points of the plan
at right
XY till they meet lines
drawn from the corresponding

Complete the elevation as
points of the elevation (Fig. 44).
shown.
CYLINDEES.
In the examples here given, only eight points
points can be found in the same manner.
of the circular
base are projected, to save confusion of lines; but any
number
of
240
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
To
'project
35.
a cylinder, 5i" in diameter and 8|" high, standing

on the H.P.
in
Scale ^full
size.
on
its hccse
Fig. 46.
it
Draw XY, and
draw a
circle 5-^' in diameter.
Draw
tangents to
it at
the points a and
Fis. 46.
Fig. 47.
1)
perpendicular to
XY, and produce them
8^" above
XY.
Join
the tops of these lines to complete the cylinder.
Peoblem
To
project the
36.
same
cylinder, lying on its side on the H.P., ivith its
axis inclined at
size.
an angle o/45 with
the V.P.
Scale ^full
Pig. 47.
Draw
four diameters to the plan (Pig. 46),
by
first
drawing
the line ah parallel to
XY, and then
the other three diameters
XX

it.
.241
equidistant from
ference.
This gives eight points in the circum-
Draw
line
lines
from these points parallel to XY,

D, E.
till
they
meet the
AE
in the points A, B, C,
At any convenient
line cf at
point
below
it.
XY
(Fig. 4*7),
draw the
an angle of 45 with
cf,
perpendicular to
and from
Draw draw mg
the line cm, 8|" long,

parallel to
cf.
From
m, along mg, set
off the distances
A, B, C, D,
to cm.
(Fig. 46),
m, I, h, h, g equal to the distances and from these points draw lines parallel

a line from
line.
Draw
perpendicular to
XY, and produce
it
above the ground
Set off the distances E', D', C, B', A' on
this line, equal to the distances E,
D, C, B,
to
A (Fig.
Draw
46),
and draw
lines
XY.
till
the projectors
lines,
from the various points in the plan
they meet these

to
which give the projections of the points required

the elevation.
complete
Problem
To
'project the
37.
same
solid, resting
on
its edge, luith its base iiiclined
at
an angle of 30
%vith the H.P., its axis heing parcdlel to the

size.
V.P.
Sccde -^full
Fig. 48.
Draw XY, and

off
at
any point n upon

p, q, r equal
it
draw the
line
nY
I',
at an ancjle of 30 with the ground line.
On
the line
g', h',
n'r' set
the distances n,
o' ,
to the distances
m'
to
(Fig. 47),
and from each of these points draw perpendiculars

Join the tops.
nr,
8|-"
long.
From
it
r let fall a line at right angles to
XY, and
set off
upon
from any convenient point

n',
o',
A the
points B, C, D,
equal to the
distances
rf,
r.
From each
of these points
draw
lines
parallel to
XY.
till
From
the various points in the elevation drop
projectors
they meet these lines in the corresponding points,

get the plan.
by connecting which we
242
SOLID GEOMETRY
CHAP.
XX
Pkoblem
To
project
the
38.
xoitli
same
solid resting on its edge,
its
base still
inclined at
an angle of 30 with inclined at an angle of 60 loith

Fig. 49.
the H.P., tut toith its axis

the
V.P.
Scale
^full
size.
Draw
the line
FG equal
to
AE
(Fig 48), inclined at an angle
'^
"T
'0
Fig. 48.
Fig. 49.
of 30 with
jectors
XY.
Complete the plan from

till
Fig. 48.
Draw
pro-
from the plan
they meet lines drawn parallel to

(Fig. 48).
XY
from the corresponding points in the elevation
These
give the necessary projections for completing the elevation.
CHAPTEE XXI
SPHEEES, GEEAT CIECLES, SPHEEICAL TEIANGLES,
AND HELICES
SPHEKES.
The plan and

as meridians
elevation of a sphere are simple circles
but
if
we
divide the sphere into divisions

of longitude
its
by
lines
upon
its surface,
such
and
parallels of latitude,
we
shall be
enabled to
planes,
fix
position and inclination to the co-ordinate

it
and project
accordingly.
restrict
So as not to confuse the figure too much, we will
ourselves to eight meridians, with the equator, and two parallels

of latitude.
The junction
of the meridians will of course give
us the position of the poles, which will determine the axis.
Peoblem
To irrojcd a
its
39.
s])luTe 5|-"
in diameter, ivith meridians and parallels ;

Seale \ full
size.
axis to he perpendicular to the H.P.
Fig. 50.
Draw XY, and

circle
5-|-"
in
it
draw a
in diameter.
Draw
the diameters ah parallel to the

it,
ground
line,
and dt
at right angles to
and two other diameters
equidistant from them.
Produce the
to the
radius
XY, and make c'-p' equal in length in d! diameter ah. P)isect With (fas centre, and equal to pa, draw a circle. Draw ah' through d' till it
line dt
above
c'p'
244
SOLID GEOMETRY
circle in
meets the
a and
?/.
Through
cV
draw the
circle in
till
line c'f at
e'
an angle of 45 with
I'rom
c
ah', till it
meets the
and
/'.
and /' draw

and
li.
lines parallel to ah'
they meet the

latitude.
circle in g'
These lines represent parallels of

till
Drop a perpendicular from g
it
meets ah in
g.
With p
as
centre,
and radius p^, draw a
circle.
This
is
the plan of the
parallel eg'.
To avoid confusion, the projectors

only are shown
;
for half of
one meridian
but they are
all

till it
Erect a perpendicular on point h

point
/"
meets the equator in
k' ;
/'.
also
from point
till
it
meets the parallels in points

c,
I", h',
and
Draw
a curve through the points
V ,10
which
gives the projection of the meridian.
SPHERES
Proble:m 40.
245
To project the same

angle of
Pig. 51.
sphere, with its axis inclined to the

to
H.P, at an
size.
60, hut parallel
the V.P.
Scale \ fciU
Note.
The same
at
letters are
taken throughout these spherical
problems
to facilitate reference.
Draw
line
c'23
a circle 5i" in diameter, resting on
XY, and draw
the
an angle of 60 with
it.
Draw
the line ah' at right
angles to c'p, and set off the distances of the parallels above and
below
a'h'
equal to their distances in the elevation (Fig. 50).
Draw the
lines
eg and h'f parallel to
ah'.
Complete the elevation
from Pig. 50.
Draw
lines
from
all
the points of intersection

(Pig. 50) parallel
between the meridians and parallels of the plan

to
XY, and
let fall
perpendiculars
from the corresponding points in

the elevation
lines,
till
they meet these
which give the projections

points
of
intersection.
of
the
Draw
the curves.
Peoblem
To project
axis
at
the
41.
sphere, with its
same
still inclined, to tlie
H.P.,
an angle of
60, hut in
vertical
plane inclined cd an
angle of 60 with the V.P.

Bccde \fidl
size.
Pig. 52.
Draw
the line cp at an angle
of 60 with
XY,
for the plan of
the axis, and on this line complete

the plan from Pig. 51.
dicular to
Perpen-
XY draw the line XL,
and
X, C, L,
51).
K, C,
equal to the distances Y, C, L, K, C,
(Pig.
246
SOLID GEOMETRY
of tliese points
chap.
From each
draw
lines parallel to
XY
till
they
meet projectors drawn from the corresponding points in the plan,
which give the projections required.
GREAT CIRCLES.
If a sphere
circle.
is
intersected
by a plane, the section
is
always a
When
is
the plane passes through the centre of the sphere,

called a great circle;
e.g.
the section
the equator and also
the meridians are great circles.
Let us take the sphere (Fig. 50) and construct upon

following problem.
it
the
Pkoblem
To project a great
angle of 60
circle
to the
42.
sphere, inclined at
wpon a given
plane of
an
the equator.
Fig. 50.
Draw
the line the point
the line m'n' in the elevation, at an angle of 60 to
a'h'.
This line will cut the projection of the equator in
d',
and the
till
parallels in
0'
and
/.
Let
fall projectors
from these points
they meet the corresponding

viz.
01,
circles in the
r, d, 0, on, s,
t,
plan; these give the following projections,
and
u.
By drawing
a fair curve through these points
we
obtain
a plan of the great circle in the required position.

Note.
The projectors
are not
drawn
in the figure, to avoid
confusion.
All the meridians
we have
projected in Figs. 50, 51, and 52
are projections of great circles.

will have
By
studying these, the student
no
difficulty in projecting great circles
upon a sphere
in
any desired
position.
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES.
A
planes
spherical triangle
is
formed by the intersection of the

with the surface of a sphere.
is
of three great
circles
These three planes form what
called a trihedral angle (one of
the angular corners of the tetrahedron),
the vertex of which
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
must always be the centre
form
tlie
247
of the sphere.
The three
lines
which
vertex are radii of the sphere, and are called the edges
of the trihedral angle.
A similar trihedral angle
is
always sub-
tended on the opposite side of the centre.
PROJECTION OF SPHEEICAL TRIANGLES.
trihedral angle
is
formed at 0'
edges.
(Fig. 53),
and the
lines
O'ct, O'h',
and
OV
are
its
The angles
of the spherical triangle are formed at the points
Kr.
54.
y c' (Fig. 53) by the sides of the triangle, and are the angles which the planes of the sides form with one another. They
of,
,
may
or
be measured by the
arc
tangents,
as
by the
BC
cut off by the sides
at TAT' (Fig. 54), when produced to be
quadrants.
As we can
project great circles at
any
recûired inclination to

SOLID GEOMETRY
a sphere,
triangles.
we
shall
have
little
difficulty in projecting spherical
SOLUTION OF SPHEEICAL TRIANGLES.

The problems
the consequent
in this subject appear rather complicated,
on
account of the number of angles contained in each problem, and
number
of lines necessary for their construction
but
if
a simple paper
illustrated
model were constructed, the principles would be more readily understood. This can be
:
done in the following manner
Fig. 55.
Cut out the sector of a
circle (Fig. 55) of
any
radius,
and
then fold
it
along any two radii

till
00
and
OA
the free edges
OB
is
and OB'
coincide.
This model
represented in Fig. 56.
The three
triangle
letters a,
sides of the spherical
are
h,
represented
by the
and
c,
and the angles
formed by the three sides by the

letters
Fig. 56.
A, B, and C.
is
The vertex
0.
of
the trihedral angle

is
the angle between a and

,,
,,
h.
c.
A.
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
The plane of the great
and terminated
circle
249
which forms the equator has

its
an imaginary line passing through

it,
centre at right angles to
at the jpolcs
on the surface of the sphere
this line is called the ôlar axis.
Every great
circle
has an axis.
inter-
In Fig. 57 the planes of three great
circles are
shown
secting each other so as to form the spherical triangle

If
ABC.
we
take
lines
perpendicular to the outer surfaces of the
\%. 57.
planes forming this spherical triangle,
for instance,
OA'
is
perpendicular to the plane ah', OB' to

poles will
ccl,
and
OC to
ef,
their
meet the surface
of the sphere in the points A', B',
and C.
If these points are connected
by
arcs of great circles,
they will form another spherical triangle A'B'C, the sides

whiclh are sup^plementary to the angles of the triangle
vice versa ; e.g.
of
ABC, and
If the side a
is 60",
the angle A' will be 180
If the side h is 70, the angle B' will be If the side c is 80, the angle
will be
- 60 = 120. 180 - 70 == 110. 180 - 80 = 100.
If
we were
to
draw axes
to the inner surfaces of the planes
forming the triangle ABC, and join their extremities by arcs of

great circles, another spherical triangle
would be formed precisely

250
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
similar to A'B'C, but with its angles reversed in joosition,

it
and
would be on the same

This triangle
is
side of the sphere as

;
ABC.
called the iwlar triangle,
ABC
being called
the inmiitire triangle.

Note.
A'B'C
ABC,
is
is
shown
(Fig. 57)
on the opposite side of the

;
sphere to
to
make
the illustration clearer

is
it is
really a
polar triangle, but there

triangle
a convention
by which the polar
always taken on the same side of the sphere as the
primitive triangle.
If
we were
to take
A'B'C
to represent a primitive triangle,

triangle.
then
ABC
would be the polar
Each
triangle forms a
trihedral angle at the centre of the sphere
and they are mutually
polar to each other
for instance, the line
OC would
and
so
be perpen-
dicular to a plane containing the arc A'B',
on with the
other lines.
convention
is
entered
into that no side of a spherical
triangle should be greater than a semicircle.
The following properties

in mind, viz.:
of these triangles should be borne
The sum
The sum
of
any two
sides will be greater
than the
third.
rig-ht
of the three sides
cannot exceed four
angles.
The sum
be
A, B, and
of the angles A, B,
less
and C will exceed two, and

than two right angles.
c
than six right angles.

less
C must each be
a, h,
There are three sides
and
and C
1.
and
three angles
A, B,
it
to each spherical triangle,

;
from any three of which
can be solved
we can
therefore have six variations in the
necessary data (Fig. 56).

If the sides a,
h,
and
are given, A, B,
and C can be
determined.
2.
If
two sides and the angle between them are given,

e.g. a, h,
and
C,
we can
obtain A, B, and
c.
3.
If
two
sides
and the angle opposite one of them are
XXI
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
given,
for
251
instance
c.
a,
h,
and A, then we
can
determine B, C, and
4.
If one side
a, B,
and
its
two adjacent angles

h,
are given,
i.e.
and
C, then A,
its
and
can be obtained.
5.
If one side and
opposite and adjacent angles are

a,
given, for instance

J),
A, and C,
we can determine
B, and
c.
6.
If the three angles
A, B, and C are given, the three can be found.
sides a,
h,
and
Note.
In
the following problems the given sides are indiarcs.
cated by continuous arcs, and those required by dotted
Problem
The
three sides a,
h,
43.
and
c hciîg given, to
determine the three
angles A, B,
and
C.
Fig. 58.
c
Let a
30", &
= 45,
and
= 22i-.
Set off the three angles at 0, which give the lines OB', 00',
OA', and OB".

flat surface, as
These represent the three sides laid out on one
shown in
Fig. 55.
sides a
and
5 over,
using the lines
We now wish to fold the OC and OA' as hinges, as it

in the line OB'", in
were,
till
the two lines OB' and
OB" meet
precisely the
same manner draw the
as
we
treated the paper model.

line de at right
Take any point d on OB', and draw the

angles to
as centre, fg.
OC
line ef perpendicular to de.

till
it
With g
Join
and radius gd, draw an arc
meets ef in /.
Th.e.n-egf will give the angle C.
This triangle represents
a section through one-half of the trihedral angle taken perpendicular to the line
OC
is
" constructed "
on the H.P., and
if
we
were
to
imagine the line ge to represent a hinge, and rotate the

till
triangle
the point /
immediately over the point

;
e,
it
e,
would
which
give the position of the line OB'"
draw this
line
through
represents the plan of the edge B' of the trihedral angle.
From
draw the
line eh at right angles to OA',
and draw
252
SOLID GEOMETRY
ch.
cli
the line ck perpendicular to

ef,
With
in
k.
as centre,
kl.
and radins
then gives
draw an arc
till
it
meets
Join
elk
the angle
and the triangle
elk represents
a section through
the other half of the trihedral angle, taken perpendicular to the

line OA',
and "constructed" on the same plane

el till it is
as
t.
If
we
were to rotate this triangle on the line

to tlie plane
h,
perpendicular
e.
the point k would meet the point / in
Fig. 58.
The points d and h

distant from 0,
will be found to be equidistant
from 0.
To obtain the angle B. Take any two points m and n equiand at these points draw the lines mo and np
perpendicular to the lines OB' and
OC and
OA'
in
om, draw an arc
OB" till they meet the lines and p. Join op. With as centre, and radius till it meets OB'" in q. With p as centre, and
till it
;
radius pn, draw another arc

qp.
meets OB'" in
([.
Join qo and
is
oqp gives the angle
and the triangle opq

where the
a section
through the trihedral angle taken in a plane perpendicular to

the eds;e OB"' of the trihedral angle,
c
i.e.
faces
a and
join each other.

it
If this triangular section in

'.
were rotated on
the line op
would meet OB'"
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
This section could also be obtained by
first
253
drawing the line
op at right angles to the projection of OB"', and then drawing

tlie lines
om and p)n-
perpendicular to OB' and OB".
Problem
The two
sides
44.
a and
tlie
and
the included angle
being given,
Fig. 59.
to
determine
angles
and
/;
B and
the side
c.
Let a
= 36, = 45,
and C
h,
70.
From
set off the angles of
a and
which give the
lines
^r-~.
:X''
Fi?. 59.
OB',
OC, and
OA'.
These represent the two given sides lying
254
flat
SOLID GEOMETRY upon the same plane.

till
chap.
ISTow rotate the side a
on the line
d,
OC
it
makes with
&
the given angle C.
Take any point
and draw dc
angle
at right angles to line

gd,
OC, and
at
at
cj
construct the given

ge.
by drawing the
and radius
g as centre,
gf draw an arc
de.
an angle of 70 with
till
With
/.
it
meets gf in
From / draw fc
perpendicular to
This gives the position of
the edge OB'", as explained in the preceding problem.
Draw
e
OB'".
From
eli
draw eh
ef,
li.
at ridit anoies to OA'.

till
With
as centre,
and radius
in
draw an arc
Join
Ik,
Id.
it
meets eh drawn
the angle A.
perpendicular to
elk
gives
till it
With
as centre,
and radius
draw an arc
h.
&.
meets eh in
side c "
h.
Draw
As
a line from
through
This gives the
con-
structed " on the same plane as
the points d and h are both equidistant from 0, they
will answer the
same purpose
as
and n in the preceding

do and hp perpen-
problem, for finding the angle B.

dicular to the lines
Draw
Join
op.
OB' and OB".

arc
till
With
q.
a as centre,
and radius
to take
od,
draw an
it
meets OB'" in
If
as centre,
and radius
ph,
and draw an
q.
arc,
we were we should
Then
section
find that it
would
also
meet OB'" in
.the
Join go and
is
([y.
oqy gives the angle B, and
triangle oqp
the
through the trihedral angle perpendicular to the edge OB'", as

explained in the preceding problem.
Peoblem
To
solve the preceding
45.
the angle
prohlem %vhen
exceeds 90.
Let
This proposition
is
C=
110.
Fig 59.
given because students sometimes find a
difficulty in solving the
problem under these conditions.

is
Note.
The
alternative construction
sides a
shown by dotted
de,
lines.
Having drawn the
and
&,
the line
and the arc
df,
as before, proceed as follows.
with ê the given angle
(110).
At g draw Where this
a line
line
gf making
meets the arc
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
at /'
255
it
draw
e'
tlie
line/'c' perpendicular to dg
and meeting
in e.
Through
B'",
draw
the line OB"",
which
is
the position of the edge
according to the altered conditions.
From
it
draw the
c
line eh' at right angles to OA', intersecting

c'h'
in
I.
From
c'l'k'
draw
e'f,
is
perpendicular to
arc
till
i.e.
c'h'.
AVith
in
h'.
e'
as
centre,
Jc'l'.
and radius
draw an
it
meets
e'k'
Join
Then
the angle A',
according to the
I'J,',
new
till it
conditions.
meets eh'
the
draw an arc With I' as centre, and radius through h'. This Draw a line from in li.
constructed " on the same plane as
h,
gives
side c "
according to
the
new
conditions.
B'.
To obtain the angle

distant from 0,
to
Take any two points

lines mo'
and n equi0'
and draw the
and np' perpendicular
Od and
o'p.
Oh', till
they meet the lines

as centre,
OC and
o'm,
OA' in
j/w,
and
p'.
Join
With
c/.
and radius
draw an
arc
till it
meets OB"" in
arc
till it
With
p/ as centre,
and radius and

p'c/.
draw an
o'cip' is
meets OB"" in /.
Join
o'gf
Then
the angle B, according to the

It will
new
conditions.
is
be noticed that the point q
found in this instance
by
43.
arcs
drawn
is
in the opposite direction to those
shown
in Prob.
;
This
done simj^ly to save space and confusion of lines

the
the result
is
same whichever way the
arcs are drawn.
This
should be tested by the student.
Problem
To
solve
46.
sides,
a spherical triangle when two

h,
a and
and
the angle opposite one of

is
them, for instance A,
given.
Let a
If
= 30", h = 45, and A = 35.

we
we
refer to Fig. 60,
Fig. 61.
which represents
^
Fig. 60.
a plain triangle constructed from similar

data,
shall
see
that
there
are
two
256
SOLID GEOMETRY
Let ac and
cb represent
possible solutions.
the two given sides,

It is evident that
and
A the
given angle opposite one of them.

a.hc
the resultant triangle could be either
or
ah'c, for
the two
h'
Ym.
61.
sides
and given angle are the same in

amhiguous,"
i.e.
both.
The
solution of the
triangle is "
there
may
be two solutions.
We
will give
both solutions.
Set out the given sides a and h in the same plane as before,
which give the positions of the

any point
l'
lines OB',
I'g
OC, and
I'
OA'.
on OA' draw the line
perpendicular to OA'.
At At g
I'r,
draw the
line ^r perpendicular to
I'g,
I'g.
At
draw the
line
making, with
the given angle
(35), till it
meets a perpeng7%
dicular on g in
till it
r.
With g
s.
as centre,
and radius
draw an
arc
meets
OC in
Through g draw the

t.
line dt at right angles

t
OC, With g
to
till it
meets OA' in
Draw
a line from
arc
till it
through
st
s.
as centre,
and radius
gd,
draw an
meets
in /.
XXI
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
If a plane containing this arc,
257
st,
with the line
be rotated
h,
on the line dt
till
it
is
perpendicular to the plane

d,
this arc
will describe the

seen,
passage of the point

st
which,
it
will
be
meets the line
in
two successive
places, viz.
u and /;
fg.
hence the two solutions.
From
angles to
draw the
A'
line fe
perpendicular to
e
dt,
and join
eh
egf gives the angle C.

;
From
e
ef,
draw the
line
at right
and from
draw the
line eh perpendicular to eh.

till it
"With
e
kl.
as centre,
and radius
I
draw an arc
Ik,
meets ek in
arc
till
k. it
Join
With
h.
as centre,
and radius
draw an
h.
meets eh in
Draw
c,
a line from
through
lOh gives
the angle of the side
and OB" the unknown trihedral edge.
The angle
in Prob. 43
;
is
found in precisely the same
way
as is
shown
and
as the
same
letters are
used for the correspond-
ing points in both problems, the student will have no difficulty

in completing the solution.
at the
The
sections
shown
are also taken
same angles
to their respective edges as there shown.
Second Solution.
The construction
is
shown by dotted
arc
lines.
c??//,
Fig. 61.
We
the
so,
will once
more imagine the

line dt
till
with the line
ut,
" rotated "
on the
h.
it
is
in a plane perpendicular to
g'
plane
to
The point u
g',
is
then immediately above
obtain
g'
we draw
a line from
u perpendicular
to dt.
Through
draw the
line OB"",
which gives the position of the

Join
iig.
trihedral edge B, according to the second solution.
Then uge From

ing
is
the angle C".
g'
draw the
line g'h' at right angles to OA', intersect-
OA' in r. From g draw the line // perpendicular to g'h'. With g' as centre, and radius g'u, draw an arc till it meets the line g'r in /. With I" as centre, and radius l"r, draw an arc Draw a line from through h'. Then till it meets g'h' in h'.
A' Oh' gives the side
Oh' the
c,
according to the second solution, and

of the trihedral angle.
s
unknown edge B
2;8
SOLID GEOxMETRY
To
find the angle B, proceed in the
same way
as
is
shown
in Prob.
44
Problem
47.
When
one side a
and
its tivo
adjacent angles
B and C
c.
are given,
to find the angle
A and.
the txoo sides h
and
Pig. 62.
Let a
= 35, B = 45,
and
= 50.
lines
lines
At
and
set out the given side a,
which gives the
OB'
OC
At any
points on these two lines
draw the
gm
Fig. 62.
and
le
perpendicular to OB' and
OC.
making, with gm, the given angle C.

making, with
"
le,
At g draw the At I draw the

If these
a,
line gs, line

It,
the given angle B.
two angles be
they form
a,
rotated
" till
they are perpendicular to the side

c
the inclination of the sides h and

dicular to the edges
with the side
perpen-
OB' and
OC
so, if
we were
to
draw two
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
lines,
259
one in each
a,
face,
and
at the
same perpendicular height
above the face
they must meet on the

Ip
unknown edge
A.
Set
up any equal heights ^% and

lines
on the lines OB' and OC, and draw

to
s
from the points u and p parallel
gm
t.
and
le till
they meet
the lines forming the given angles in

lines parallel to
and
From
and t draw
This
is
OB' and
OC
till
they meet at w.
point on the edge A.
Draw
the line OA'" through this point.
The angle
in Prob. 43.
is
found in precisely the same way as angle
Peoblem
48.
When
one side
given,
to
e,
its opposite
angle C,
and adjacent angle
A are
determine the sides b and a
and
the angle B.
Fig. 63.
Let
= 40, A = 60,
c,
and
= 50.
lines
At
set out the given, side

{f
which gives the
OA"
Fig. 63.
and OB".
At any
point h draw the line he at right angles to
260
SOLID GEOMETRY
it
chap.
Ik,
OA', and intersecting
in
I.
At
draw
making, with
le,
the
given angle A.
till it
meets Ik in
With / as centre, and radius Ih, draw an arc From k draw ke perpendicular to el. Draw k.
e.
the line
OB'" through
e
At
e
draw
er,
making, with
er till it
el,
the given angle C.

le
k draw a line parallel to

as centre,
t.
meets
arc
produced in
it
s.
From With
and radius
es,
draw an
till
meets ke produced
set
in
sek
then represents the elevation, and

its
the plan of
part of a cone having the same angle at
base as the given This
angle C.
Draw
e
a tangent
OC
a,
to the base of this cone.
forms the trace of the side
and
also gives the side
h.
From
ing
it
draw the
line ed at right angles to

e
OC and intersect-
in g.
centre,
/[/.
draw cf perpendicular to de. With e as and radius ek, draw an arc till it meets ef in /. Join
eg/ is equal to the angle
ler,
i.e.
From
The angle
the
given
angle C.
meets ed
side a.
With g as centre, and radius gf, draw an arc till it in d. Draw the line OB' through d. This gives the
same way
as is
To
find the angle B, proceed in the
shown
in Prob. 44.
Problem
The
three angles A, B,
49.
and C
a, h,
being given, to find the sides

c.
and
The construction
if
of this problem becomes very complicated

:
solved in direct accordance with the data as here given

it
it is
usual to work
by
its
polar triangle.
First obtain the supplesides of the
ments of the three given angles, which give the

polar triangle
as Prob. 43.
;
this
can then be worked on the same principle

angles, their supple-
Having obtained the three
ments give the
sides of the primitive triangle.
HELICES
261
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.
The problems
projection,
in this
is
chapter are drawn by orthographic
but there
is
another kind of projection called "stereo;
graphic" which
a species of conical projection
it is
used for
projecting on the plane of a great circle, arcs

are on the surface of the sphere.
and
is
circles that
This plane
is
called the
"plane of
j^rojection " ;
one of
its
poles
used as a radial point,
which
is
called the " centre of projectionV
In Spherical Trigonometry
triangles
become
at once clear
many properties of when stereographically
spherical
projected,
because the angle between any two circles on the surface of the
sphere forms the same angle
projection
;
when reproduced on
the plane of
so it is especially useful in solving the problems in
Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, and belongs more to these

subjects than to Solid Geometry, but
we
will give one illustra-
tion to
show the
principle.
Let
AB
and
CD
(Tig.
64)
represent
the planes of two
circles
on the exterior of the sphere
ABDPC, and EF
the plane
of projection passing through the centre of the sphere, of which
is
the pole or centre of projection.

is
Then ah
circle
the projection of the circle
AB, and
cd.
of the
CD
on the plane of projection.
262
SOLID GEOMETRY
HELICES.
Peoblem
To
project
50.
a helix of given pitch
07i
vertical cylinder.
Fig. 65.
Let 'A represent the base of a cylinder, and

pitch.
a'a" the
given
From a'A draw
perpendiculars, and join
them by the
line ae
Fig. 65.
parallel to a'A.
Bisect ac in 0.
From
as centre,
and radius
parts,
0, draw a
e.g.
circle,
and divide
it
into
any number of equal
eight
also divide the line a'a" into the
same number of
equal parts, and draw lines parallel to a'A.

points in the plan
From
the various
till
draw
a'A
they
intersect these parallels.
" generatrices,"
XXI
HELICES
helix,
e.g.
263
and their intersections give points in the

line
etc.
where the
h',
from
meets the line from the point
1 gives the point
A
Note.
fair
curve drawn through these points gives the
re-
quired helix.
The
curve formed by the projection of a helix
is
called a "sinusoid"
" pitch."
and the distance between a and a" the
Problem
To develop a given
51.
helix on
last
a plane.
Fig. 65.
Let the helix drawn in the

helix.
helix.
problem represent the given
To economise space we will take one-half only of the
Produce the line a A to E, and make

ing the plan of the cylinder.
AE
equal to half the
circumference of the circle (Prob. 192, Plane Geometry) form-
At E draw EE' perpendicular

Join AE'.
to
AE, and
half the height of the pitch.
The angle
EiVE' gives the angle of the pitch, and the hypotenuse

half the true length of the helix.
If
AE'
one-
we
divide
AE
into
four
equal
parts,
each
division
represents the development of a corresponding division on the

surface of the cylinder,
arc ah.
e.g.
AB
is
equal to the length of the
Problem
To
project the curve of
52.
a helix of given pitch on a given

Fig. 66.
vertical cone.
Let aceg represent the plan,

pitch.
a'e'O' the elevation,
and
a'8'
the
Divide the plan by radii into any number of equal parts,

e.g.
eight.
Carry up projectors from these points
till
they meet
the base in the points a,
c, d',
and
e.
Join these points to
the vertex
0'.
Divide the pitch
a'8' into
the same
number
of equal parts
264
SOLID GEOMETRY
and draw
lines
chap.
to the
as the plan,
from these divisions parallel
Fig. 66.
base.
The
intersection
of these lines with those

;
drawn
to
the vertex determine points in the helix
e.g.
where the
line
XXI
HELICES
first
265
from y intersects the
parallel gives
1',
where the
line
from
intersects the second parallel gives
2', etc.
fair
curve
drawn through these
intersections
is
the required curve.
To determine the plan of

lines in the plan
this curve, fix points
immediately
under the intersections in the elevation on the corresponding

;
e.g.
the point 1 on the line

line &'0',
50
is
immediately
line
below the point

with a
1'
on the
2'
and the point 2 on the
cO under that of
fair curve.
on the line
c'O', etc.
Join these points
Pkoblem
To develop
the surface of
53.
its helix.
a given cone with
Fig. 66.
Let Eig. 66 represent the given cone with
its helix.
a'l.
With
off
0' as centre, and radius O'a', draw the arc
Set
on
this arc the length a'l equal to the circumference of the
circle
forming the base of the cone (Prob. 195, Plane Geometry).
Join 10'.
Then the
sector a'O'l
is
the development of the
surface of the cone.
Divide the arc

as
a'l into the
same number of equal parts
(eight)
;
shown
in plan,
which
will give the points a, B, C, etc.
and
0'.
from each division draw lines converging towards the vertex
With
0' as centre, and each of the parallel divisions on the side
of the cone as radii,
draw concentric
arcs
till
they meet in suc-
cession the lines
drawn from the
divisions of the arc a'l in the
points
1, 2, 3, etc.
A fair curve
drawn through these points
is
the development of the helix required.
CHAPTEE XXII
ON THE ALTERATION OF THE GEOUND LINE
It
is
sometimes necessary to show more than one plan or
elevation of an object.
For instance, we
may wish
:
to
show an
end view as well as a front one, or a view of the object inclined

to
one or both of the co-ordinate planes
this
may
be accom-
plished by changing the position and direction of
XY.
Let us again take the dressing-case

in Chap.
we used
for illustration
XVII.
In Fig. 67
and A^ represent the plan and elevation of
FiK. 67.
the dressing-case as
shown
in Fig. 2 (Chap. XVII.)
we
its
will
now make
another view (AJ of the same object with inclined at an angle of 16 to the V.P.
end
Draw
assume
it
the line X^Y^ at an angle of 16 with the line

to be a
ac,
hb",
and and
new ground
line.
Draw
the lines
aa!' ,
CHAP. XXII
ON THE ALTERATION OF THE GROUND LINE

line,
267
dd" at right angles to this ground

these respective lines above
in the elevation A^.
it
and make the heights of

elevation
h.
equal to the corresponding lines
By joining these heights we get an
of the dressing-case as viewed in the direction of the arrow at
Another
illustration (Fig. 68).
Ee-draw the elevation
A^,
Fig. 68.
and from
of 12i.
this construct its plan inclined to the H.P. at
an angle
Draw
the line
XY at
an angle of 12| with the bottom of
From the various points in the elevation draw XY, and make the width ca equal to the From these points corresponding line in the plan (Fig. 67). draw lines parallel to XY. This completes the plan as required.
the dressing-case.
If the student will
compare
this plan
and elevation with

precisely similar.
(A,) inclined
that of Fig.
4 (Chap. XVII.), he
will find
it is
From
this plan
and elevation project a view
at an angle of 23 with the V.P.
Draw
assume
it
the line
to
X Y^
at
an angle of 23 with the line

line.
ef,
and
be a
new ground
Draw
lines
from the respec-
tive points in the plan at right angles to this line,
and make
the heights of the points above
it
equal to the heights of the

;
corresponding points in the elevation A^
for example,
make
268
SOLID GEOMETRY and D'h" equal

to Dh'.
C'" equal to Ca',
By joining
these points
we
obtain the elevation required.
We
have now, from the simple elevation

(A^)
obtained a
i.e.
projection
inclined to both co-ordinate planes,
121
with the H.P. and 23 with the V.P., by simply changing the
position of the ground line.
Problem
To draw cm elevation of
the points a'
the
54.
same
is
ohject
when a diagonal joining

plan when
the
and V
horizontal ; also a
Pig. 69.
line in a solid
same diagonal
Note.
is vertical.
If we wish to incline a
and make fresh
Fig. 69.
elevations
and plans from
it
by changing the
position of the
XXII

line, it is
269
it
ground
that
full
necessary in the length

;
first
place to arrange
so
it is
shown
its full
for instance, the line ah' is the
length of the diagonal to which this problem refers, and

its full
we
obtain
length by making
it
parallel to the V.P., as
shown
by the
line db in plan.
First
draw a plan of the object with a
line joining the
opposite points a and h parallel to the Y.P., and from the various
points carry
up
lines to
a'
form the elevation, as shown.

6'.
Draw the line X^Y^ parallel to Draw lines from the several points a'h' for a new ground line. in the elevation at right angles to this ground line, and make the
Join the points
and
heights of the various points equal
to
the
distances of the
corresponding points in the plan

instance,
from the line
XY
ef,
for
etc.
make Ca"
equal to
c'a
and E/" equal to
Join these points to obtain the elevation required.
To obtain a plan of the object with

vertical position.
its
diagonal ab in a
dicular to the line
A^ draw
lines at
Draw the new ground line X^Y^ perpenFrom the various points in the elevation right angles to this ground line, and make their
a'h'.
distances from
it
equal to the distances of the corresponding
points in the plan
A from the line

to
e'f,
equal to
c'a,
K^ equal
etc.
XY. By
For instance, make

joining these points
GA
we
obtain the required plan.
The diagonal being
vertical, will of
course show as a point (aj on this plan.
Peoblem
^^.
From
the given ^projections of a solid {a hexagonal prism), to
ohtain other jprojections from them.
Fig. 70.
Let abed be the plan of the

tion.
solid,
and
a'g'h'c'e'f the
end elevaits
Determine a new elevation raised above the H.P., with

the line
longer edges inclined to the V.P. at an angle of 27^.
Draw
XY
at the required angle
with
cd.
Draw
; :
2ô
SOLID GEOMETRY
from the various points in the plan at right angles to this
lines
line.
Assume
ac to be the level of the H.P.,
and take the distances
Fig. 70.
of the various
points
in
the end elevation from
ac for the
heights of the corresponding points above
XY;
By
for instance,
make Aa" equal points we obtain
to aa!
F/" equal to ff\
etc.
joining these
the elevation required.
Pkoblem
56.
From
the flan
one,
and
elevation of a fyramid, to
e'h'
draw
other elevations
with the edge
parallel to hath co-ordinate planes

resting on the H.P.,
another, with the
same edge
and
inclined
at an angle 0/ 30 with the V.P.
Fig. 71.
Let
and Aj be the plan and elevation of the pyramid.

e'h',
Draw
the line X^Y^ parallel to
and draw
lines
from the
it.
various points in the elevation A^ at right angles to
The
height of the line
h"e"
above X^Y^ will be the same as Ba', and

the height of
obtain the
c"
271
will be twice
Ba.
By
we
first
elevation required.
To
project the second elevation.
Draw
the ground line XY
Fig. 71
at
an angle of 30 with
e"b".
Draw
lines
from the various points

line.
in the elevation A, at right angles to this
To
find the
heights of the various points above the ground line,
make
etc.
BV
By
equal to Ba' in the elevation A^, D'd'" equal to Dd',

we
obtain the second elevation required.
Pkoblem
57.
From
1.
the
plan and
elevation of
find other projections as follows
a heptagonal pyramid,
to
A plan
and
elevation vnth one of the longer edges vertical,
and
the triangidar face containing this edge parallel to the V.P.
272
2.
SOLID GEOMETRY
An
elevation tvith the

it
same edge
still
vertical, Imt tvith the
face containing
inclined
to the
V.P. at an angle of 45.
Fig. 72.
a'h'
Let
and A^ be the plan and elevation of the pyramid,

to
the edge
we wish
it.
make
vertical,
and agh the triangular face
containing
Draw
lines
from the various points in the elevation A^
Fig. 72.
perpendicular to the line

the H.P., and
it
a'h'.
Assume
a'h' to
be the level of
make
the heights of the various points in A^ above
equal to the distances of the corresponding points in the plan

;
A from XY
d'd, etc.
for instance,
make
h'h" equal to
Hh, Dd" equal
to
By
it,

plan.
To project the
produce
and draw the
we get the elevation A^. As af'h" is to be the vertical edge, new ground line X^Y^ at right angles
XXII

Draw
lines
273
to
to
it.
from the various points in A at right angles

their lengths
X Yj,
and make
below
it
equal to the distances
of the corresponding points in elevation A^ from the line a'h'

for instance,
make
T)'d
equal to
J^d',
Yh^ equal to
FS', etc.
By
we
obtain the required plan.
To draiv
the second elevation A^,

X^Y^^,
Draw X^Y,
at
an angle of 45 with
and draw
it.
lines
from the various points in the plan at right angles to

find the heights of the points above XY^,
To
A
make them
in
equal to
the
heights
;
of
the
corresponding
points
elevation
above X^Y^
to Ee", etc.
for instance,
make
T>"d^ equal to D'd", E'e^ equal
By
we
obtain the required
elevation.
CHAPTEE
XXIII
ORTHOGEAPHIC PROJECTION
The
student,
before
commencing
this
subject,
should
read
the introduction to Solid Geometry (Chap. XVII.), in which
the principles of the subject are illustrated.
In Solid
parallel
Geometry objects are

perpendicular
to
projected
by means of
For
projectors
two co-ordinate planes.
These planes
may
be considered as indefinite in extent.
instance, the H.P.
might be extended beyond the V.P., and the

this fully, let us take
Y.P. below the H.P.
To understand
two pieces of cardboard
about 12" square, and half-way across the middle of each cut a
Fig. 73,
groove, as
shown
in Fig.
in Pig. 73.
By fitting these two
pieces together
we
as
obtain two planes intersecting each other at right angles,
shown
74
CHAP. XXIII
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
275
We
called, "
have now four
sets of co-ordinate planes, or, as tliey are
dihedral angles."
The angle formed by the upper surface of the H.P. with the
front of the V.P.
is
called the "first dihedral angle."
The angle formed by the upper

back of the Y.P.
is
surface of the H.P. with the
called the " second dihedral angle."
The angle formed by the under surface of the H.P. with the
back of the Y.P.
is
called the " third dihedral angle."
The angle formed by the under surface of the H.P. with the
front of the Y.P.
is
called the "fourth dihedral angle."
POINTS.
We
will
now
take a piece of cardboard 4"
2>",
and place
one of its shorter edges against the H.P. and a longer edge against
the Y.P. in the
first
dihedral angle, with
its
surface perpendicular
to each plane (Fig. 74).
Let the corner

:
represent a point
we wish
jection
;
to project
on to each plane
the top edge Aa' re-pro-
presents its verticcd projector, and the point a' its vertical
the edge
Aa
represents
its
horizontal 'projector,
and the
point a
its horizontal projection.
We
will
now
;
place the piece of cardboard in the second
dihedral angle, with a longer edge on the H.P. and a shorter one
against the Y.P.
before.
its
surface to be perpendicular
tô
each plane, as
Let
its free
corner
now represent
and the point
a point B.
The point
is its vertical projection,
h its horizontal pro-
jection.
Place
C.
it
also in the third dihedral angle,

c'
and
call its
corner
We
then get
and
for its vertical
and horizontal pro-
jections.
After which, by placing

calling the point
it
in the fourth dihedral angle, and

its vertical
D, we obtain
d.
and horizontal pro-
jections in d'
and
Let us
now take these two

with
its
pieces of cardboard asunder.
The
Fig.
vertical plane,
75,
projections, appear as
as Fig. 76.
shown
in
and the horizontal plane
276
SOLID GEOMETRY
We
will
now
place
tlie
vertical plane
evenly on top of
the horizontal plane, and prick through the vertical projections
on to the horizontal plane. Eemove the Y.P., and
letter the points
*6
^c
.L_c
%
Fi?. 75.
Fig. 76.
thus obtained in the same Avay as they are marked on the V.P.,
i.e.
with a dash over each
letter.
These combined projections then appear as shown in Fig. 77.
a'
f''"
'
*r, a
^d
<C
Fig. 77.
Note.
The two planes
are really supposed to revolve
on
to
each other, as shown by the arcs and arrow-heads in Fig. 74
but by the means adopted in Fig. 5 we get the same result in

a
more
practical way.
We
can see from Fig. 77 that
it is
possible to
show the
pro-
jections of all four points on one flat surface.
Pkoblem
Find
the ijrojections of the
277
58.
four folloiring points.

Fig. 78.
Scale ^ full
size.
A
B
C
to be
3" above H.P.
and
6" in front of V.P.
71"
,
6" behind
4-r
6"
71" in front of
below
f
^'
O'/
.,
^b
)j?C
U
'â
kd'
Fig. 78.
Draw XY, and

3" above
the line a'a at right angles to
it.
Measure
off
XY for <
and 6" below
XY
for a.
Draw a line above XY, and perpendicular to it. off V 71", and h 6" above XY. Draw a line c'c at right angles to XY and make c
;
Measure
7j" below,
and
c'
41" above
XY.
d' 6"
Draw
off
a line below
3" below,
and
XY, and perpendicular below XY.

Problem
59.
to
it.
Measure
The projections of four points heing given, one in each dihedral

angle, to find their distances
from XY.
Pigs.
79 and 80.
Let
be in the
first
dihedral angle,
in the second,
in
the third, and
in the fourth.
278
SOLID GEOMETRY
Draw two
lines at right angles to each other (Fig. 80), to
>s6
X*!6
^
y<^d
Xo.
kd'
Fig. 79.
Fig. 80.
represent a side view of the H.P. and V.P.

of
is
the position
XY.
Set off
(Fig.
XY
Oa from At 79).
is
(Fig. 80) equal to the distance
is
below
a erect a perpendicular
aA
equal to the
height of a above
XY (Fig. 79).
Draw a A
parallel to the H.P.
Join AO, which
the distance required.
Proceed in the same manner with the other three points.
Then
BO
is
the required distance of B,
CO
of C,
and
DO
of
from XY.
LINES.
To
illustrate the projection of lines,
we
will for the present
restrict ourselves to
the two
first
co-ordinate planes of the
dihedral angle (Fig, 81).
Take the piece of cardboard we used for the points,
and place
it
with one of
its
shorter edges on the H.P., with

its
Fig. 81.
surface parallel to the V.P.
Let the top edge

a line
AB represent
we wish
to project.
The edges A and B6
will then represent
the horizontal projectors, and the line ah
If
its
279
we draw
lines
Aa' and B&' perpendicular to the V.P. from the

vertical projectors,
points
and B, they represent the
and the
line ah' its vertical projection.
"We will now place the piece of cardboard touching both

planes, with one of its shorter edges
on the H.P., and
its
surface
perpendicular to both planes.

line to be projected, Cc"
Let the edge Cc represent the

represent the vertical projectors,
and
cc'
and the
is
line cc" its vertical projection.
The point
on the H.P.
called the " liorizontal trace " of the

Note.
line.
The
point where a
is
line, or
a line produced,
:
would
meet either plane

is
called the " trace " of that line
if
;
the point
is
on the H.P.,
it is
called the " horizontal trace" (H.T.)
and if it
on the V.P., the
" vertical trace " (V.T.)
The same thing
applies
to the projection of planes.
Now
place the piece of cardboard with one of

its
its
longer
edges on the H.P., and
surface perpendicular to both planes.
Let the top edge Dc^" represent the line to be projected.
The edges
T>d and d"d' represent the horizontal projectors, and the line dd'
its
Fig.
The point
d"
is its
vertical trace.
82 represents the co-ordinate planes opened out into
c"
'/
^'
c'
\
<l'
b
'c
Fig. 82.
one
flat surface.
The projections below
XY represent the plans
of the lines,
and those above
XY the
elevations.
We
will
now
use the same piece of cardboard to illustrate
the projections of lines inclined to one or both co-ordinate

28o
SOLID GEOMETRY
In the
first
planes (Fig. 83).
case
we
will incline
it
to
both
planes, with one of its shorter edges resting

parallel to the Y.P.
on the H.P. and
Fig. 83.
Let the edge

its
AB
it
represent the line to be projected.

its vertical projections.
ccB is
horizontal,
and ab'
Then
Let
incline
to the H.P., with one of its shorter edges still
on the H.P., but perpendicular to the V.P.
CD

c'd' its
The
line
Dc
is
the horizontal, and
vertical projections.
Now incline
to,
it
to the V.P., with its lower longer edge parallel
but raised a
Let
little
above the H.P.
EF
The
line ef is
its
horizontal,
and/V
its vertical projections.
Let us
now draw
a diagonal
it
GP
across the piece of card;
board, and again hold
in the
same position
and
let
G-F repre-
sent the line to be projected.
The
a'
line ef still represents its
/'
/
1
b'
d/
ff^
A
W
/''
/
horizontal projection, but the line
/y is
plane.
its
projection on the vertical
Fig,
84 shows the plans and
elevations of these lines, with the
B
pi
y
Fio-.
co-ordinate planes opened out
flat.
We
have now projected a
line
:
84.
in seven distinct positions, viz.

XXIII
82. ah
c
281
Fig.
parallel to
H.P. and parallel to
,,
V.P.
perpendicular to
parallel to
d
Fis.
84:.
perpendicular to
inclined to
parallel to
ab inclined to
cd
ef parallel to
inclined to

fg inclined
to
The student should particularly notice the difference between A and FG in Fig. 83. Although they are both inclined to
both planes,
AB
is
in a plane perpendicular to the V.P., while

it.
FG is in one inclined to We will now project

to scale.
these lines in the various positions
Problem
To project a
line
60.
to
AB
2\" long, parcdlel
both the H.P.
and
V.P.,
its distances to he 3"
from
the
H.P. and 1|" from the V.P.
Scale \fidl
size.
Fig. 85.
the projectors aa' and
Draw XY, and 1^" below it draw the line ah 2\" long. Draw hh' at right angles to XY, and 3" above it.
Join a'V.
Problem
To
project
61.
line
CD
3f " long
it,
to the
same
scale, -parallel to the
V.P.
and 2^' from
hut perpendicidar to the H.P.
Fig. 85. line per-
Fix the position of point

pendicular to
or H. trace,
Draw a c 2\" below XY. XY, and produce same 3f " above it. c is
c'cV
the plan
and
Problem
To project a
line
62.
EF
3" long to the same scale, parallel to the H.P.

it,
and 2\" above
bid per])endicidar to the V.P.

to
it,
Fig. 85.
Below XY, and perpendicular
draw the
line
ef 3"
long.
282
SOLID GEOMETRY
the projector
Draw
fe
2^" long,
cf
is
the plan, and
e'
the
elevation or V. trace.
Fig. 85.
Peoblem
To
iDTOJect
63.
line
GH
3" long to the
same
scale, 'parallel to the
V.P.
and
lY from
it,
hut inclined
to the
H.P. at an angle of 60.
Fig. 85.
At any point
and h'h
on
XY
draw the
60.
line g'h' 3" long,
and
in-
clined to the H.P. at
an angle of
Let
fall
the projectors g'g
at right angles to
XY.
Set off the points g and h 1|"
below XY, and join them.
Peoblem
To
loroject
64.
line
KL
3" long to the savie scale, inclined to the H.P.

60, hut in
at
an angle of
a plane perpendicular
to the
V.P.
Pig. 85.
Draw
the plan.
the line
h'l
at right angles to
h'
XY
till
it
meets horiI'l
zontal lines
drawn from
and
h.
h'l' is
the elevation, and
Problem
To
"project
283
65.
a line
MN
3" long to the

it,
same
scale,
parallel to the H.P.
and 1|" ahove

45.
hut inclined to the V.P. at
The end of
the line nearer the V.P. to he ^"
an angle of from it.
Fig. 85.
Fix the point n f" below XY, and draw nm 2>" long at an Cany up the projectors perpendicular to angle of 45 with it.
XY, and produce them

Join m'n.
1^" above
it
in the points
m' and
n'.
Problem
To project a
at
line
66.
OP
o" long to the same scale, inclined to the H.P.

30, hut in
;
an angle of
vertical
plane inclined
to
the
\.V. at an angle of 60
Fig. 85.
one end of the line to he on
XY.
From
to
point
o'
on
XY
draw a
line o'A
2>"
long,
and inclined
o'
XY
at
an angle of
60.
From
it
the same point
draw the
and
the line
o'Q,
till
line o'B at
"With
o'
as centre,
radius o'X,
draw an
arc
till
meets o'B in B.
o
Draw
BC
it
perpendicular to
arc
till
XY.
With
as centre,
and radius
Join
draw an
it
meets o'A in p.
Draw
the projector pp'

"p'.
meets a horizontal line drawn from

the plan, and
o'}/
in
p'o'.
op
is
the elevation of the line required.
Problem
The horizontcd and
67.
vertical p)TOJections of
its traces.
line heing given, to
find
Note.
Fig. 86.
The
horizontcd trace
is
represented in the
follow-
ing examples by the letters H.T., and the verticcd trace by the
letters V.T.
Let ah represent the horizontal projection,

vertical projection.
and
cth'
the
284
SOLID GEOMETRY
Produce ah
till
chap.
it
meets
XY
in E.
till it
From E
let fall
a line
perpendicular to
aJ
'
XY.
Produce ah'
meets the perpendicular
/^'
HT
h'
VT''
'F
r,
S
A'
L
cK
i
.'ht\
h
\
\
\.
\.
\'cZ
-VT
%
Fig. 86.
from
in V.T.
(its
vertical trace.)
Where
a'h'
meets
in H.T.
XY
(its
in E,
hori-
let fall a
perpendicular to
XY till it meets aE
zontal trace).
As ah
is
the plan, and ah' the elevation of a line in the
first
Fig. 87.
dihedral angle, the V.T.
must
in this instance be
on the V.P.
below the H.P.
This will be better understood by referring to
"
XXIII
where the problem
is
285
Fig. 87,
shown
in perspective, with the
addition of the original line

taken.
AB
from which the projections are

letters as are
The corresponding points have the same

in the problem.
shown
We
will take another illustration of this problem.
Let cd
(Fig. 86) represent the horizontal,
and
c'd'
the vertical projections
of a line.
Produce cd'
till it
meets
XY in
K.
From
K erect
perpendicular to
zontal trace).
dicular to
XY till
it
meets cd produced in H.T.
(its hori-
Where
till it
cd produced meets
XY in L, erect a perpen(its
XY^
meets cVK in V.T.
vertical trace).
As
lem
the projections of
CD
are in the first dihedral angle, the
H.T. must be on the H.P., behind the V.P.

also
Compare
87).
this prob-
with the perspective view
(Fig.
The student
should thoroughly master the positions of these traces in the

different dihedral angles,
which
is
easily accomplished
by com-
paring Fig. 86 with Fig. 87.
Pkoblem
To
"project
hict
68.
line 8^" long parcdlel to the V.P.,
and 2f" from

its loiver
size.
it,
inclined to the H.P. at
an angle o/45 ;
H.T.
end
to he
3" cdjove the H.P.
Find
its
Scale 1 full
Fig. 88.
a.
fall
Draw the line XY, and 3" above it fix the position of Draw a'b' 8^-" long, and at an angle of 45 with XY.
perpendiculars to
point
Let
XY
from
a'
and
V,
and produce them 2f
below XY.
Produce
Join
alj.
I'a' till it
meets
it
XY
in C.
From C draw
a line
perpendicular to
XY till
is
meets ha produced.
This gives the
H.T.
This trace
on the H.P., in front of the \.V.
Peoblem
To
'project
69.
line 8|" long, inclined to the H.P. at
with
its
lower end
IV above
the
an angle of 45, H.P. and 3" from the V.P.,
286
SOLID GEOMETRY
hut in a vertibal plane inclined
30".
to the
chap.
V.P. at an angle of
size.
Find
c
its
\.T. and H.T.
Scale i fidl
Fig. 89.
Fix point
1|-"
above
XY;
and draw the

Let
fall
line c'U 8|" long,
and
at

c
perpendiculars to
XY
from
3"
and
L',
and produce them

and parallel to
it.
till
they meet a line cL

c
drawn
below
XY
With
as centre,
and
Fig. 88.
Fig. 89.
radius eh, draw the arc hd.
From
del'
till
draw the
line cd at
an
d.
angle of 30 with cL,
till it
meets the arc drawn from

it
in
From d draw
drawn from
dicular to
L'.
the projector
meets a horizontal line
Join
till it
till
d'c.
Produce cd
meets
meets
XY
c'd'
in E.
From E draw
a perpen-
XY
is
c'cV
it
produced.
This gives the V.T.
This trace
on the V.P., below the H.P.

produced meets
Where
till it
XY
in F,
cd.
draw a perpendicular
This gives the H.T.
meets the line produced from

is
This trace
on the H.P., in front of the V.P.
Pkoblem
To find
the projections of
70.
287
line, its traces
heing given.
fall
Fig. 90.
Let H.T. and Y.T. be the
traces.
Let
a perpendicular
from the V.T.
till it
meets
XY in A.
Join
A to
it
the H.T.
This
gives the horizontal projection.
Erect a perpendicular from the H.T.
till
meets
XY
in B,
Join the V.T. to B.
This
is
the vertical projection.
Fig. 90.
Fis. 91.
Peoblem
The ^projections of a
inclination,
71.
line being given, to find its traces,
and
true length.
Pig. 91.
Let ah be the horizontal, and ah' the vertical projections

of the line.
centre,
As
h' is
on XY,
&
must be the H.T.

arcs meeting
With V
as
and
radii h'a
and
h'h,
draw the
XY in
meets
B'
and
line
B.
Draw
a perpendicular at B'
till it
meets a horizontal
it
from a in A.
Join AB, and produce
till
it
h'a'
288
SOLID GEOMETRY
This gives the V.T.
produced.
ABB'
is
the inclination, and
BA
the true length.
Problem
Tlie projections of
to
72.
to
a line being given,
find
its traces,
inclination
each plane,
and
true length.
Fig. 92.
Let ab be the horizontal projection, and aHf the vertical

projection of the line.
Produce ah
till
it
meets XY, and from this point drop a
"^
"
,2^-
yB-
VT
Fig. 92.
perpendicular
till it
meets
a'b'
produced.
This gives the V.T.,
which
is
on the V.P., below the H.P.

a'b'
Where
till it
produced meets
XY
in D, drop a perpendicular
is
meets ab produced.
This gives the H.T., which
on the
H.P., in front of the V.P.
At
b
a'
and
b'
erect perpendiculars to
is
a'b'.
Make
a' A'
equal
to the distance
from XY, and

This
is
b'B'
equal to the distance of
from XY.
Join A'B'.
the inclination of the line to
the Y.P.
From a and
&B equal
draw
lines perpendicular to ab,
making
aA and
to the distances a
and
b are
above XY.
Join AB,
the angle between
line to the H.P. to A'B'.
289
AB and ah will be the inclination of the AB is the true length of the line, and is equal
(theta) is generally
The Grreek
V.P. by
letter
used to express the
inclination a line
<f>
makes with the H.P., and the angle with the
(phi).
We
shall be able to
remember
it,
this better if
we
notice that
has a horizontal line through
and
(f>
a line
in the opposite direction.
Before proceeding further with lines forming an angle with
both co-ordinate planes,
we
will refer to Fig. 93.
Let
AOB
Fig. 93.
represent a 60 set-square.
If
we
revolve
it
on the line
OB
as
an
axis, the
hypotenuse
AB
will describe a semi-cone against

etc.,
the V.P., and the lines

angle with the H.P.,
AB, CB, DB,
will all form a constant
viz. 60,
although the angle they form with
the Y.P. will vary with each position.
The height
of the point
is
of course constant for each position.
From
this
we know
by the
must
that
lines
any
line
equal to
AB
in length, and terminated
XY and a
line parallel to it
drawn through B,
as FG-,
form an angle of 60 with the H.P.
This can be seen by refer-
ring to Fig. 94, which shows the plan and elevation of this
semi-cone.
290
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
The same
principle applies to lines forming a constant angle
Fig. 94.
with the V.P.

93 and 94.
This
is
illustrated in the second part of Figs.
Problem
To determine
the
23'}''ojections
73.
long,
of a line 7
making an angle of
Scale \full
size.
50 with the H.P.

Pig. 95.
and 30
ivith the
V.P.
Draw
long, at
XY
and
at
any point
draw a
line Ah', 7" long, at
an angle of 50 to
an angle
arc
till
draw an
dicular to
XY.
Prom the same point draw a line AB 7" of 30 to XY. With A as centre, and radius Ab', it meets AB in B. Prom B draw BC perpenWith h' as centre, and radius equal to AC, draw
XY.
an arc cutting
XY
in
a'.
Join a'.
This
is
the vertical pro-
jection of the line.
Prom
h'
draw
h'h
perpendicular to
semicircle.
XY.
With
h as centre,
and radius 5A, draw a
This forms the plan of the
xxiii
From
a
291
semi -cone.
draw
a' a
perpendicular to
line.
XY.
Join ha
which gives the horizontal projection of the
Another Method.
Instead of setting off the angle the line forms with the V.P.
below XY,
at
it
could be set off at

h'A.
h'.
For instance,
the line
at
h'
draw
h'G'
an angle of 30 with
Draw
AC
perpendicular
.'a
Fij?.
95.
to
VC.
With V
a'.
as centre,
and radius
I'd',
draw an
arc cutting
Having obtained the vertical the plan can be obtained as shown in the
XY in
projection of the line,

first
method.
Another Method.
From A! draw
h'
the line A'h' at the required angle, 50.

at
At
h'A',
draw the
line
Z)'B'
an angle of 30 with
h'h
(the angle the
line forms
with the V.P.)

till it
With
C".
h'
as centre,
and radius
draw an arc
till
meets
&'B' in B'.
Draw
h'
B'C" parallel to
XY
it
meets
h'h
produced in
With
as centre,
and radius
292
SOLID GEOMETRY
&'C",
draw an arc
till
it
meets
XY
in a".
This point corre-
sponds to a\ so the problem could be completed as there shown.
Problem
Frorti the horizontal ^projection of
74.
line
and
the angle it
forms
with the H.P.,
to
find
its vertical projection.
Fig. 96.
Let ah be the horizontal projection, and

H.P. 45.
its
angle with the
At a draw aB'
and radius
ah,
at
draw an arc cutting
XY in B.
B'.
perpendicular to
parallel to
ah',
XY
it
till it
meets aB' in
With a as centre, Prom B draw a line Prom B' draw a line

h in
h'.
XY
till
meets a perpendicular upon
Join
which gives the
vertical projection required.
Fig. 96.
Fig. 97.
Peoblem
75.
it
From
the projections of
line, to
its
find the angles
forms with ea^h
plane,
and
true length.
Pig. 97.
a'h'
Let ah represent the horizontal projection, and

projection.
the vertical
Prom
h'
draw the
line
h'h,
and from a draw the line
act,
293
both perpendicular to
XY.
With
in A.
h as centre,
and radius
la,
draw an
arc
till it
meets
XY
This represents a part
of the plan of a cone.

of the side of the
Join Ah'.
This represents the inclination
same cone
all lines
0.
to the
H.P.
The
surface of this
cone
H.P.,
is
the locus of
inclined at the
same angle with the
i.e. it
determines
off
From A set
C
let fall a
AC
on
XY
till
equal to the length of

it
a'h'.
From
perpendicular
meets the arc &'B drawn from
centre A.
to the V.P.
Join BA.
The angle
BAG
gives ^, or the inclination

line.
AB
is
the true length of the
Peoblem
The
vertical 'projection a'V of
its
ct
76.
line
and
being given,
Fig. 98.
h as centre,
to
find
Draw
h'l
perpendicular to
XY.
With
and the
b'
Fig. 98.
angle at 6 as radius, draw an arc
till
it
meets a perpendicular
from
a'.
Join
ha,
which
is
the required plan.

294
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
The plan and elevaMon of an angle
its traces
77.
ach, a'c'b' being given, to
find
and
true angle.
Fig. 99.
Produce
c'a'
and
c'h' till
they meet
XY
in
and B; and
produce ca and
eh till
tliey
meet perpendiculars from
and B.
Fig. 99.
These are the traces of the
lines.
Join the two H.Ts. by a

perpendicular to
it.
line,
and through
projector
off
cc',
draw the
line
CD
Draw
Fc'.
the
Set
and from
set off
EF
equal to cD.
Join
from
Join
D
C
a length equal to Fc',

to each H.T.
which determines the point

at
C.
Then the angle

Peoblem
78.
is
the true angle
required.
The plan abc of a triangle being given,

above the H.P.,
shape.
to
a being
5", b 4",
and and
2"
find
its
elevation, 6 of each
side,
true
Scale ^ full
at
size.
Fig. 100.
Draw
draw
XY
any convenient distance above the

a, b,
plan,
and
projectors
from the three points
and
to the specified
ORTHOGIL^PHIC PROJECTION
heights a,
elevation.
295
tlie
V and
,
above
it.
Join these points, which give
From a and
1)
draw perpendiculars aA and 6B equal in length
to the heights of a'
and V above XY.
AB
represents the true

is B.
length of
ctb,
and their inclination to each other
Proceed in the same manner with the other two

Havino- obtained the true lengths of each
triangle
side,
sides.
construct the
ABC
with them.
This gives the true shape of the
triangle required.
Problem
The
'projections of
c,
79.
a
a
line ah heing given, as well as those of a

line
point
to 2^'>ôject
from
this point, parallel and, equal to the
given
line, so
that lohen the ends of the lines are joined they
will form
the true
a parallelogram.
Frovi these projections

Fig. 101.
to
develop
form of
the p)ctrallelogram.
aJj,
From
Join
he
draw cd
ad.
parallel to
and equal
to it in length.
and
296
SOLID GEOMETRY
Draw Draw
the projector dd'.
Join
h'c',
and from
a'
draw
a'd'
parallel to I'c.
a diagonal Id so as to divide the plan into
two equal
Fig. 101.
triangles.
Take one
its sides, as
of these triangles hcd,
and
find the true
lengths of
Then construct
the triangle
BCD
from these lengths,
similar triangle
DAB
on the
line
after which construct a DB, which gives the true
shape of the parallelogram.
PLANES. The
are
lines in
which planes
:
intersect the co-ordinate planes
called traces
if
on the H.P., the horizontal trace (H.T.)

vertical
and on the V.P., the

planes
is
trace (V.T.)
The inclination
of
determined by means of these
traces.
We
for
will take the
same piece of cardboard that we have used

it
our previous illustrations and place
on the H.P. and
parallel to the
297
V.P,
as
(Fig.
102).
The
line ab,
where
it
intersects the H.P,, will be its H.T.
If we place it parallel
to
the
H.P. and
per-
pendicular to the V.P.,

as B, the line
it
c'd',
where
intersects
the Y.P.,
will be its V.T.
By
placing
to
it
per-
pendicular
each
Fig. 102.
plane, as C, cf will be
its
H.T. and
eg' its
V.T.
On
ordinate
opening
planes
these
coflat
out
these traces will appear as
shown
in Fig. 103.
will
We
now
place the
piece of cardboard perpendicular to the H.P.

to the Y.P., as
103.
and inclined
(Fig.
104)
hh will then be the H.T., and

Fiff.
M the V.T.
and make
mo'
its
it
Now incline it to the H.P. V.P. mn will be its H.T, and

:
V.T.
to
By inclining it to both planes, with its shorter XY, pq^ will be the H.T. and rs the V.T.
edges parallel

298
SOLID GEOMETRY
For our next illustration we will take a 60 set-square G,
as
a right angle will not

tion
;
fit
closely to the
two planes in
this posi-
tu will be the H.T.
and
tw' the V.T,
If
we now open
as in Fig. 105.
the planes as before, these traces will be
shown
From
these illustrations
we can deduce
the following facts

it is
A A
plane can have no trace on the plane

Fig. 102).
parallel to (see
and B,
If traces are not parallel to
XY, they must
intersect each
other on that line (see D, E, and G, Fig. 104).

If the traces of a plane are in one straight line
when
the H.P.
and V.P. are opened out so as

be equal.
to
form one continuous surface,
the angles the plane forms with each co-ordinate plane must
When
a plane is perpendicular to either co-ordinate plane,
Fig. 105.
its
inclined trace will always give the

;
amount
(Fig.
of its inclination
to the other co-ordinate plane
e.g.
hh
105) forms with
XY
the angle
</>
or its inclination to the V.P., while

its
is
md
forms with
XY
the angle 6 or
inclination to
tlie
H.P.
its traces
;
When
parallel to
a plane
inclined to both planes, but has
XY,
the
sum
of its inclinations,
i.e.
+ = 90
(f)
as
(Fig. 104).
The
traces of planes inclined to one or both planes are not

finish at
little
supposed to
XY
they are indefinite, and are generally
produced a
beyond XY.
299
Peoblem
To find
80.
the traces of the following 'planes.
Scale \ full
size.
Fig. 106.
A,3" X 2i"perpendicular to the H.P.and inclined to the V. P. at 60.
B,3rxir
C,
>.
V-P.
H.P. ,,45.
shorter edges
U" X
3" inclined
H.P. at 60 with
parallel to each plane.
Draw
XY
and
at
any convenient point a draw ah 3"
long,
m'
h'
Fig. 106.
and
at

is
From a draw
ae
2^" long.
Then ab
the H.T., and ac the V.T. of A.
angle of 45 with
the H.T., and
From any convenient point d draw df 3f" long, and at an XY. From d draw de If" long. Then de is
df
the V.T. of B.
of 60 with
Take any point g on XY, and draw gh' 4|" long at an angle it. From h' draw h'k perpendicular to XY; and
gk,
from g as centre, with radius

perpendicular from g in
I.
draw an
arc
till
it
meets a

3" long, parallel to
From g draw a perpendicular till it from h' in m. Draw mV and lo, each
Then m'n
will be the V.T.,
XY^
and
ol
the
H.T. of C.
300
SOLID GEOMETRY
We
will
now proceed with

:
planes that are inclined to both
planes of projection
a 60 set-square
they are called oMique planes.

it
Let us take
and place
so as to
fit
closely against both
Fig. 107.
planes, as
shown
at
(Fig. 107).
ca will be the H.T.
and
cb'
the V.T.
The inclination of a plane

its
to the co-ordinate plane containing
trace
is
the angle between two lines perpendicular to the

itself.
trace,
one in the co-ordinate plane and one in the plane

line ca (Fig. 107) is the H.T. of the plane A,
The
and
ah' is
a line in the plane A, and af a line in the H.P., both perpendicular to the H.T.; therefore h'af
is
the angle
forms with
the H.P.
Peoblem
81.
From
the
H.T. and V.T. of a given plane,

it
(f).
to
determine
;
i.e.
the
angles
forms with the two planes of projection

Fig 108.
ch'
find
e and
Let ca be the H.T., and
the V.T. of the given plane.
From any
dicular to
it.
point a in the H.T. draw af in the H.P. perpen-
meets
XY in g.
b'.
the V.T. in
With / as centre, and radius fa, draw an arc till it At / draw a perpendicular to XY till it meets Join gh\ Then fgh' will give 6.
From any
dicular to
it.
301
point
d! in
the Y.T. draw
d'c in
,
the V,P. perpen-
meets
lili.
XY in
With 1 as centre, and radius ed! draw an arc till it From e draw eh perpendicular to XY, and join li.
will give ^.
(Fig.
Then
elik
The two set-squares

perspective.
107) show this construction in
A
Q.
illustrates the
method of obtaining
<\>,
and
the
way
to iind
PllOBLEM 82.
To find
the true angle hetween the
H.T. and Y.T. of a given plane

Fig. 107.) Fig. 109.
(e.g. the
angle Vca in the -plane A.
Let ac and
ee
be the H.T. and Y.T.
From any
pendicular to
point a in the H.T. draw ad in the H.P. perit till it
meets
in
XY
in
d.
From
till
ce',
this point
draw
a perpendicular to
in
e'.
XY
centre,
V.
the Y.P.
it
meets the Y.T.

arc
till
it
With
as
and radius
Join
cb'.
draw an
h'ca
is
meets ad produced in
required.
Then
the angle
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
To determine
the H.P.,
83,
the traces of
a plane inclined at an angle of 45

to the
to
and
at
an angle of 35
V.P.
Fig. 110.
Note.
In
the Definitions (Chap.
I.)
a cone
is
described as
being generated by the revolution of a right-angled triangle
about one of
-^
its
sides
as
an
axis.
The hypo-
tenuse of this triangle

is
called a generatrix.
This
problem
is
generally solved in the
following
manner
of
The
two
X/;
generatrices
cones forming the necessary angles to the two planes of projection are
determined
axes
with
at
their
meeting
the
same point on XY. The

sides of these
two cones should be tangential to a sphere, the

is
centre of which
the point on
is
XY in which
c
their axes meet.
The plane required
tangential to the bases of these two cones.
Draw XY.
angles to
Select
any point
for the point in
which the
it
axes of the cones meet, and draw a line through
at right
XY.
At any
point d on
XY draw
a line at an angle
c
of 60 with as centre,
it till it
meets the perpendicular on

cd,
in
h'.
With
Join
and radius
draw the semicircle
def.
fh'.
Then dcf
\b
the plan, and/5V<^ the elevation of a semi-cone.
From
centre,
draw the
line eg perpendicular to dh'.
With
as
and radius
eg,
draw a
circle.
This will represent the
plan and elevation of a quarter of the enveloped sphere.
Draw
the line ah, at an angle of 45, tangential to the plan

h'c
of the sphere, cutting
produced in
a.
With
as centre,
and
radius
cJi,
303
dra^Y the semicircle
Itk'l.
Join
al.
Then hal
will be
the plan, and Ik'h the elevation of another semi-cone.
From
i.e.
(c
draw the
line am, tangential to the semicircle /(;(^
the base of the vertical semi-cone.
From
i.e.
h'
draw the
line &'m tangential to the semicircle Ik'h;
the base of the horizontal semi-cone.
Then am
Ill
is
the H.T. and h'm the V.T. required.
Fig.
is
a perspective view showing this construction.

is
The horizontal semi-cone

There
is
dotted in each instance.
another
method
plane,
of finding the
traces for
viz.
an oblique
by
first
finding the projections

of a line perpendicular
to the plane required,
and then drawing the

traces at right angles
to
these
will
projections.
This
easily
be
more
understood by
to
referring
the
set-
square
(Fig. 107).
Let
Op
represent a line at right angles to on\ and perpen-
dicular to the plane B.
Then
op
is
the horizontal projection,

;
and
o'p
the vertical projection of this line (Op)

at right angles to these
and the H.T. mo,
and the V.T. 7nn, are
two projections.
PllOBLEM
84
the projections
To find
the traces of
an oUique plane hy means of

to it ;
of a line ijerpenclicular
the plane to he at 60
with
the H.P. and 45 with the V.P.
Fig. 112.
Note.
The
angles in this problem are the same as those

304
SOLID GEOMETRY
tlie
CHAP. XXIII
given in
preceding one, so that a comparison can be
made
between them.
The angles that a
line perpendicular to the plane will

first
make
with each plane of projection must
be determined.
is
The plane
to
form an
angle of 60 with the H.P., so
a line perpendicular to
it
will
form an angle of 30 with the
H.R
Y
(90
- 60 = 30).
The
plane also forms an angle of

45 with the V.P., so the line
^ must also form
an angle of
45 with the Y.P. (90
- 45
= 45).
follows
Fio;.
:
To
find the projec-
tions of this line proceed as

112.
point a draw ab' at an angle of 30
Draw XY, and at any with it. From the same

ab'.
point a draw ac at an angle of 45 with
From any point V in ab' draw h'c' With a as centre, and radius ac, draw an
drawn from
b'
perpendicular to
arc
ae'.
ac'.
till it
meets a line
parallel to
XY
in
c'.
Join
This will be the
vertical projection of the line required.
From
h.
b'
draw a
aJc,
XY
and meeting
till
it
it
in
"With a as centre, and radius
draw an arc
meets
This
a line
drawn from
e'
at right angles to
XY in
e.
Join
ae.
will be the horizontal projection of the line required.
From
draw the
line eg perpendicular to ae.
This will be
the H.T. of plane required.
From g draw
gh' perpendicular to ae' produced.
This will
be the Y.T. of the plane required.
By comparing
these traces with those
shown
in Fig. 110,
the angles they form with
XY will
be found to be the same.
CHAPTEE XXIV
INTERSECTION OF PLANES
If two planes intersect each other, they do so in a line
to both. If this line is parallel to the H.P,, as ah,
common
and gh
ef,
Fi?. 113.
(Tig. 113), its trace will
be where the Y. traces of the two planes

the Y.P., as no (Fig. 114),
its
intersect
if it is parallel to
trace
Fig. 114.
will be
it
where the H. traces of the two planes intersect

and_2:>g'
should
be inclined to both co-ordinate planes, as Im
(Fig. 114),
its
traces will be at the intersection of both
the H. and
V.
ô6
SOLID GEOMETRY
;
traces of both planes
but
if it is parallel to
both planes of pro-
jection, as cd (Fig. 113),
it
will
have no
traces.
We
will
now
data,
project the line of intersection of
two planes, from given
in each of the various positions illustrated in the perspective
views (Figs. 113 and 114).

Note.
The
planes in
the following problems have corre-
sponding letters to the planes in similar positions illustrated in

Figs.
113 and 114.
Pkoblem
Project the intersection of tivo jplanes
85.
and B, 3f " x 2^"
A
;
to he
inclined at
an angle of
Scale \fidl
45, and.
at 60 to the H.P.
hoth
planes
to he
perpendicidar
to the V.P.,
with their H. traxes
3" apart.
size.
Fig. 115.
e'
Draw XY, and mark
the points
and /'
3" apart, inclined
at 45
and 60 with XY.
From
e'
draw
the line A, and from/' the line B, each 3f"
\ h/
VT./^.Tcf cfA/ '.\b
long.
Draw
e'e
and
ff
perpendicular to
XY, each
2^" long.
These will be the H.
e'X
yY
a
traces of the
two planes.
From
ah
is
h'
draw
h'h
at right angles to
XY.
the plan of
ET.
KT
f
'b
A
e
r
h
the intersection required.

Note.
c
If the intersection is parallel to
the H.P.,
its
projection
is
also parallel to
FiR. 115.
the H.T. of the intersecting plane, as ah,

cd,
ef and gh (Fig. 113),
Problem
Project the intersection of ttoo planes
86.
C and D, 3f " x
2^"
to he
;
inclined at
an angle of
60,
and
at 30 with the H.P.
their horizontal edges to he parallel to

size.
XY.
Scale \ fidl
Fig. 116.
At any convenient point g on

60, and. the line
gh
at
XY drav/ gh at an angle of an angle of 30 with XY, both 3f" long.
XXIV
line
307
Through h draw the
Im
at right angles to
XY
I
and from k
Jcg,
draw
^perpendicular to Im.
From
ojj
^c
draw
h
In parallel to
V.T.
intersecting
gh in
0.
perpendicular to -XY.
as centre,
Draw With
to
|),
of
and distances
n,
and g as
radii,
draw arcs meeting

q, r,
Im
in the points
and w.
In
any convenient position on

fix
XY
the points
and
2 J" apart,
and draw
lines
through them
at right angles to
r
XY.
0,
Trom
,
draw
cd,
and from
cd! each
parallel to
zontal,
XY.
c'd!
cd
is
the horiFig. 116.
KT. <f
D
two
and
all
and
the vertical pro-
jections of the intersection required.
The V.
traces of the
I
planes are found by drawing lines from the points
and
A,
the H. traces by drawing lines from the points r and m,

parallel to
XY.
Pkoblem
87.
Project the intersection of two
pkmes
E and
!F,
3f"
X 2^"
'E to he

to the
an angle of
60,
and perpendicidar
V.P.
to
&e 'parallel to the H.P.,

to
and
size.
1" above
it,
hiU iêiyendicidar
theY.'2.
Scale \ fidl
at
Fig. 117.
it
Draw XY, and

draw the
60 with
it,
v:r.
any point a in
line E', 3f" long, at

it.
an angle of
1" above
Parallel to
XY, and
cf
\f
draw the
line F, 3f" long, intersecting
X
e
\\ a'
H.T.
the line
-Y JL
in the point/'.
These two lines
are the V. traces of the
two planes.
long,
From a
dicular to
draw aa, 2\"

:
perpenplane E.
E
I
XY
aa
:
this is the H.T. of

ef,
-- a
Immediately below/' draw

parallel to
2|" long, and
Fig. 117.
this is the projection of the
intersection required.
3o8
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
88,
Project the line of intersection of two planes
an
indefinite
i^lcf^ne
inclined at
;
G and H an angle.of 65 to
x
,
G: to he
the
H.P.
to the
and 35
to the
V.P.
to
JLto
he
3f"
2^" perpendicidar
it.
V.P., parallel
size.
the H.P.,
and
1" ahove
Scale ^ full
Fisj.
118.
G',
Find the V.T,

84),
and the H.T., G,

Let
of the plane
G (Prob.
83 or
to
it.
Jc'
Draw
is
the line n'k' 3f" long, 1" above

fall
XY, and parallel
This
the V.T. of plane H.
projectors from n'
and
XY, and produced 2J" below it, to the points and h Join %/;. Where the line nk' intersects the line G' in y, draw the perpendicular g'g. Draw the line gh parallel to the
at right angles to
?z,
line
this will
be the horizontal projection of the intersection

the projector hh' at right angles to
required.
g'h' is
Draw
XY.
Then
the vertical projection of the intersection required.
-'
Fig.
118,
Peoblem
89.
Project the intersection hetween tivo planes
J and K: J
to
he
3f" X 2\", inclined at an angle o/30 to the V.P., and perpendicular to the H.P. ; to he an indefinite plane, inclined
at
an angle of 55
size.
to
the H.P., aiid 45 to the V.P.
Scale
I full
Fig. 119.
Draw XY. Find the V.T., K', and the H.T., K, of the plane K
(Prob. 83 or 84).
cih,
309
W and aa
Va! in /.
is
3f" long, at
At any convenient point a on XY draw the line an angle of 30 with it. Draw the projectors
at right angles to
XY, and
2\' in length.
Ti,
Join Vo!
Where
ah intersects the line

till it
in
draw the projector M'.

Join
Produce aa!
meets the line K' in
c'.
^V
intersecting
Draw a projector from / till
it
meets ha in /
Then
hj
the horizontal projection, and /// the vertical projection of the
Peoblem
90.
Project the intei^section hettveen two planes
L and
L
an
to he
an
indefinite plane inclined at an angle of 55
to the
H.P. and
angle of
Scale
45
60
to the
V.P.
to he
3f"
2|", inclined at
to the H.P., with its shorter edges parallel to
XY.
Ifidlsize.
Pig. 120.
Find the V. and H. traces of the plane
L (Prob.
83 or 84).
At
any convenient point d on
XY
e
draw the draw the

to
line
de',
3f " long, at an
it.
anQ;le of 60 with
Prom
line ef, perpendicular
XY.
"With
fcl,
as centre,
and
it
radius
draw an arc
e.
till
meets ef produced in
convenient
line
In any
position
draw the
to
gh 2^" long, parallel
XY,
it
and the same distance from

as point
gg'
e.
Draw
till
the projectors
120.
and
hJi
they meet a horiat the height

is
zontal line
of point e.
drawn
Then gh
the H.T., and g'h' the V.T. of the plane
M.
At
the point m, where gh intersects the line L, draw the
projector
mm' ; and
at the point l\
I'l.
where the
Join
m'l',
line
gh' intersects
will be the
the line
L',
draw the projector
which
V. projection, and ml, which will be the H. projection of the

SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
Project the intersection of two planes
91.
and
0,
hotli
inclined
to the
right:
to he
an
indefinite plane, inclined at
an angle of
to
71 with the H.P.

indefinite
and 29 with
the V.P.
he also
and
inclined oJ
;
an angle of 60
the 'points
loith the
H.P.
and
50 ^vith the V.P.
of intersection of the
size.
traces
on
XY
to he
IV
it,
apart.
Sccde \full
Fig. 121.
Draw XY, and
fix
the positions of the points a and h upon
IV apart. From
these points
draw
the H. and V. traces of the two planes

(Prob. 83 or 84).
At
of the
the point
o,
where the H.
intersect,
traces
two planes
draw the
projector oo.
The Y.
traces of these
two planes
are found to be parallel to each other,
consequently the line caused by their

intersection
traces
;
must be
parallel to the Y.
it
will therefore be parallel to
the Y.P.
From
draw on
01
draw
on,
any length,
the H., and
parallel to
till
XY
and from
o'
parallel to the Y. traces
it
meets a projector from
in
n'.
Then on
is
o'n'
the Y. projections of the
Peoblem
92.
Project the intersection of two indefinite planes
P and Q
tohe
inclined to the left at

to the
an angle of 58
to the
;
to the
H.P. and 42
of 63
Y.P.
Q, to he
inclined
to
right at
an angle
to the
H.P. and 37
on
the Y.P.
the intersection of their

size.
traces
XY
to he
3f" apart.
Scale I full
c
Fig. 122.
Fix the positions of the points
From
draw the H. and Y.
traces of Q,
and d on XY, 3f" apart. and from d the H. and
Y. traces of
(Prob. 83 or 84).
XXIV
311
Fromg', where the H. traces intersect, draw the projector qq'
and from p, where the V.
traces intersect,
is
draw the projector ^'p.
Zomp'q, and ^2',
Then jjg'
the horizontal, and ^'2'' the vertical
projections of the intersection required.
Fig. 122.
Fig. 123.
Problem
To determine
93.
the traces of t%vo 'planes

:
and B,
loitli
their line
of
intersection
to
he inclined 50,
to the
at 60,
and
the line
in which they intersect 45

to he toioards the
H.P.; all three inclinations
V.P.
Pig. 123.
Draw XY, and

a cone.
clb'
the perpendicular hV to represent the axis of

ch'
Prom
an
h'
the vertex draw the line
at
an angle of
50,
at
angle of 60,
and eV at an angle of 45 with

vertex at
XY.
These three lines represent the sides of three perpendicular

cones, having a
common
h'.
With
cones.
& as centre,
draw portions
select
of the bases of these three

is
The
line of intersection
e
:
between the two planes
on
the arc drawn from
any convenient point a on

aa',
this arc,
and join
ah.
Draw
the projector
and join
ah'.
These are
the projections of the line of intersection.
Prom a draw
it
a tangent to the arc

line to
h'.
drawn from drawn from
c,
and where and where
meets
XY
XY
draw a
draw a
These are the traces of plane A.

d,
Prom a draw
it
a tangent to the arc

line to
h'.
meets
These are the traces of plane B.
312
SOLID GEOMETRY
CHAP. XXIV
Problem
To determine
the traces of
94.
ixtrallel to
a i^lane
a given j^lccne,
and containing
Let
a given point.
Fig. 124.
and A' represent the traces of the given plane, and aa'
the projections of the given point.
From a draw ab parallel to the From h draw a projector trace A.

till it
meets a horizontal line from

h'.
a'
in
Through
h'
draw the
line
B' parallel to the trace A', and from
the point where the line
it
meets
XY
draw
parallel to trace A.
and B' are the traces required.

Fig. 124.
CHAPTEE XXV
ANGLES BETWEEN PLANES WHICH ARE NOT PAEALLEL
To determine the
each other, a line
angle
is
between
in
two
planes
intersecting
drawn
:
each plane perpendicular to
their line of intersection
the angle between these two lines
will give the inclination of the planes to each other. If
we
refer to Fig. 107, in
which the
line ca is the line of
intersection between the plane

db'
A and
the horizontal plane, and

it,
and of are
Figs.
lines in
each of the planes perpendicular to
then Vaf is the angle formed between the two planes.
113 and 114 show the principal intersections between

:
two planes
Fig.
we
is
will
now determine
the angles formed between
each set of planes, in the order shown.
115
the projection of the planes
and
(Fig. 113).
As
these are both perpendicular to the V.P., their V. traces will
give the angles they form with each other.
The
planes
lines gli
and nl
(Fig.
116) give the end view of the
C and
(Fig. 113),
consequently the angles formed by
these lines will give the angles between the planes.
The planes
between them.
E andF
(Fig. 113) are perpendicular to the V.P.,
so their V. traces, as
shown in
Fig. 117, will give the angles
Peoblem
To
determine, the angle hetwee7i
95.
2yictne
inclined
to
to
hoth planes
of ijrojection and a plane

traces being given.
parallel
the
H.P., their
Fig. 125.
Let
line
and G' represent the traces of the plane G, and the

of plane
H' the V.T.
H.
314
SOLID GEOMETRY
From any
5
point a draw
ha,
it
aJ-)
perpendicular to line G.
ac.
With
draw a
cb'
as centre,
and radius
draw the arc

meets
tlie
From
&
perpendicular to
XY
till
line G' in V.
Join
then Vah
plane
is is
the inclination of the plane
to the H.P.
As
the
parallel to the H.P., the angle
^fg
is
the angle
between the planes required.
Fig. 125.
Fio;.
126.
Peoblem
To determine
the angle' hetween
96.
-plane
inclined to the V.P.
and
'peiyendicidar to the H.P.
and a
;plane
inclined to loth
Fig. 126.
J,
planes of 'projection, their traces heing given.
Let
K
h,
and K' represent the traces of plane K, and
cutting
XY in
secting
till
and
in a, the H.T. of plane J.
Draw any
it
line
gh
at right angles to the line J,

h as centre,
c
d'.
and
inter-
in
e.
With
and
radii ha
and
he,
draw
arcs
to
they meet
XY
in
and
H.P.
/.
At
cd'.
hcd' is
plane
XY till it meets K' in K forms with the

dicular to
cd'.
Join
Then
the angle the
From / draw
e,
the line fn' perpen-
Set off from
eh equal to fi!.
Join
Ich.
Then
which
Ikh
is
the angle required.

is this
:
The principle
heh
is
a right-angled triangle, of
XXV
ANGLES BETWEEN PLANES WHICH ARE NOT PARALLEL

is
315
fn
the altitude
this triangle is rotated

i.e.
on the side eh
till it
coincides with the H.P.,
it is " constructed " into the
H.P.
Peoblem
To determine
the angle hetween
97.
a flane
inclined to hath plnnes of

to both the
'projection
and a plane
M aho inclined
H.P. and
Pig. 127.
V.P., hut parallel to
XY,
their traces heing given.
Let
L and
L' be the traces of plane L,
and
and M' the
traces of plane
M.
Pind the projec-
tions of the line of intersection be-
tween these two planes (Prob.

ah and
a'h'.
90), as
Draw
cd),
the line hg at right angles to

it
and intersecting and

they meet
in
e.
With
he,
as centre,
radii ha
and
in
draw
/.
arcs
till
ch',
XY
and
Join
then
h'ch is
the inclination of
plane
with the H.P.

to
ch'.
fn perpendicular
/,
Prom / draw Prom point
where hg cuts the H.T. of plane L,

Join Ih and kh.
set off a distance equal to f7i, till it
meets the line

required.
cd>
in
k.
Then
Ikh
is
the angle
the apex,
Ikh represents a triangle,

till it
of which k
is
rotated on the line hi
coincides with the H.P.
Problem
To determine
98.
the angle hetween tivo planes

to
and 0,
hoth of xohich
traces
are inclined
the
H.P. and
V.P., vnth
their V.
parcdlel to each other, their traces heing given.
Pig. 128.
IST
Let
IsT
and
N',
a.
and
0',
be the traces of the two planes
and 0, meeting in
At
a,
which may be any point in the H.T.

it.
of plane O,
to
draw
ad)
perpendicular to
Prom
XY
till it
3i6
SOLID GEOMETRY
in
d'.
meets the V.T. of plane

inclination of plane
Join
cd',
then
d'cb
is
the
to the H.P.
With a
radius
till
as centre,
and
ae,
draw an arc
it
meets the H.T. of

/.
plane N" in
set off
From
on
XY
c
eg equal
to
ef,
and draw gV parallel
to cd'.
From
e
draw
to
cli
perpendicular
gV.
From
equal
on ef
cli.
set off ek
to
Join ha.
the
Then eah
Fis. 128.
is
angle
required.
Problem
To determine
the
99.
angle between two 'planes

to
P and
Q,
Ijotli
of
which are inclined
each of the co-ordinate 'planes, hut in

Pig. 129.
opposite directions, their traces heing given.
Let
P and
ah
of
P',
and
Q',
be the traces of the two planes
and
Q.
Pind the pro-
jections
and ah' of
intersection
the line

(Prob. 92).
Through any point

in ah
draw the
line
it.
hg at
right angles to
h,
Prom
he,
with radii ha and

arcs
till
draw
Join
they meet
c
XY in the points
cb',
and /.
is
then
h'ch
the
inclination of the line of
intersection to the H.P.
Fio;.
129,
XXV
ANGLES BETWEEN PLANES WHICH ARE NOT PARALLEL From / draw fn

perpendicular to
cb'
.
317
From
along
cib
set
off ek
equal to fn
Join
Icli
and
lig.
Then
likg is
the angle

likg is
P and Q
required.
,
a triangle with an altitude equal to fit! rotated on the

coincides with the H.P.
lilLg is
line
lig till it
the H. projection
of this triangle in its proper position.
Pkoblem
To find
the traces of
100.
a ]jlane making a given angle
A with
given plane ivhose traces are given.
Fig. 130.
Let H.T. and V.T. represent the traces of the given plane. Let ah be the plan of the line of intersection between the
planes.
At
h erect
a perpendicular
till it
meets the V.T. in

it
If.
Draw any With h as
line cd at right angles to ah,

centre,
and intersecting
in
g.
and
radii hg
and
ha,
draw
arcs
till
they meet
XY in
fh'.
and/.
Join/6'.
g,
At e draw the
a,
line eV perpendicular to
el'.
Set off from
towards
gh equal to
Join
ch.
Draw
hd,
making with
ch an angle equal to the given angle
and
ak
cutting eg in d.
is
Join ad intersecting
XY
in
Join M).
the H.T. and hh' the V.T. of the plane required.
CHAPTEE XXVI
LINES INCLINED TO PLANES
The
let
angle between a line and a plane
is
the angle between
tlie line
and
its
projection on the plane.
Eeferring to Tig. 83,

line
AB
As
represent the line and
aB
its
ABa
will represent the angle
between the
and the H.P.

the com;
projectors are perpendiculars to the co-ordinate planes,

its
the angle between a line and
longer projector
its
is
plement of the angle between the line and
projection
-l-
e.g.
BAa
(Fig. 83) is the
complement of ABa,
i.e.
BAa
ABa =
90.
Problem
To find
the intersection of
101.
a given
line ivith
a given plane,
Fisf.
the
line to he horizontal
and
inclined to V.P.
131.
Let H.T. and V.T. represent the traces of the plane, and
ah, ah',
the projections of the line.

c,
^'^
^
From
-^
where ah' cuts the

c'c.
V.T.,
c
^-^^
'
draw the perpendicular draw a

meets ah in
From
line parallel to the H.T.

d.
till it
Then d
is
the plan of
a prois
the intersection.
jector
till it
From d draw
a'h'
meets
in
d'.
This
the elevation of the intersection reFig.
13L
quired.
CHAP. XXVI
3^9
Problem
To find
the intersection of
102.
line
a given
with a given plane, the

Fig. 132.
line to he inclined to both co-ordinate planes.
Let H.T. and Y.T. represent the

traces of the plane,
and
at,
ah' the
,
projections of the line.
Assume
a Y. plane
containing
the given line, and find the projections of line of intersection,
EC, be-
tween
this
assumed plane and the
given plane (Prob. 89).

this
till
At
d
is
d! ,
where
line cuts
it
a'SV^raw a projector
d.
meets ah in
the plan,
Fig. 132.
and
d!
the elevation of the required
intersection.
Problem
To find
the traces of
Oj
103.
plane perpendicular
Pis. 133.
to
a given
line.
Let
ah, a'h',
represent the projections
of the given line.
At any point
from
in ah
it.
draw the
line
fe perpendicular to
Draw
projectors
/ and
it
e.
Where
/',
the projector from

parallel
e
/
c.
meets ah' in
draw fe'
to
in
XY till
meets the projector from

e'
Through
a'h'.
draw the
line c'd' at right
angles to
to
ef.
Prom
ccV is
d'
draw
d'c parallel d'c
Then
the H.T., and
the
Y.T. of the required plane.
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
To draw a
line 2^cr2yendimlar to
104.
ijlane,
a given
and
to
determine
the true length of the line.
Fig. 134.
Let H.T. and V.T. represent the traces of the given plane.
Draw
d'
the
ah and ah'
the projections of
line, at right
till
angles to H.T. and Y.T.
Produce ah
it
meets
XY in d.
ce
,
At d
)< /
c
A,
till it
meets the V.T.
in d!
Draw
With
h
the projector
as
till
and join
ha,
c'd!.
centre,
it
and radius
/d
draw an arc
from
jector
meets a line drawn
\
\
h parallel to
XY in A.
it
Draw
a pro-
>
from
till
meets a line drawn

in A'.
from a parallel to
XY
Join
A'&',
Fig. 134.
which
will be the true length of the line
required.
Peoblem
To determine
the angle
105.
line inclined to the Y.P.
which a horizontal
loill
make with a given plane.
Fig. 135.
Let H.T. and Y.T. be the traces

of the given plane,
and ah and
line.
a'h'
the projections of the
Draw
AC,
the projections of any line
as ac, a'c, at right angles to the
traces of the plane.
Through
draw
Let
the line cd perpendicular to ah.
ad represent the
this line
axis of a cone, with

ac.
a as vertex, and generatrix

ac
li fi
were rotated round the

angle
it
axis
ad,
the
would make
pjo-.
with ad would be constant, and the
135.
XXVI

c
321
point
would always be
cd.
in a plane perpendicular to the line
passing through
If
we were
to rotate this line ac

its
till
it
became
of ac,
horizontal,
we should not only obtain

it
true length,
but also the angle
forms with
ab.
To obtain the true length

and make
ac.
it
draw cQ perpendicular
This
is
to ac,
equal to
e'c.
Join C.
the point
the true length of

ccl.
Wc
must now
transfer
C on
to the line
till
it
With a
as centre,
and radius
Join C'.
C, draw an arc
meets cd produced in C.
The
line
aC
represents the line ac in a horizontal position,

is
and the angle G'ad
the angle the line ah forms with a

It
perpendicular (AC) to the given plane.
has already been

is
stated that " the angle a line will form with a plane
the com-
plement between that line and a perpendicular
to the
at.
plane"
to obtain this
is
complement, draw af perpendicular to
Then
faC
the angle required.
Problem
To determine
the angle
106.
which a
u-ith
line inclined to hoth

'plane.
planes of
jjrojection loill
make
re-
a given
Kg. 136.
Let H.T. and Y.T.
present the traces of the
given plane, and
ah, ah',
the projections of the line
AB.
Draw
cVe
the lines
cle
and
:
traces
these represent the
Z)
projections of a line
DE
perpendicular to the given

plane.
Find the H. traces
of the lines
AB
as
c
and
DE
/.
(Prob.
67),
and
Draw
/,
the line eg through

line clg perpendicular to it
and the
Let the line eg represent
322
SOLID GEOMETRY
c
chap.
let cd
the axis of a cone, with
as vertex,
and
be the H. pro-
jection of a generatrix of the cone.

^^D till it is "
We wish
H.P.
to rotate this line

this,
constructed
"
on
to the
To do
draw the
and
Join
line (ID' perpendicular to dg,
and equal
in length to d'd" (the
height of the point

radius gD',
above the H.P.)

till
it
With g
as centre,
draw an arc
meets gd produced in D.
D/ and
Dc,
which are on the H.P., and represent the true
lengths of these lines.
The angle cDf

is
is
the angle formed with
AB
cDf,
by a
line perpendicular' to the given plane.
Draw
Tfh per-
pendicular to D/.
i.e.
Then cDh
the complement of the angle
the angle required.
Pkoblem
To determine
outside
the projeetions of
107.
two lines from two given points

the given
a given plane making equal angles with
plane,
and meeting in
the
same point on
it.
Pigs.
137
and 138.
Before proceeding with the construction of this problem,
will take
we
a
an
-
illustration.
Let
BC
(Fig. 137) represent the top
edge of a mirror in a vertical plane,

point to be reflected, and
A A
^^
/
"^N.
the position of
in
\
j]
y^
^^^^
''
the eye.
The
reflection of the point
a/..
^^ mirror will appear to
come from A'
(A'
/ B/
we
being the same distance from the mirror as A, in a line perpendicular to its surface),
, _
whereas
mirror.
If
it
really
comes from point a on the
join
and
to a, they will
make equal
angles
with the surface of the mirror, because the angle of incidence

is
equal to the angle of reflection.
Let H.T. and V.T.

plane, and a, h
; a',
(Fig.
138) represent the traces of the given
V;
the projections of the given points.
From
dd',
draw a
till it
c
line cutting the H.T. at right angles in d,
and produced and from
meets
XY in
cc.
c.
From d draw
d'c'.
the projector
the projector
Join
323
From
d'c'
h'
draw a
line at right angles to the V.T., intersecting

this line to /',
in
e.
Produce
making
in
e'f
equal to
h'e.
This
is
equivalent to the line
AA'
Fig. 137.
The point
on the surthe
face
of the plane
represents
point
d on
the surface of the mirror.

till
From
meets
it
till
/' draw a projector

he in /.
it
it
Join
af,
and produce
the projecg'k'.
meets
g.
hk'.
XY
in k, cutting
the H.T. in
tors gg'
Draw
Join
and
Draw
till
a line from a to /' intersecting g'k'

in
it
h'.
Draw
a projector from h'

h.
meets ak in
The points h and

the point
h' are the projections of
on the plane where the lines meet,

answering to point a in Fig. 137.
Join ah, and
Fig. 138.
hh,
which are the

;
horizontal projections
a'li',
and
h'h',
the vertical projections of
the two lines required.
CHAPTEE XXVII
LINES CONTAINED BY PLANES AND MAKING GIVEN ANGLES
WITH THE CO-ORDINATE PLANES
The
principles on
which solutions
of this combination of figures
are based will be
more
easily understood
by reference
to the
perspective view (Fig. 139).
A, B, and
planes.
represent planes inclined to both co-ordinate
It is required to place in these planes lines inclined at
a given angle to the H.P.
A point
a in the V.T. of the plane
can be taken as one
Fig. 139.
point in this line.

it
If
now
a perpendicular be let
fall
from a
till
meets the H.P., and a right-angled triangle with an angle Q at

base sweep out a semi-cone round this perpendicular line as
axis, the
its
an
base of this semi-cone will intersect the plane A,
provided the angle Q be not greater than the angle which the
plane itself makes with the H.P., and where
plane, the side of the triangle ab,
cone, will be the line required.
i.e.
it
intersects the
the generatrix of the semithis case the base of the
In
CHAP. XXVII
LINES CONTAINED BY PLANES

h,
325
semi-cone touches the plane in one point only,

ah
is
and the
line
0.
the line in the plane
A
c
inclined to the H.P. at the angle
In plane
(Fig. 139)
is
the vertex of the semi-cone, the
base of \vhich cuts the H.T. of the plane in two places, d and
e.
By
joining each of these points with

fulfil
we
obtain two lines,
both of which
the required conditions,
i.e.
they both form
the required angle with the H.P. and are contained by the
plane B.
In plane
(Fig.
139) the vertex g
is
not on the V.P., as
is
the case wdth

semi-cone.
points
li
and B, consequently we get more than a

intersects the H.T. of the plane in
The base
k.
two
and
By joining
two
lines,
these two points with the vertex g
we
also obtain
both of which are contained by the
plane,
and form an equal angle with the H.P.
Xote.
The
it
angle the required line forms with the H.P.

it
must not exceed that formed by the plane containing

the H.P., but
with
may
be at the same angle as
is
the case with
the line ah and plane
(Fig. 139).
Problem
108.
From a
given iDoint
a' to project
line contained hy
a given plane,
and making
the
same angle with

Fig. 140.
the
H.P. as that made hy
the given plaMC.
Let H.T. and Y.T. be the traces of the given plane.
From
given point
a'a.
af
draw the
perpendicular
From a draw
hh'.
the line a& perpendicular to the
H.T.
h'a.'.
Draw the
ha
is
projector
Join
h'a'
the horizontal, and
the vertical projections of the re-
quired
line.
To
determine
the
angle
ah
as
till
it
"'S* ^*^'
forms with the H.P.

centre,
B'.
With a
and radius
is
ah,
draw an arc
meets
XY in
B.
Join
Then 6
the angle
made by
the plane required.
326
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
To project a
line
109.
the H.P.,
making an angle of 40 with
and
contained hy a given plane.
Pig. 141.
Let H.T. and V.T. be the traces of the given plane.
At any convenient point
on
XY
draw
AV
&'.
at the
till
required angle (40)
it
meets the V.T. in

the perpendicular
h
Draw
With
h'h.
as centre,
and radius &A,

This will
draw a
semicircle.
represent the base of a semi-
cone of which
141.
h' is
the vertex.
This semicircle intersects the

Fiff.
H.T. in the points
and
a.
Join
eh
and
ah, either of
which
is
the horizontal projection of
the required line.
Draw
which
is
the projectors aa' and
cc'.
Join ah' and
c'V,
either of
the vertical projection of a line fulfilling the required
conditions.
Problem
From, a given 'point
110.
line
to project
o/"
forming an angle
H.P., plane.
60 ivith the
and contained hy a given

Fig. 142.
Let H.T. and V.T. be the traces of

the given plane, and aa the projection
of the given point A.
From a draw ah parallel to the H.T. Draw the projector hh' till it meets the V.T. Draw h'a parallel to XY. Draw a'C making an anale of
^^s- 142.

60 with
327
Draw the perpendicular Cc till it meets a line With a as centre, and radius ac, draw to XY. an arc till it meets XY. This arc intersects the H.T. in d and e. Join da and ca. Draw projectors from d and e. Join d'a and
XY.
from a parallel
e'a.
da and
d'a' are
the projections of one line, and

is
ea, e'a',
of
the other, either of which

is at
contained hj the given plane, and
the required angle with the H.P.
Problem
Fro7/i a givc7i
111.
point
to project
a horizontal
line contained
hy a given plane.
The
lines ah,
aV
(Fig. 142), are the projections of
the line
required.
Problem
112.
From a
given point
to
project
line
making an angle of oO
inclined to
loith the H.P.,
and contained hy a given plane
hath 'planes of projection, hut parallel to
XY.
Pio-.
143.
Let H.T. and V.T. be the traces of the given plane, and aa'
the projection of the given point.
Through a draw a
angles to
line
it
at
right
c,
TT
XY
and cutting
in
and
the V.T. in c.
radii ca
With
draw
Join
as centre,
and
and
e.
cd,
arcs meeting
XY
in
and
ec.
it
Draw
ec
a proin A'.
jector from
till
meets
Draw
A'a' parallel to
line
XY.
c
Prom
draw the
30 with
radius
cf,
af making
With
Join
an angle of
XY.
h.
as centre,
and
draw an arc
till it
meets the
is
H.T.
in
ah,
which
the
horizontal projection of the required line.

projector hV.
line required.
Prom
draw the
Join ah', which
is
the vertical projection of the
328
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
To determine
the
traces
113.
zontal line
AB,
of a ^j/%e containing a given horiand inclined at an angle of 30 with the
H.P.
Fig. 144.
Let
ah, ab',
be the projections of the given line. Produce ah
till it
meets
XY
to c
in
c.
Draw
it
a projector
a'b' c
till
meets
pro-
duced in
the
line
c.
Prom
draw
an
cd,
making
with
angle
of
30
XY.
c
With c
cd,
as centre,
arc.
and radius
draw an
Prom
Fig. 144.
to eh
till
it
meets the arc in D.
Through
This
V.T.
is
draw a
line parallel to ah till it
meets
XY
in /.
the H.T. of the plane required.
Join fc, which
is
the
Problem
To determine
the traces of
114.
plane containing a given

line
AB inclined to hoth
to
lolanes of projection, the
plane
he inclined at
cm angle
H.P.
of &0 with the
Pig. 145.
a'h' ,
Let
ah,
be the pro-
jections of the given line.
Draw
the projector aa,

a'h' till it
and produce
meets
till
Fi^. 145.
XY
in
c'.
Produce ah
XXVII
it

c
329
meets a projector drawn from
in
c.
a'd,
making an angle of 60 with XY,
From a' draw the line With a as centre, and

line tangential to the
radius ad, draw an arc.

arc
till it
From
e.
draw a
meets
XY in
Join ea.
ec is
the H.T., and
ea'
the
V.T. of the plane required.
Pkoble.m 115.
To determine
the traces of
a plane containing
tioo
given
intersecting lines,
AB
and AC.
Fig. 146.
lines.
Let
ah, a'h',
and
ac, a'c,
be the projections of the given
Produce ah
till it
meets
XY
is
in
d.
Produce
a'h' till it
meets
a'h'
the projector from
d.
This
the V.T. of
AB.
Produce
ET.
Fig. 146.
till it
meets
This
XY
is
in
e.
Produce ah
till it
meets the projector
from
e.
the H.T. of line

line
till
AB.
Find the traces of the
AC
in the
same way.
Lines
drawn through these

of the plane required.
Note.
traces
they meet on
XY are
the traces
The
traces of a plane to contain three given points
A, B, and
C would
be found in the same manner.
CHAPTEE XXYIII
KOTATION OF PLANE FIGUKES
In the projection of various objects the necessity
for rotating
plane figures at any required angle with the co-ordinate planes

is
of frequent occurrence.
:
The following problems
illustrate the
principle of this subject
Pkoblem
116.
to the
To project a six-pointed regular star inclined

at
H.P.
an angle of 45.
star,
Pig. 147.
Let
represent this
constructed on the H.P.
Fig. 147.
Draw
XY.
a line through point a of the figure, perpendicular to

this line to be the H.T. of the required projection.
Assume
CHAP. XXVIII
ROTATION OF PLANE FIGURES

Hue meets
331
Where
this
XY in
is
A, set off the required angle, which
gives the line H'.
This
the V.T. of the required projection.

a, h,
c,
Draw
horizontal lines through the points
d,
e,
and/ of
the constructed figure, also perpendiculars the points A,r,B,E,C,D.

as radii,
till
they meet
XY in
With A
as centre,
and the other points
draw
arcs
till
they meet the V.T. H', and from these

till
points draw projectors
they meet the horizontal lines drawn

figure.
i.e.
through the corresponding points of the original
By
the
joining these points as shown, we get the plan H,

original figure
is
rotated on the H.T.
till
it is
inclined at an
angle of 45 with the H.P.
Peoblem
To project an
30
to the
117.
at
elevation of the
same Jiffure inclined

parallel to
an angle of
H.P.,
its
H.T.
to he
XY.
Fig. 147.
At point A on XY draw the line J' at an angle of 30 with With D as centre, and the points where the horizontal lines it. drawn through the original figure meet a line drawn through From these points J)d as radii, draw arcs till they meet XY.
on
XY draw perpendiculars
till
they meet horizontal lines drawn

J'.
from the corresponding points on
Join these points as
shown, which gives the elevation J" required.
Problem
118.
to the
Project the same figure in a vertical p)lane, inclined

at
V.P.
an
angle of 54.
Fig. 147. this line
From
position
draw the perpendicular AD", and assume

line B'E' at the required angle
to be the V.T. of the required projection.
In any convenient
with
draw the
it till
it
XY, and
produce
meets the V.T. in N.
This
is
the H.T. of the
required projection.
With
as centre,
and the points where the horizontal
lines
radii,
through the original figure meet the line drawn through A as
332
SOLID GEOMETRY
arcs
till
chap.
B',
draw
they meet the H.T. in the points

till
C,
A', D', Y', E'.
Draw
as
projectors to these points
they meet horizontal lines

Join the points
drawn from corresponding points on the V.T.

plan and K' the elevation.
shown, to complete the required projection, of which
K is the
figure
L and
JVote.
L'
are the plan
and elevation of the same

the V.P. at an angle of 77.
" rotated " till it is inclined to
The
student will
see,
by studying
this
illustration
(Fig. 147), that
we can
project a plan or elevation at
any possible
angle with either co-ordinate plane from a given plane figure,

i.e.
we can assume any H.
or V. trace
and
rotate the figure
upon
it
accordingly.
Peoblem
To
rotate
119.
a given equilateral triangle ahc (1)

angle of 100 with
till
it
forms an
(2)
till
angle of 60 with the plane of the given figure,

it
and
forms an
it.
Fig. 148.
1.
Bisect the line ah in d,
and join
dc,
cd.
With d
arc.
as centre,
and radius
^,->'
draw an
At d
let
^^
^^^^'^^ /
dC make
the given angle (60) with
/'
fc
\^
^ ^-îill-
^^ ^'^^ meet the arc in C.
From C
meet
it
'
at c.
to de to
Join
ac'
and
&c'.
Then
The
a5c' is
triangle
till it is
deQi
is
rotated on the line de'

its
perpendicular to
original position,
and
2.
c' is
the projection of the point C.
At d
let
Q'd
the arc in C.
make the given angle (100) with dc, meeting From C draw a line perpendicular to ed proc" to
duced in
required.
c".
Join
a and
5.
Then
aid' is the triangle
ROTATION OF PLANE FIGURES

Problem
To
rotate
333
120.
line
a regular 'pentagon ahcde on a
af drawn through
plane of the
its centre till it
forms an angle of 60
ivith the
given figure.
Fig. 149.
Join
axis
in
Ic.
The
lines he
and
cd,
being at right angles to the
af represent the traces of planes which the points he and cd of the
f----.,
pentagon move.
radius gh,
With g
arcs
as centre,
5
and
e.
draw
and
from
and
With
as centre,
c
and radius
fc,
draw
angle
it
arcs from
d.
At g
till it
let
E^ make the given

h
(60) with the line ge,
and produce
meets the arcs from
and
in the
points
B and
it
E.
From
h'
these points
till
draw
meet
a to
lines perpendicular to le
they
Join
in the points
e.
and
e.
c
h'
and
Find the points
and
d'
in the
same manner,
and join
h'c
and
e'd'.
Then
a'h'c'd'e' is
the projection required.
af were on the H.P., it would be the H.T. of the plane containing the projection, and the dotted half of the figure
If the axis
would be below the H.P.
Pkoblem
121.
To rotate a given sqiiare abed on an

axis
AB
till it
forms an angle
'plane
of 45 with
the
of the
original figure.
Fig. 150.
From each
b,
fj
of the four points a,

to
c,
and d draw perpendiculars
the axis
AB.
as centre,
With C
Ficr.
and radius
let
Cc,
150.
draw an
arc.
At C
Cd make
334
SOLID GEOMETRY
line Cc,
chap, xxviii
it
an angle of 45 with the

the arc drawn from
it
c
and produce
till
it
meets
till
in D.
From
meets Cc in
c'.
Proceed in the same manner with each of the

a'b'c'd' is
other points, and join them,
the projection required.
The dotted part of the

fioure.
figure is
below the plane of the original
CHAPTEE XXIX
OBJECTS INCLINED TO THE
H.P.
AT GIVEN ANGLES
In the preceding chapter we have inclined the plane of the

figure, as a
whole, to a given angle, without concerning our-
selves with the inclination of
any particular
line contained
by
the plane.
The problems
:
in this chapter are constructed with
additional data, viz.

1.
The
inclination of a line contained
by the plane
itself.
is
given
in addition to the inclination of the plane

2.
The individual
inclination of two lines contained
by the
plane are given.
Peoblem
To determine
the projection of
122.
an
ABC
of I5"
sides, its
swface
to
he inclined to the
H.P. at an angle of
Pig. 151.
60,
and one of its
edges
(BC)
a.t
an angle of 44.
At any convenient point D on XY set off an angle of 60 and draw the line DE, which is the V.T. of the required projection. Draw the perpendicular DGr, which is the H.T. At any convenient distance from D on XY fix the position of H, and at this point let HE make an angle of 44 with XY,
produce
it till it
meets the V.T. in E.
Prom E draw E/" perpenas centre,
dicular to
till it
XY.
till
With
it
as centre,
Gr.
and radius /H, draw an arc
meets the H.T. in

arc
With
and radius DE,
draw an
meets
XY
in P.
Join PG- and /G.
fG
is
the projection of a line inclined at an angle of 44 with the
H.P. and contained by a plane inclined at an angle of 60 with
336
SOLID GEOMETRY
it
the H.P., consequently
forms one edge of the required triangle.

constructed
"
FG
is
the same line
"
on the H.P.
From any
KT
Fig. 151.
convenient point
C on
FGr set off
CB
1|" long, and complete
the equilateral triangle
ABC.
perpendiculars
till
From each corner of the triangle draw they meet XY. With D as centre, and these
draw
arcs
till
points as distances,
they meet the
A^.T.
in the points a, c,
and
h'.
Draw projectors from these points

drawn from the corresponding
the points
a, l,
c.
till
letters of the triangle,
which give
Join these points for the projection required.
Peoblem
Project
123.
a square of 6'7" sides with its surface inclined to the H.P. at an angle of 50 and one of its edges at an angle of
Fig. 152.
40 toith the H.P.
Scale ^ full
size.
On
the 2^rojection of the square complete the
plan of a
cube.
XXIX
3.
OBJECTS INCLINED TO THE
H.P,
AT
CxIVEN
ANGLES
337
Project
an
elevation of the
J).
same cute as seen in
the direction
of the arrow at
1.
Determine the H.T. and V.T. of a plane inclined

;
at
an
angle of 50 with the H.P.

of a line in that plane
also the projection

at
and construction
and inclined
an angle of 40 with
the H.P. (Prob. 122).
/G
is
the projection of this line, and
Fig. 152.
PGr
its
construction
set off
on the H.P.
6'7" long,
At any convenient
it
point
on
PG
CB
and on
complete the square
ABCD.
Determine the projections of the points
a, h,
c,
cl
(Prob. 122)
and join them, which gives the projection

2.
of the square required.
Prom
cl'
set off d'li. perpendicular to the V.T.
and equal
in length to one side of the square.

till it
Prom
drop a projector
in the point
h.
cl,
parallel to
XY,
Join dk.
This gives the projection of one edge of the cube.

z
338
SOLID GEOMETRY
lines
chap.
As
of
equal length parallel to each other have then'
projections also equal,

in length,
draw
lines parallel to
dJc,
and equal
to
to it
from the points
a, b,
and
c,
and join them
complete
the plan of the cube.

3.
Draw
draw
lines
from the points
a, h,
c,
parallel to
XY
till
they meet the H.T.

radii,
With L
they meet
as
centre,
and these points

B',
as
arcs
till
XY
in the points C,
till
D', A'.
Draw
lines
perpendiculars on these points
they meet horizontal

V.T.,
drawn from the corresponding points on the

c", h",
which
give the points

of the cube.
d", a",
by joining which we get the bottom

meets a horizontal
Produce the perpendicular

line
J)'d" till
it
drawn from K.
it
equal to
in
Draw lines on length. By joining
a", h", c" parallel to d"k',
and
the ends of these lines
we
obtain the elevation required,
Pkoblem
1.
124.
Project a sq;uare
at
ABCD,
of 0'9" side, the side

the diagonal
AB
to he
inclined
an
angle of 45,
and
BD
43 loith the H.P.
Pig. 153.
2.
Let the sqimre represent the base of a cube.
Complete
its
plan
and
Note.
elevation.
It is not necessary that
one corner of the projected
square should be in the H.P.

1.
With B
as centre,
and with any assumed height of

arc.
above the H.P. as radius, draw an

at angles
Draw
tangents to this arc

mêetino; the lines
of 45 with
AB
and 43 with BD,

a line through
produced in
and
F.
Draw
and
F,
which
is
the H.T. of the required projection.
Draw
XY
perpendicular to the H.T.
points A, B, C,
D
J
perpendicular to
B'.
Draw lines from the XY, and till they meet it in

the same height above
it
the points D', A', C,
Draw
as the
a line
parallel to
XY, and
assumed radius of the arc on plan.
With
as centre.
XXIX OBJECTS
INCLINED TO THE
draw an arc
H.P.
till
AT GIVEN ANGLES
it
339
and HB'
as radius,
is
meets the line J in
V.
Join H&', which
the V.T. of the required projection.

D', A',
With
till
H as
centre,
and the points
C, B' as
V.
radii,
draw arcs
they meet the V.T. in the points drop projectors

till
cl\ a', c',
From
these points
they meet lines drawn from the correspond-
Fig. 153.
ing letters of the square,

points
2.
drawn
parallel to
XY, which
give the
required.
a, h,
c,
d,
by joining which we get the projection

d', a', c' ,
On
the points
V draw
lines equal to the side of

djl)
.
the square (0'9") in length, and perpendicular to
Join
the tops of these perpendiculars to get the elevation of the cube.
From
drop a projector
till
it
d,
parallel to
XY,
in
e.
This gives one edge of the cube on plan.
340
SOLID GEOMETRY
lines
CHAP.
Draw
from the points
a, t, c
parallel to de,
and equal
to it
in length,
and join their ends
to
complete the plan of the cube.
Problem
1.
125.
Project a regular pentagon
ABODE,
of 0"65"
side,
with the side
CD
2.
inclined at
an angle of 44*^, and

Fig. 154.
the diagonal
AC at 40
a penta-
with the H.P.
From
this projection draiv the "plan and. elevation of

long.
gonal^prism with edges 0"9"

1.
Assume any convenient
height for the point
C above
the
Fig. 154.
H.P.,
and from C
arc.
as centre,
with this assumed height as radius,
draw an
Draw
tangents to this arc at angles of 40 with
XXIX OBJECTS
INCLINED TO THE
H.P.
AT GIVEN ANGLES
341
AC
and 44 with CD, meeting the

Gr.
lines
produced in the points

for the
F and
Draw
a line through
F and G
H.T. of the
plane of projection.
Draw
XY
Draw lines from the points A, B, C, D, E perpendicular to Draw a line XY, and meeting it in the points E', A', D', B', height it equal to the above assumed J parallel to XY, at a With L as centre, and LC as radius, radius of the arc in plan. draw an arc till it meets the line J in c. Join hd for the Y.T. With L as centre, and the points of the required projection.
E', A', D', B' as radii,
draw
arcs
till
they meet the Y.T. in the
points
till
e! ,
a,
d', h',
c.
Drop
projectors from these points on the Y.T.
they meet lines drawn parallel to
XY
a,
from the correspondh, c,
ing points of the pentagon in the points
d,
e.
Join these
points, as shown, to obtain the projection required.

2.
On
the points
e'c'.
e, a', d' , V, c
draw
lines 0"9" long perpen-
dicular to
Join the tops to complete the elevation.

a projector
till it
From /' drop

parallel to
lines parallel to
meets a line from

h, c,
drawn
XY in /.
ef,
From each
and equal to
of the points a,
it
and d draw
in length.
Join the ends of
these lines, as shown, to complete the plan.
CHAPTER XXX
SECTIONS OF SOLIDS, CONSTEUCTION OF SECTIONAL AREAS, AND
DEVELOPMENT OF PLANE AND CUEVED SUEFACES
At the bottom
plane,"
of page 13 a section
is
defined as being the " interis

is
section of a solid
by a plane."
This plane
it
called the " cutting
and in the following problems
given inclined at
different angles to
both the co-ordinate planes.
The surfaces
of
the solids cut through are projected, and the true shapes of the
sectional areas are " constructed."
In some instances, where
necessary, the exterior surfaces of the solids are "developed"

into their true shape.
Problem
126.
To project a cube of f " edge, standhig on the H.P., and inclined at an angle of 30 to the V.P., intersected hy a cutting plane
to the
an angle of
to intersect
45,
and perpendicular
V.P.
the
plane
hoth the horizontal faces
of the cube.
Pig. 155.
Draw
the plan ahcd of the cube, and carry up projectors
from the points, f" above XY, and join them for the elevation. Pind the traces of the cutting plane (Prob. 80 B).
Where
projectors
the V.T. cuts the elevation in the points
e'
and /', drop and fg.
which
will intersect the plan in the lines eh
afgche
is
the plan of the cut surface of the cube, and e'a'cf the
elevation.
The
sectional surface can be " constructed
"
by rotating the
projected surface of the section on either the H.T. or V.T.
CHAP.
XXX
SECTIONS OF SOLIDS, ETC.

of the section on the H.T.
343
To rotate the plan
Draw
lines at
right angles to H.T. from the points of the plan,
and make the
lengths of these lines from the H.T. equal to the distances of
n
Fig. 155.
the corresponding points on the V.T. from
XY
e.g.
to obtain
the point C, set off

other points.
kC
equal to ec, and so on with each of the
Join them, as shown, to complete the construction
of the sectional surface.
To
rotate the sectional surface
on the Y.T.
Draw
perpen-
diculars from the- points e, a, c, /',
and make the lengths of and
these lines equal to the distances of the corresponding points
below
XY;
e.g.
make/'G' equal
on with the other points.
mg,f' equal Join them as shown.

to
to mf,
so
Problem
To
2JT0Ject
127.
a quadrilateral prism
its hase
10|-" long,
with a hase 6" square,

longer edges parallel
standing on
on the H.P., with
its
344
to the
SOLID GEOMETRY
V.P.,
and one of
its
sides inclined to the V.P. at
an
to
-^
angle 0/ 60.
Intersect the
prism
loith
a plane parallel
30.
XY, and
full size.

Fig. 156.
3).
an angle of
Scale
Project the prism (Prob.
Find the traces of the cutting
plane (Prob. 80 C).
At any convenient
point
draw the
line Ee' at right angles
Fig. 156.
to
XY,
cutting the H. and V. traces.
With
as centre,
and
radius eE,
draw an
lines
it
arc
till
it
meets
XY in/.
Join
ef.
efe' is
the angle the cutting plane forms with the H.P.
Draw
from each point in the plan perpendicular to eE,

in the points C, B, D, A.
radii,
till
and meeting
With
;
as centre,
and
each of these points as
draw arcs
and where they meet
XY draw perpendiculars
From
c',
they meet e'/in the points C, B', D', A'.
these points draw horizontal lines till they meet projectors drawn from the corresponding points in the plan in the points
V,
d', a'.
Join these points for the elevation of the section.

To construct the
the points C,
sectional area.
345
Draw perpendiculars
to c'f at
B', D', A',
and make
their lengths equal to the
distances of the corresponding points in the plan from the line
fE
e.g.
make C'C" equal
to Cc,
B'B" equal to B&, and so on with
the other points, and join them.
Pkoblem
Project a regular hexagonal
128.
long, ivith 3 J" sides, standing
prism 9|"
on
its
base on the H.P., with one of its faces inclined to the

Intersect the
prism hy a plane
inclined at an angle of 55 with the H.P. a,nd 46 loith the

V.P., the plane to cut through the base of the prison.
struct
Con-
on the H.P. the sectional area.
Develop the exterior

size.
surface of the cut prism.
Scale \ fidl
Fig. 157.
Project the prism (Prob.
9).
Find the traces of the cutting plane (Prob. 83 or
84).
346
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
to the H.T.
till
Draw
till
lines
from the points of the plan parallel
they meet
XY, then draw

lines
till
perpendiculars to
A', D',
XY
they
meet the V.T. in the points C,
Y,
E'.
From
c',
these points
draw horizontal
and join them
they meet projectors drawn from the

d',
e',
corresponding points of the plan in the points

as
a, V,
shown.
This
is
the elevation of the section.
To construct the true shape

abcdef on the H.T.
of the section,
we
rotate the plan
From
draw the
e
line eg parallel to the H.T.,
and equal in length
to the height of
above XY.
at right
Draw
H.T. in
arc
till
lines
from each of the points in the plan

:
angles to the H.T.

h.
it
the one drawn from
will intersect the

hg,
With
this point as centre,

e
and radius
draw an
all
meets the line from
produced in E.
Find
the
other points in the
same way
as shown.
line
The student should observe that the

length of the line
he.
AE
is
the true
A simpler method
of obtaining the length
of these lines is as follows.

Note.
The
true length of a projected line
is
equal to the
hypotenuse of a right-angled
of
its
triangle, the base of
which
is
one
projections,
and the
altitude the perpendicular height of
the other projection.
We shall understand this

AM)'
is
better if
we
is
refer to Fig. 97.
There
the right-angled triangle.

line,
Ah
the base equal to the
horizontaL projection of the

height of
its
and
is
the perpendicular
is
other projection; so Ah', the hypotenuse,
the
this
true length of the line.
We
will
now
find the point
by
method.
Let hd represent the horizontal projection of a
its
line,
and Kc^
perpendicular height.
From
Tc
set off
on the H.T. hn equal

will be the true
to Kc^'.
Then the
distance between
n and d
length of the line

duced.
Jed.
Set this distance off from h on dh pro-
This will give the point D.
The other points can be

Set off on
To develop the surface of the cut prism.
XY the
till
widths of the sides from the plan, and erect perpendiculars
347
they meet horizontal lines drawn from the corresponding points

in the elevation.
Join them as shown.
Pkoblem
Project
129.
a regular hexagonal
its
pTisr)i
10|" long, with

its
3|-" sides,
lying
on one of
to the
faces on the H.P., ivith
longer edges inclined
Intersect the ^Drism with

to
a
to
jplane inclined at
the V.P.
;
an
angle of 50
the
H.P. and b&
the jplane to intersect all its longer edges.

its
Gonsize.
struct
on the V.P.
sectional
area.
Scale
\ full
Fig. 158.
Project the prism (Prob. 12).
Fig. 158.

Let
84).
BC
be the side of the prism resting on the H.P.
Join
348
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
AD.
Then BC, AD, and EF

their heights above
are horizontal lines,
and B'A'
and BT'
Note.
XY.
by
a
horizontal line contained
plane would be
to
drawn
parallel to the H.T.

g'li,
on plan, and parallel
XY in
eleva-
tion (see the line
Fig. 118).
it
As
till
he is
on the H.P.,
must coincide with the H.T.
Where
the lines F' and A' produced meet the V.T., drop perpendiculars
they meet
XY, and then draw

tlie section.
lines
Where
these lines
intersect the lines of the plan they will
determine the points of
Join them as shown.

till
Carry up projectors from these points
they meet the
corresponding lines in the elevation, and join them.

Note.
The projectors
are omitted in several of these problems
to save confusion,
but the points in plan and elevation bear
corresponding letters throughout, so can be easily recognised.
To construct the
sectional area on the V.P.
Draw lines from

and
set it off
each of the points in the elevation at right angles to the V.T.
Take the distance of point

the V.T. from g as
gli.
below
XY as
equal to
eEI,
he',
on
Set off
gW
the hypotenuse
of a right-angled triangle, as described in the preceding problem.
Find the other points in the same way, and join them
as shown.
Peoblem
130.
Projeet a regular 'pyramid standing on its base on the H.P., tvith

its sides
inclined to the V.P. at
an angle of 45
to the
the cutting
plane
to
to be inclined at a.n
angle of 43
the sectional
H.P. and 70 on the V.P.
the
V.P.
Construct
area
Fig. 159.
Project the pyramid (Fig.
6, C).

Produce the diagonal
eg till it
84).
meets the H.T. in E.
Draw
d' will
the projector EE', and from E' draw a line parallel to the V.T.
Where
this line
meets the edges of the pyramid in
h'
and
determine two points in the section.
Drop
projectors from these

points
till
349
they meet the corresponding lines of the plan in the

d.
points h and
The
lines forming the section of this
pyramid are
really the
intersection lines of
two planes
the cntting plane being one,
and each
side of the
pyramid the other plane.
We
know
that
Fig. 159.
the line of intersection between two planes must have
its
trace
where the traces of the two planes intersect (see Fig. 114). Produce three sides of the base of the pyramid till they meet
the H.T. in the points
lines required.
till it
k,
m, and
I.
These are the traces of the

h,
Draw
till
a line from k through

a.
and produce
from
it
meets the diagonal fh in
Draw
lines
and
c.
in
the same
dc.
manner
they meet the diagonals in d and
Join
This will complete the plan of the section.
3SO
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
To determine the elevation

centre
o,
of the points a
and
c.
With
and
radii oa
and
oc,
draw
^j.
arcs
till
they meet the
diagonal eg in the points

points
till
n and
Draw
projectors to these
they meet the edges of the pyramid in the points n

horizontal lines from these points
c
till
and })'.
Draw
they meet
Join the
the other edges of the pyramid in the points
and a.
points as shown, to complete the elevation of the section.
Another method of obtaining the section of

to
this
pyramid
is
assume a horizontal
line
qr
in
any convenient position in

till
the elevation, and drop a projector from r
it
meets the
diagonal eg in
q''/ till it
r.
Draw
rt parallel
s.
to the base gh.
Produce
s
till it
meets the Y.T. in

s.
Draw
s
%t
a projector from
meets
XY in
Draw
rt in il
a line from
till it
meets the line

section,
Then
is
a point in the plan of the

traces k, m,
which can be completed from the

sectional area
and
I,
as
previously described.
To construct the
ABCD,
proceed in the manner
described in the preceding problem.
Peoblem
Project a regular hexagonal
131.
its base
pyramid standing on
to be
on the
of 42
H.P., ivith one of its sides inclined to the
V.P. at
an angle
of 45
to the
the cutting
plane
to the
inclined at
an angle
H.P. and 70
V.P.
Construct the sectional area
on
the Y.P.,
and on
it project another elevation of the pyramid.
Develop the exterior surface of the cut pyramid.

Project the plan and elevation of the pyramid.
Fig. 160.
Determine the traces of the cutting plane (Prob. 83 or
84).
Draw
it
the line gh through the centre o of the plan, at right
angles to the H.T.
Erect a perpendicular to
li.
XY
,
on point h
till
meets the Y.T. in
Draw
I.
the projector gg
and join
gl-i
cutting the projector from o in d.
Produce the diagonal through
tg
till it
meets
XY
in
o'
.
draw a
line through
Draw the projector IV, and from V Where this line cuts the corresponding

edges of the pyramid in elevation to those in plan,
points a! and
d'.
351
it
gives the
Produce the diagonal through ru
till it
meets
tn'
the H.T. in point m.
Draw
the projector
mud and from

,
Fiff.
160.
draw a
line
through
o' till
it
meets the corresponding edges of
the pyramid in elevation in the points
V and
e' .
Treat the
diagonal
sj)
in the
same manner
to obtain the points /'
and
Join these points, as shown, to obtain the elevation of the section.
From each
of the points in the elevation of the section drop
352
SOLID GEOMETRY
till
chap.
projectors
they meet the corresponding edges of the pyramid
on plan.
Join these points, as shown, to determine the plan
of the section.
Construct the sectional area
ABCDEF,
of the
as described in Prob,
129; also determine the position of centre
in the
same manner.
this " con:
To project another elevation

structed " section.
pyramid on
Draw
till it
a line from h' through the centre
this is the axis of the
pyramid.
Draw
a line from n' perpen-
dicular to the V.T.
meets this axis in
this is the vertex.

till
Draw
it
a line from p' in elevation, at right angles to the V.T.,

JST
through the point C.

;
This
is
one
point in the base of the pyramid

in the
all
the other points are found
same manner, by joining which we get another elevation

exterior surface of the cut pyramid.
to og.
of the pyramid.
To develop the
on
From
XY,
set off
OQ' equal
line.
Join
QV.
Draw
and Q'
horizontal
lines
till
through each of the points in the elevation of the section
they meet this

arc,
With
it
n' as centre,
as radius,
draw an
and step along
six chords, each equal to one side
of the base of the pyramid.
Join these points, and distinguish
them by
letters corresponding to those
on plan.
Draw
till it
lines
from each of these points towards the vertex n.
With n
as centre,
and
h" as radius,
;
draw an
arc
meets
the line drawn from U' towards n' the pyramid.
being on the edge -itV of
Find the other points in the same manner, and join them
as shown.
Problem
132.
Project a dodecahedron standing on one of its faces on the H.P.,
with one of the edges of

sect it
its
hase parallel to the V.P.
Inter-
hy a cutting plane, inclined at an angle of
4:5 to the
its
H.P.,
and an angle of 60
on the V.P.
laith the
V.P.
Constnict
sectional area
Fig. 161.
Project the dodecahedron (Prob. 23).
XXX
353
Find the traces of the cutting plane (Prob. 83 or 84). Krst determine p. cross section through the solid, on the line BC. With C as centre, and all the points of the solid that
come on the
line
BC
as
radii,
draw
arcs
till
they meet
XY.
Fig. 161.
Draw
e.g.
perpendiculars at the points on
XY
till
they meet horiin the elevation

Ji
zontal lines
drawn from corresponding points

Gr,
a horizontal line from g' gives point

etc.
one drawn from
determines point H,
By
we
get the
cross section HKLGTPJSr.
354
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
till it
With C
as centre,
and radius CB, draw an arc
meets
XY
E.
line
in B'.
Draw
a perpendicular on
is
till it
meets the V.T. in
Join EB'.
This
the angle of the cutting plane on the
BC
which cuts the edges

and D.
PG
and
HK
of the solid in the
points
till
By drawing
they meet the perpendicular on

the section.
C we
get the points a and
d! of
Drop perpendiculars from the points A and D on to XY. With G as centre, and these points as radii, draw arcs till they
meet the
line
BC
in the points a
and
d.
We
will
now determine where

To do
this
the cutting plane intersects
the axis of the solid.
we must
find the traces of a
V.P. perpendicular to the cutting plane containing the axis.
Draw
meets
the line
2'^'
through the centre o of the plan
till
it
XY
.
V.T. in r.
Draw a perpendicular on r till it meets the in r. Draw a perpendicular from till it meets XY in
q^
''.
Join
in
clr
Then
it
5?' is
the H.T. of this plane, and
^'r' is
the line
which
intersects
the cutting plane, and

intersects the axis.
0'
is
the point
where the cutting plane
From where
the diagonal through c/ meets the H.T. in

ss.
draw the projector
Draw
c
a line from
s'
through
0'.
This
will give the points/'
and
in the elevation of the section, and

to the corresponding edges
c.
projectors
drawn from these points
of the plan will give the points/
and
Produce the edge Im of the base

Join
dt.
till it
meets the H.T. in

e.
t.
This will cut the solid in the point

till it
Produce the
a line from
edge vp
meets the H.T. in the point
u.
Draw
u through a
till it
meets the solid in

e
h. e'
Draw
Join
all
projectors to
and
& to
obtain the points
and
V.
the points, as shown, to obtain the plan and elevation
of the section.
Construct the sectional area A'B"C'D'E'F on the V.P., as

described in Prob. 129.
355
Peoblem
To
project
133.
:
section
to he
through a right vertical cone

to the
the
cutting
plane
perpendicular
to
V.P.
to
he inclined at
an
its
angle of 45
hase.
the axis of the cone, hut not to intersect
Fig. 162.
This section
is
an
ellipse.
Let
DE
be the elevation of the section.

e.g.
Divide
it
into
any
number
of equal parts,
six.
Draw
the axis of the cone, and
Fig. 162.
through the divisions on

the cone.
DE
draw
lines parallel to the base of
The plan
of the section is determined
by
first
finding a
succession of points in the curve, and then drawing a fair curve
through them.
We
will
take the points hh as an example.
356
SOLID GEOMETRY
as centre,
With C
and a radius equal

h'),
to
G'H
{i.e.
the radius of
the cone at the level of
draw an
hh.
arc
till it
meets a projector
drawn from
h'
in the points
Proceed in the same manner

fair
with the other points, and draw a
curve through them.

the line D'E' in any
To construct the
of
sectional area.
Draw
convenient position, parallel to DE, and draw lines from each

the divisions on
DE
and
at
right
angles to D'E',
Take the
Gr" in
distance
G& from
plan,
all
set it off
on each side of
the
points
h"h".
Find
the other points in the same manner, and
draw a
fair
curve through them.
Problem
To
134.
;
project a section through a right vertical cone

-plane to he parallel to the side of the cone
to the
the
cutting
and ^perpendicular
V.P.
Fig. 163.
This section
is
a parabola.
Let D'E' be the elevation of the section.
Divide
it
into
any
Fig. 163.
XXX

of parts
357
number
it is
better to have the divisions closer together
towards the top.
Draw
horizontal lines through these divisions.
The plan
example.
is
determined by finding a succession of points as
We
will take the points hh as
an
With C
till it
as centre,
and a radius equal to the semi-diameter

h', i.e.
of the cone at the level of the division
G'H, draw an arc
h'
in the points
fair
hb.
Find the other
points in the
same manner, and draw a

sectional area.
curve through them.

the line
To construct the
Draw
D"E"
in
it
any and
convenient position, and draw lines at right angles to

the divisions on D'E'.
set it off
from
Take the distance G& from

the other points, and draw a
plan,
on each side of G" in the points Vh".

all
Proceed in the
fair
same manner with

through them.
curve
Problem
To
i:irojcct
135.
a section through a right vertical cone; the cutting
jplane to he 2êr2Jendicular to the H.P., a7icl inclined at
an
angle of
to the
V.P.
Pig. 164.
is
This section
an hyperbola.
Let
DE
be the plan of the section.

to
Qd perpendicular
draw an
the vertex
of the
DE.
arc cutting
AB
in
Prom C draw the line With C as centre, and radius Qd, Draw the projector nn. n' is n.
Divide the height g'n into any
closer together near
till
section.
number
of divisions,
they should be made

lines
is
the vertex,
and
draw horizontal
of the section
through them
they
meet the
sides of the cone.
The elevation
them.
determined by
first
finding a
succession of points, and then drawing a fair curve
through
We
will talce the points
h'h'
as
an example.
With the point C on plan as centre, and a radius equal to G'H (the semi-diameter of the cone at the level of h'), draw arcs intersecting the line DE in the points hb. Draw projectors to
358
SOLID GEOMETRY
till
CHAP.
these points
points
h'h
.
they meet the line drawn through Gr'H in the
Find the other points in the same manner, and

curve through them.
cutting
draw a
If
fair
the
plane
were
perpendicular
to
both
the
Fig. 164.
co-ordinate planes, gh would be the plan, and g'n' the elevation

of the section of the cone.
To construct the
the divisions on ng'.
it
sectional area.
Draw
the line n"g" in any
convenient position parallel to the axis of the cone.
Produce
Take
the distance db from plan, and set
off
on each side of G" in the points Vh".
Find
all
the other
points in the
same way, and draw a
fair
curve through them.
As
the three preceding problems are conic sections, their
sectional areas could be constructed

in Chap.
by the methods described
XV.
(Plane Geometry), but
we must
first
determine
the major and minor axes of the ellipse, and the directrices and
foci of the
parabola and hyperbola.
XXX
359
We
parabola,
will
illustrate
by a perspective view
it to
(Fig.
165) the
principle of the relation between the directrix and focus of a
and afterwards apply
the ellipse and hyperbola.
ABC
is
a cone, and
DEGF
the cutting plane.
is
a sphere
touching the cutting plane, and inscribed in the upper portion

of the cone.
line
drawn from
c,
the centre of the sphere,

it
perpendicular to the cutting plane, will meet

the focus of the parabola.
in /,
which
is
The plane
ag,
KLNM,
containing the circle of contact between
the sphere and the cone, intersects the cutting plane in the line
which
is
the directrix of the parabola.
line joining the centre of the sphere with the circle of

ce, is
contact, as
perpendicular to the side of the cone.
Compare
Let us
is
this figure
with Fig. 295 (Plane Geometry).

cfe is
now
refer to Fig. 162.
the inscribed sphere,

ce is
the point of contact with the cutting plane,
perpendicular
to the side of the cone,
and
determines the level of the plane
containing the
circle
it
of contact.
horizontal line
drawn
through
till
meets the cutting plane produced in d will
determine the position of the directrix.
Draw
a line from / perpendicular to the cutting plane

:
till it
meets the line D'E' in /'
this is
one of the foci of the
ellipse.
36o
SOLID GEOMETRY
line
chap.
drawn from d perpendicular

line D'E' is the
to the catting
plane will
determine the directrix ag.
The
major axis of the

at right angles to
ellipse,
it,
and
if
we
bisect this line
by another
and obtain the

as
position of the points
and
in the
same manner
minor
axis.
we
can
determined the points
V'h",
KL
or
will be the
We
obtain the other focus and directrix
by
setting off their distances
on the opposite side of KL

in
we
could construct another sphere
the lower part
of the cone,
and obtain them
as already
described.
In Fig. 163, the same construction as previously described

will determine the position of the directrix
and focus
and
as
it
bears corresponding letters, the student should have no difficulty

in understanding
it.
Compare
Fig.
163 with Fig. 165.
The same thing
applies to Fig. 164.
Peoblem
To project
to
136.
the cutting
the
the section of a right vertical cone;
plane
he inclined at
an angle of 36 with
ellipse.
H.P. and 73
cone.
with the V.P., hut not intersecting
the hase of the
This section
the
is
an
Construct the sectional area on

Fig.
H.P.
Develop the exterior surface of the cone.
166.
Project the cone (Prob. 32).

First
84).
assume a
vertical plane perpendicular to the cutting
plane passing through the axis of the cone.

Draw
the line ah
till
it
meets the V.T. in

is
a'.
Draw a perpendicular Draw the projector
to
XY
from
hh',
and join
h'a.
it
ah
the H.T. of the Y. plane, and ah' the line in which
intersects the cutting plane.
Where
e,
ah intersects the plan of the cone in the points d and

till
draw projectors
they meet
XY
in the points d'
and
e'.
361
Fig. 166.
362
SOLID GEOMETRY
till
chap^
Join these points towards the vertex C,

a'y in the points /' and g.
they meet the line
Draw
and
g.
projectors from /'
they meet the line ah in
fg
is
and g till the plan, and fg' the

it
elevation of the major axis of the ellipse.
Bisect /f/ in
c,
and draw a
line
through

c.
li
Draw
a projector from c
till it
meets the line ctV in
Draw
and
is
Ix,,
horizontal line through c.
To determine the points
i.e.
the minor axis of the ellipse.
We know
the minor axis

c',
equal
to the diameter of the cone at the level of
so take the semi-
diameter Im and set

points
Ih
it
off
on each side of
c,
which gives the

till
li
and
li.
Draw
projectors to these points

c
they meet
li.
the horizontal line
drawn through
to determine
and
Having obtained the projections of the major and minor

axes of the
ellipse,
the sections can be completed by Prob. 181
(Plane Geometry).
To construct the
To develop the
space from
%, o,p.
g to c?
sectional area.
Find the points P, H, G,
(Prob. 128), and complete the ellipse (Prob. 181, Plane Geometry).
exterior surface of the cone.
Divide the
on plan into four equal divisions in the points

till
Draw
projectors from these points

p'.
they meet
XY in
the points n,
o',
Draw
lines
from these points to the vertex

n", o", y".
till
they meet the section in the points

C' as centre,
With
Note.
and radius
C'V,
draw an
arc.
This
;
arc
must equal
in length the circumference of
the base of the cone.
It bears the
same
relation to a complete
circle as the radius of the
base of the cone bears to the radius

base of the cone in this
of the arc
e.g.
the radius of the
instance
is
just one-third of the radius of the arc, therefore the
length
h'l" is
one-third of a circle, and the angle h'C'h"
120.
Divide the arc h'V into eight equal parts.

lines
Draw
horizontal
till
through the points

line &'C'.
till
g',
n", o", ])"
of the section
they
radii,
meet the
With
as centre,
and these points as
draw
arc
arcs
to
they meet lines drawn from the divisions on the

0', P', P', P", 0",
yy
C in the points G, N',
N", G'.
Draw
363
Problem
To
'project
137.
vertical cylinder
;
the section of
a right
the cutting
plane
to he inclined at
an angle of 36 with
not intersecting
the
the
H.P. and
This
73 with
section is
the V.P.,
htit
base.
an
ellipse.
Construct the sectional area on the H.P.

Fig. 167.
Develop the exterior surface of the cylinder.

Project the cylinder (Prob. 35).
Find the traces of the cutting plane (Prob, 83 or
84).
Assume
a vertical plane passing through
the axis of the
cylinder,
and perpendicular
to
the cutting plane.

a projector to a
till it till
Draw
it
ah

the V.T. in
a'.
Draw
meets
in
h'.
Draw
a projector to h
meets
XY
Join a'h\
ah
is
the V.T. of this V. plane, and
a'V the line in
which
it
Draw
a projector to
till it
meets
a'h'
in
0'.
364
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Divide the plan by diameters into eight equal parts, one

of these
diameters,
dh,
being in the
rf',
H.T. of the V. plane.

section.
Projectors to
dh
will give
ie
li,
two of the points in the
Produce the diagonal

plane in m.
till
it
meets the H.T. of the cutting
Draw
the projector
mm,
and draw a
line
from
through
0'.
This will give the corresponding points
%, e,
in the
elevation.
perpendicular to
line
Produce the diameter jf till it meets XY in n. XY at n till it meets the V.T. in n.

from n through
0'.
Draw Draw
a a
This will give the corresponding points
j',f' in the elevation.
Draw
a fair
Pind the points c,f/ in the same manner. curve through these points for the elevation of
the section.
Any number
of points in the curve could be found in the

to the plan,
same manner by drawing additional diameters

eight points are generally
but
deemed
the
sufficient.
To construct the
(Prob.
128),
sectional area.
Find the points B, H,

ellipse
P,
and
complete
(Prob.
181,
Plane
Geometry).
To develop the
line
exterior surface of the cylinder.
Draw
it
the
KL
equal to half the circumference of the base of the

into four
cylinder (Prob. 192, Plane Geometry), and divide
equal parts.
till
Erect perpendiculars to each of these divisions
they meet horizontal lines drawn from the points of the
section in the points D', C, B', A, H'.
Draw
a fair curve
through
these points.
Only one-half
save space
;
of the exterior surface is here developed, to

is
the other half
simply a repetition of the points
here found.
Problem
To project
at
the sectioji of
138.
the cutting
a sphere
plane
to he
i7iclined
an angle of B5 with
the H.P.,
and 74
tvith the
V.P.
Pig. 168.
84).
365
As
its
a sphere
is
a continuous surface without
any edges or
lines
angles, it will be necessary to
assume certain fixed
upon
surface in order to determine where the cutting plane will

it
;
intersect
meridians and parallels are
best suited for this
purpose.
Project the sphere with meridians and parallels (Prob. 39).
Fig. 168.
It will
be better
to arrange the
meridians on pian so that one
of
them is parallel to the H.T. Assume a Y.P. perpendicular

line in
to the cutting plane
and con-
taining the axis of the sphere.
Let ab be the H.T. of this plane,
and ah' the

this line
which
it
Where
it
intersects
the axis will

c'd'
determine d, and where
intersects the meridian
will give
two points in the

till
section.
Produce the meridian jk on plan

n.
it
meets the H.T. in

n',
Draw
the projector nn', and draw a line from
through d,
till it
meets the meridian /Z;'.
These are two more points in
the section.
366
SOLID GEOMETRY
Produce the meridian ef
till
chap,
xxx
it
meets
XY
V.
in
perpendicular at
till
it
it
meets the V.T. in
Draw a Draw a line

/.
from
/',
through o\
till
meets the meridian /V, which are two
more points
in the section.
fair
Obtain the points

curve through
all
li'
and
g'
in the
same manner, and draw a
the points found.
Drop
them.
projectors from each of these points
till
they meet the

curve through
corresponding meridians on plan, and draw a
fair
These projections are

first
ellipses.
They could
also
be found by
projecting their conjugate diameters, and then completing

as
them
shown by the problems

section
bisect cd in
;
in Chap.
is
XV.
To obtain
s parallel
The true shape of the

its radius,
s,
of course a circle.
line tu
;
and draw a
through
to the H.T.
st is
the radius required
tu
is
the major axis, and
cd the minor axis of the ellipse.
CHAPTEE XXXI
TANGENT PLANES AND SOLIDS
If two spheres touch each other, the line joining their centres
will pass through the point of contact.
If a plane touches a sphere, the line joining the point of
contact with the centre of the sphere will be perpendicular to
the plane.
If
two cylinders touch each

;
other, their axes being parallel,
they do so in a line
and a plane containing the axes of the
cylinders will also contain the line of contact.
plane tangential to a cylinder
is
parallel to its axis.
If a plane is tangential to a cylinder, another plane con-
taining the line of contact and the axis of the cylinder will be
perpendicular to the tangent plane.

If the surfaces of two cones touch,
and
their vertices coincide,
a plane containing the axes will also contain the line of contact.
A plane tangential to
a cone will be perpendicular to a plane
containing the line of contact and the axis.

If a sphere touches the side of a cone, the point of contact
will be on a plane containing the axis of the cone
and the centre and

cylinder.
of the sphere.
The same thing
applies to a sphere
Pkoblem
1.
139.
Find
the traces of
aY. ^jlane
inclined at
an angle of 45
to the
Y.P.,
and
tangential to
a given
vertical cylinder.
q68
SOLID GEOMETRY
2.
Find
the,
projection of
tlte
line of contact.
Fig. 169.
1.
Let
be the plan, and A'
the elevation of the given cylinder.
with
Draw XY,
the H.T. at an angle of 45

tangential to the circle A,
it
and where
tion A'.
2.
meets
XY
draw the
V.T. parallel to the sides of the eleva-
At the point
a,
where the H.T.
touches the plan A, draw a projector,
which gives the

jection
quired.
line
ah',
the pro-
of
the line
of
'
contact re-
Problem
Find
the traces
140.
and
line of contact
of a plane ta.ngenticd
is
to
a given
;
horizontal cylinder, whose axis
parallel to the V.P.

to the
the
plane
to
he inclined at
an angle of 55
H.P.,
and
p)arallel to
XY.
Fig. 170.
Let
A and
A' be the plan and elevation of the given cylinder.
"We will
first
make an end
elevation of the cylinder.
Draw
and and
the projections of the axis ef and ef\
Draw
the line cP, and
assume
it
to be the edge of the V.P.
Produce
XY
to T,
assume cT to be the edge of the H.P.

radius
ce,
With
as centre,
draw the
This
arc eE.
E'.
Draw
With
a perpendicular at
till it
meets
e'/'
produced in
is
E' as centre, and radius E'E,
draw a
circle.
the end elevation.
Draw
the line
circle.
TP
This
at
is
an angle of 55 to the H.P., and tangential to the

the edge of the tangent plane, and where
it
meets the co-ordinate
planes in
T and P
gives the positions of the H. and V. traces in
the end elevation.
With
as centre,
and radius
cT,
draw an

arc
till it
369
t
meets a perpendicular from
in
t.
From
draw the
H.T, and from P the V.T, both

C'C.
parallel to
XY.
From C, where TP touches the circle, draw the perpendicular With c as centre, and radius cC, draw the arc Ca. Draw ab
T
V.T.
c\
/
1 1
*
A'
e
h'
r
r
y
^
/ffS
;
]
-^x
E;
c
bi
A
/
h
*\^
MT.
Fig. 170.
parallel to
XY.
This
is
the H, projection of the line of contact.

a'b',
From
C draw
a horizontal line, which will give
the V. pro-
jection of the line of contact.

JVote.
In
the following problems, T.P. will signify tangent
plane.
Peoblem
To determme the
traces
141.
and
line of contact of
to
a T.P.
;
to
a given
to
horizontal cylinder inclined

inclined
to the
the
V.P.
the T.P.
he
H.P. at an angle of 44.
Fig. 171.
Let
A and A' be the plan

will first construct
and elevation
of the given cylinder.
We
an end
elevation, as in the preceding

it
problem.
Produce the end of the plan, and assume

line X'Y'.
to
eg.
to be a
it
new ground
Draw
the axis ef and produce

as centre,
to E,
making eE equal
With E
and radius
Ee,
draw
2b
370
SOLID GEOMETRY
This
is
a circle.
the end elevation.

c,
At the
intersection of the
to X'Y'.
two ground
of 44 with
lines,
draw cP perpendicular
This will
at
represent the edge of the V.P.
Draw
the line
TP
an angle
XT', tangential
to the circle.
The points T and P
are the positions of the H.
and V. traces in the end elevation.

cf.
Through T draw the H.T.
parallel to the axis
We
must now
" rotate "
the point
into its proper position
Fig. 171.
on the Y.P.
c
To do
this,
draw cY perpendicular draw an

If
to
XY.
With
P'.
as centre,
is
and radius
cP,
arc
till
it
meets cP' in
This
one point in the V.T.
this point to
where the H.T.
we were to draw a line through meets XY, it would give us the

limit of the drawing, the
V.T., but as this point is
beyond the
line could be determined
by Prob. 32 (Plane Geometry).

circle,
Prom
point 0, where the T.P. touches the
draw a
line
This gives
ah,
the H. projection of the line
of contact.

Draw
With
('',
371
the line
CC
parallel to X'Y',
till it
meets cP in C.
as centre,
c'
and radius cC, draw an

a'b'
arc
till it
meets cP' in
the V. pro-
Through
draw
parallel to
XY.
This
is
jection of the line of contact.
Problem
To determine
the traces
142.
and
line of contact of
a T.P.
to
a given
;
cylinder inclined, to the H.P., hut parallel to the V.P.

T.P. to he inclined to the V.P.,
point.
Pig. 172.
the
and
to
pass through a given
Let
A and A' represent

and^/ the
the plan and elevation of the given
cylinder,
vertical projection of the given point.
Fig. 172.
Construct an end elevation, assuming a line drawn through

gci'
to be the edge of the V.P.
372
SOLID GEOMETRY
projections of the axis, cf
chap.
Draw the and make c'E

centre,
and
c'f.
Produce
c'f,
equal to the distance of ef from

to
e'g,
XY.
This
With E
is
as
and radius equal
draw a
])',
circle.
the end
elevation.
it
Draw
a line through
ef
C
till
meets the
circle in C.
till it
Draw
a line tangential to the circle at the point
meets ga produced in P.
parallel to the axis e'f.
Through P draw the Y.T.
of the T.P.
Erom
draw a
where the assumed edge of the Y.P. meets XY,
line perpendicular to cT,
and meeting
PC
produced in
T.
This will represent the edge of the H.P., and the point
represent the position of the H.T. in the end elevation.
will
We
on
c
have now to
the H.P.
as centre,
" rotate " this point
into its proper position
Draw
the line cT' perpendicular to

c'T,
T',
XY.
With
and radius
draw an
arc
till
it
meets
c'T' in T'.
Draw
in
a line through
converging towards the point on

it
XY
which the Y.T. would meet
if
produced (Proh. 32, Plane
Geometry).
As
the line ah' passes through the given point
j)',
it
must
be the Y. projection of the line of contact.
Draw
through
c,
the line
,
CC perpendicular
till
it
ef.
to Tc',
With
c
c.
as centre,
and radius cQf draw an arc

parallel to
meets
is
cY
in
Draw
ab
Then ah
the H. projection of the
line of contact.
Note.
for to
In the preceding problems

fulfil
of this chapter the traces
one T.P. onlj are shown, but there are two tangential planes
each problem, which would
the required conditions.
lit
Let us refer to Pig. 169, in which the lines
and
tv are also
the traces of a plane similar to the one explained in the problem.
In
this special instance, traces could be
determined for four

;
tangent planes in accordance with the given data
e.g.
planes
at the required angle could touch the cylinder in the places
shown by the points
and d on
plan.
373
Problem
To determine
the traces
143.
and
line of contact of
T.P. to a given
;
cylinder inclined to hath co-ordinate ]jlancs

parallel
to
the T.P. to he
a given
line.
Kg.
173.
Let
A and A' represent
the projections of the given cylinder,
and
cd),
a'V, the projections of the
given
line.
Fig. 173.
First inscribe the cylinder in a rectangular solid.
To do
this,
draw the tangent cd on plan perpendicular

cylinder produced.
to the sides of the

cd.
;
Draw
another tangent ef parallel to
Then
and
if
cdfe will
be one end of the rectangular solid on plan

to
we were
draw diagonals
to
it,
one end of the axis
374
SOLID GEOMETRY
the
cylinder would be determined.
'
chap.
of
Proceed iu the same

to
manner with the opposite end of the cylinder

the plan.
complete
To
c,
find the elevation.

c,
Draw projectors from each

d',
of the points
d,f,
till
they meet horizontal tangents drawn to the top of

/', e.
the cylinder, in elevation, in the points c,
Join
e'c'
and fd\ This will give the upper end of the rectangular solid, and diagonals to it will determine one end of the axis.
Proceed in the same manner with the lower end to complete
the elevation.
Assume any
this line will be
point g on ah, and find the projections gh,
g'li
of a line parallel to the axis of the cylinder.

li
The H.
trace of
line,
and as
h is the
H. trace of the given
line
drawn through these two points must be the H.

db,
trace of a
plane containing the given line

axis.
and a
line parallel to the
It has
been already
stated that " a T.P. to
a cylinder
is
parallel to its axis," therefore the
H. trace of the required T.P.
must be
parallel to the line
lib.
rind where the rectangular

will give the rectangle
solid will
meet the H.P.
This
JKML, by
bisecting the sides of
which
we
obtain the major and minor axes of an ellipse.
Construct
the ellipse (Prob. 181, Plane Geometry).

of the cylinder.
to the ellipse.
This
lib,
is
the H. trace
Draw
the H.T. parallel to
and tangential
To determine the V.T.
Pind the H.
trace, n, of the axis.

lib.
Draw
At
from
?iN parallel to
lib.
Draw
This
the line oO also parallel to
o'
till it
meets a horizontal line drawn

the V. trace of a plane con-
in 0'.
Join NO'.
is
taining the axis.
Draw
the V.T. parallel to NO'.
The dotted
To find the
st, s't',
lines fq^
and qr would be the traces of another

as the one already explained.
T.P. fulfilling the
same conditions
line of contact.
Draw the projector ss' ;

lines uv, idv' ,
then make
parallel to the axes.
The
are the projections
of a line of contact for a corresponding T.P. on the opposite side of the cylinder.
XXXI

Pkoblem
144.
375
To determine
the traces of
a plane inclined at an angle of 75
to
the H.P.,
and
tangential to a given cylinder inclined to the

to the
H.P. at an angle of 60, and parallel

determine the line of contact.
Note.
Fig. l74.
V.P.
Also
The
inclination of the T.P. cannot be less than that
of the cylinder.
Let
A and A' be the
projections of the given cylinder.
Draw
the projections of the axis.
Fig. 174.
Assume any
with the H.P.
the H. trace,
&,
point
a'
on Y. projection of the axis as the
vertex of a cone the sides of which form the given angle (75)
Draw
the plan and elevation of this cone.
Pind
of the axis of the cylinder.
Draw
the line he
tangential to the base of the cone.
Then
he is
the H. trace of a
;
plane at the given angle (75), and containing the axis
so the
H.T. of the required plane must be parallel to
it.
376
SOLID GEOxMETRY
Produce the sides of the elevation
till
they meet
XY in
till
the
points d! and e.
Projectors

d,
e,
they
meet the axis on plan will give the points

an
ellipse.
the major axis of

line
The minor
axis is determined
by drawing a
through
h at right angles to de.
Complete the
ellipse (Prob.
181, Plane Geometry).
Draw
As the
must be
the H.T. parallel to he and tangential to the ellipse.

is
;
axis of the cylinder
parallel to the V.P., the V. trace
so
draw the V.T.
parallel to the
axis of A'.
As
in Fig. 169 there are four tangential planes that fulfil the
required conditions, the H.T.s of these planes are shown.

of the Y.T.s are
all parallel to
Some
beyond the limits of the drawing, but they are
the axis of A'.
As
tact.
there are four T. planes there
must be four
lines of con-
We
is
will take the one belonging to the plane the H.T. of

line
lit
which
in/.
axes.
shown by the
on plan.
This touches the ellipse
Draw
the projector//".
Then
dYa.wfk,f'k', parallel to the
These give the lines
gk, g'k', the projections of the line of

T.P.,
contact.
are
Its
The line of contact for the marked H.T. and V.T., has its H.
the traces of which
projection in the line nm.

g'k'.
V. projection will be behind the line
Peoblem
To determine
tact
to
145.
the traces
to
and
line of conriglit cone ;
of a T.P.
a given
touch the cone in a given point.

.
Fig. 175.
Let
A and
A' be the projections of

a, a',
the given cone, and

point.
of the given
Draw
Fig.
the lines
cd, c'd',
through the
given point.
175
Draw the
H.T. tangential
d.
to
the circle
through the point

Draw
the line
till
clj
377
From
draw a perpeno
dicular
it
in
h'.
Draw
the Y.T. through

lines cd,
ccl',
till it
meets the H.T. on XY.
The
are the projections of the line of contact.
Problem
To determine
the traces
146.
and
line of contact of
a T.P.
to
a given
right cone; the T.P. to pass through a given point outside

the cone.
Pig. 176.
Let
and A' be the projections of the given cone, and

from the projections
through
act.
ct,
a',
of the given point.
Draw
of
lines
the
vertex
These
at
e.
give
the H. trace
of the
e,
line
Draw
the H.T. through
tangential to
the circle A.
Draw
H.T.
it
c'
the line
h erect
ch
parallel to
the
till
At
a perpendicular

in v.
Draw
the V.T. through
till
it

the H.T.
join d'c.
Draw ccl perpendicular to Draw the projector dd', and

Then
dc, cl'c,
are the projections of the line of contact.
Problem
and
147.
To determine
the traces
line of contact of
a T.P.
to
a given
right cone, inclined to the H.P., hut with its axis parallel to
the Y.P.
;
the T.P. to he parcdlel to
a given
line.
Pig. 177.
Let
and A' be the projections of the given

given
line.
cone,
and
ah,
ah', of the
37S
SOLID GEOMETRY
Draw

till
Produce the sides of the cone in elevation
they meet
XY
in the points d\
e'.
Let
fall
projectors frora d'

e.
and
e' till
they meet the axis in plan in the points d and
This
is
the
major axis of an
ellipse.
To determine the minor

gJc
axis, bisect
the line de in /, and draw
at right angles to
it.
Through k
Fig. 177.
draw
ij
perpendicular to the axis produced.

ji,
With /
gh,
as centre,
Jc
and radius
equal to M.
draw an
I.
arc
till
it

set off
parallel to the axis in
From /
on
fg and fh, each
Then gh
is
Draw
the H.

trace of the cone.
This ellipse
is
Prom
aV.
line,
and
draw
lines cm, c'm', parallel to the lines ah,

trace,
These give the H.
m, of a line parallel to the given
and containing the vertex of the cone.
XXXI
379
Erom From
dicular
m
c
draw a
line tangential to the ellipse at n.
This
is
the H.T. of the required plane.
draw
co parallel to
the H.T.
At
erect a perpenc
till it

0' till it
in d.
is
Draw
a line through
meets the H.T. in XY.
This
the V.T.

tions could be drawn.
Another T.P.
Its traces are
fulfilling
the same condilines
shown by the dotted

the projector nn'.
ms and
To
and
n'c.
sq.
find the line of contact.
Draw
Join nc
Then pc and p'c'
are its projections.
Peoblem
To determine
angle of
to the
148.
the traces
and
line of contact of
a T.P.
to
to
a given
a.n
right cone, the axis of which is inclined

53, hid parallel to the
the
H.P. at
V.P.
the T.P. to he inclined
H.P. at an angle 0/ 80.
Fig. 178.
Note.
The inclination of the T.P. must not be

less
than that
of the upper surface of the cone.
Let
A and A' be
the projections of the given cone.
Draw
of
Assume c' to be the vertex of a right vertical cone, the sides which make the given angle (80) with the H.P. Draw the
Produce the sides of the elevation of the given cone
till
plan and elevation of this cone.
they
meet
XY in the
till
points d' and e\
Let
fall projectors
from these
e.
points
they meet the axis on plan in the points d and

ellipse.
This gives the major axis of an
To determine the minor

at right angles to
it.
axis.
Bisect de in /, and
draw gh
to the
till
Through h draw ji perpendicular

as centre,
axis produced.
it
With/
and radius jV, draw an arc

I.
meets a line drawn parallel to the axis in
From/, on the
is
line gk, set offfg
and fh, each equal
to
Jcl.
gh
the minor axis.
38o
SOLID GEOMETRY
Construct the ellipse (Prob. 181, Plane Geometry).
This
ellipse is the
H. trace of the inclined cone.

can be drawn in accordance with the given
ellipse
Four
data
:
T. planes
any
line tangential to the
and the base of the
assumed
vertical
lines are
cone
is
a H. trace of one of these planes.

:
Four such
shown on plan
two touching the
ellipse
and
Fig. 178.
circle internally,
and two externally.
We
will
take the one

c
marked
H.T.,
and
find its corresponding V.T.
From
draw
co
parallel to H.T.
Draw
a perpendicular to
c'
XY at
o till it
meets
it
a horizontal line from
in
is
o'.
Draw
a line through
o' till
meets H.T. on XY.
This
the V.T.
The other V.
traces could
be found in the same way.
As
contact.
there are
four T. planes, there are also
four lines of
We
will take the one belonging to the T. plane that
has
its
H.T. marked mt.
This touches the ellipse at

n'c.
n.
Draw
and jjV,
the projector nn.
Join nc and
These lines give
ijc
the projections of the line of contact on the cone.
The others can be found
in the
same manner.

Problem
To determine
the traces of
381
149.
a T.P.
to
'given sphere,
touchmg a
given ;point in the upper fart of the sphere.
Fig. l79.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the given sphere,

a!
and a and

horizontal
line
circle
Draw
through
in
d'.
a
a'
meeting the
d' to
Join
the centre
of the sphere c.
Through
d'
draw
de'
till it
meets
perpendicular
c\ in C.
XY in/', and a to XY through x

repeating this
By
we
construction on the opposite

side of A',
get the elevaQ,g
tion of
axis.
cone, with
is
as
This cone
tangential
to
the sphere, and the line

is
d'a
the
of
elevation
of the
circle
contact
between
Fig. 179.
them
so if
we
find the traces
of a plane tangential to this cone, and passing through
the
given point, they must also be the traces of the plane required.
With
is
as centre,
and radius equal
to ed!
draw a
circle.
This
the plan of the circle of contact between the sphere and the
cone.
With
is
as centre,
and radius equal
the plan of the base of the cone.

till it
to gf draw a circle. This Draw a line from c through

,
meets this
circle in h.
eh.
Draw
To
H.T. perpendicular to
find the Y.T.

till it
Draw
i! till
ci
parallel to H.T.
At
i
i!.
draw a
perpendicular
meets a horizontal line from C in

it
Draw
A^.T.
through
382
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
To determine
of contact
the traces of
150.
to
a T.P.
a given sphere
the 2Joint
to he
in the lower part of the sphere.
Fig. 180.
a'
Let
and A' be the projections of the sphere, and

a horizontal line through a
the
elevation of the given point of contact.
Draw
cl
till it
c',
meets A' in
d.
Join
to the centre c.
Draw hg through
perpendicular to
XY.
Fig. 180.
Draw
e.
clc
till
it
meets
XY
in /,
and a
horizontal line from g in
By
repeating this construction on
the opposite side of A'
we
obtain the elevation of the frustrum of
an inverted cone tangential to the sphere, da' being the elevation

of the circle of contact between them.
With
is
as centre,
and
radius equal to
id,
draw a
circle.
This
the plan of the circle

a'
of contact, and a projector
drawn from
gives the plan of
the point of contact at
a.
With
This
is
as
centre,
and radius equal
to
hf draw a
circle.
the H. trace of the frustrnm of the cone.

till
Produce the sides of the frustrum
they meet at
the

vertex of the inverted cone.
383
Join a to C, cutting
XY
in n.
Draw the projector ix'n. Join en. Draw the H.T. perpendicular to
To determine the Y.T.
to ge,
en.
With
is
as centre,
and radius equal

parallel to H.T.
draw a
circle.
This
the plan of the inverted cone.

I.
Produce en to meet
this circle in
Draw Zm
Draw
a perpendicular at
ni
m till
it
from g in
Draw
the Y.T. through m'
till it
Pkoblem
To determine
the traees of
151.
to
a T.P.
a given sphere and cone;
the point of contact to he in the loiver
part of
the sphere.
Pig. 181.
Let
A and A'
be the projections of the given sphere, and

cone.
and B' the projections of the given
181.
This problem
point of contact
is is
very similar to the preceding one.
As
the
to be in the lower part of the sphere,
we
enclose the sphere in the frustrum of an inverted cone.
3H
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Draw
the point
the linefe tangential to A' and parallel to

d,
sq'.
From
where
is
it
touches the
circle,
draw a
line parallel to
XY.
the
This line
the elevation of the circle of contact.
line hg through
the
centre of A', perpendicular to

to
Draw XY.
e.
Draw
a line through g parallel
XY,
till it
meets fe in
Eepeat this construction on the opposite side of

the elevation of the frustrum of the cone.
A', to obtain
With
is
as centre,
and radius equal
to
Jif,
draw a
circle.
This
the H. trace of the frustrum.

this circle
c
Draw
the H.T. of the plane
between
Join
and B, tangential
to both.
to the point n,
where the H.T. of the plane touches
the H. trace of the frustrum.
With
is
till it
c as centre,
and radius equal
to ge,
draw a
circle.
This
the plan of the base of the inverted frustrum.
Produce en
meets this circle in m.
From
to
ni
draw
??20
parallel to the
H.T.
At
XY
it
till
it
meets a hori-
zontal line
drawn from g
the
V.T.
in o\
o'
Draw XY.
To
through
till
meets
the
H.T.
on
find the point of contact
on the sphere.
to id,
With c Where this

of contact.
as centre,
and radius equal
draw a
circle.
circle cuts the line
cm
in a is the plan of the point

this point
till it
A projector
drawn from
meets the
horizontal line id will give
its elevation,
a\
From where
is
the H.T. touches
B in p,
draw a
This
line to
q.
This
the plan of the line of contact.
Draw
There
this
the projector pj/.
Join p' to q\
is
the elevation
of the line of contact.

is
another T.P. that

its
fulfils
the required conditions of

lines in
problem;
traces
are
shown by thick dotted

its
the diagram, as well as the construction for obtaining
contact
with the two

the same
viz.
:
solids.
The V.T. of
this plane could
be found in
is
way
as the other, but
an alternate method
H.T.
shown,
Erect a
q'
Draw the
line qr parallel to the (dotted)

till
it
perpendicular at r
in /.
385
Draw
the (dotted) Y.T. through
/ till
it
meets the corresponding
H.T. on
JVote.
XY.
If the point of contact
had been required in the upper
part of the sphere, the T. planes would not have passed between
the solids, as in the example shown, but on the same side of
each solid
viz,
one T.P. would touch both solids in front, while
the other would touch them behind.
Peoblem
The
traces of
152.
a given T.P. heing given, and the projections of the

the sphere
centre of a sphere, to determine

contact.
and point of
Pig. 182.
T.P.,
Let H.T. and V.T. be the traces of the given

the projections of the centre of the sphere.
and
c,
c,
Fig. 182.
Draw
the
line
ab
through
c,
H.T.
2c
386
SOLID GEOMETRY
the projector aa, and a perpendicular to
h'.
chap.
Draw
XY
on
h till it
meets the V.T. in
Join
ah'.
cl'.
Draw a line from c' perpendicular to V.T., cutting a in Draw the projector d'd. Then d, d', are the projections of the
point of contact.
To determine the radius

zontal line
c'e.
of
the sphere.
if
Draw
the hori-
c'ed'
is
a triangle, and
c'd', it
we
obtain the true
length of the hypotenuse
will give the radius required.
To obtain
horizontal.
e
this,
we
will " rotate " this triangle
on plan
till
it
is
We must
bear in
d.
mind
that the plan of the point

dJ) perpendicular to ah,
coincides with the point
Draw
and equal in length
to ed\ in elevation.
Join cD, which
is
the radius of the sphere required.
Peoblem
To determine
of 68
the traces
153.
contact of a T.P. to two
and points of
;
given unequal spheres

to the
the T.P. to he inclined at
an angle
H.P.
T.
Fig. 187.
There are four
planes that could be drawn in accordance
Fig. 183.
Fig. 184.
Fig. 185.
Fig. 186.
with these data.
They
are illustrated in the perspective views

rigs. 183, 184, 185,
387
and 186.
We
will first solve the
problem
with the T.P. in the position illustrated in Fig. 183.

Let
spheres.
and
A',
and
B',
be the projections of the two given
Envelop each sphere

of each cone to
in a right vertical cone
the generatrices
make the required angle (68) with the H.P.

and de.
Draw
equal to
the axes he
hf,
With
e
as centre,
and radius
draw a
circle.
With
as centre,
and radius equal
Fig. 187.
to
clg,
draw another
circle.
These are the plans of the bases of
the two cones.
Draw Draw
till it
H.T. tangential to these two

ell
circles.
parallel to H.T.
At h draw
e'
a perpendicular to
XY

the Y.T. through
in
h'.
Draw
h' till it
To obtain the points

touch, the spheres,
of contact.
draw horizontal
circle.
lines.
At k and I, where the cones With c as centre, and
radius equal to nh, draw a
Draw
the line cp perpen-

388
SOLID GEOMETRY
a.
chap.
dicular to H.T., cuttii]g this circle in

till it
Draw
a projector to a
meets nh in a.
Then a and
a' are
point of contact.
Proceed in precisely the same manner to find
the corresponding points on
and
B'.
The
traces of the plane illustrated in Fig.
184 are shown by
the thick dotted lines.
The construction
for obtaining these,
as well as the points of contact, is
shown
in the diagram.
To determine the
traces of the T.P. in the positions illus-
trated in Figs. 185 and 186, one sphere in each instance
would
be enveloped in the frustrum of an inverted cone, as shown in

Prob. 151.
Peoblem
The
traces of
154.
a plane and
the axis of
a cone being
given, to deter-
mine
the projections of the cone
and
its line
of contact with
the given plane.
Fig. 188.
Let H.T. and V.T. be the traces of the given plane, and
a'V, the projections of the
ah,
given axis.
First determine a line perpendicular to the given plane,
and
passing through any point in the axis, as follows
Draw
cd perpendicular to the H.T., and find

c
its
elevation
h'
c'd'
by drawing projectors from

pendicular to the Y.T.
till
and
d.
Draw
c'd'
,
a line from
per-
it
e.
meets
in
e'.
Draw
a projector
from
c'
till
it
meets cd in
he, h'e
are the projections of the
line required.
Draw
from g
the line hg perpendicular to ah.
Draw
h'
a projector
in
g'.
i!.
till it

o'h',
g'h perpendicular to the line
cutting the V.T, in
Draw Draw
are
the line hh perpendicular to the line ah.
Then hh and hg
^"'
the H. and V. traces of the plane of the base of the cone.
Draw
Join
in
I
'k'l
projectors from
hi.
Z?
and
i,
giving the points

till
and
and
V.
Produce ae and old

at
they meet these lines
and
Then
and
a!l'
are the projections of the line of
contact between the cone and the given plane.
They represent
389
the intersectiou with the given plane of a plane perpendicular

to
it,
containing the given axis.

lines
The
and
h'l'
are the projections of the radius of the

this radius,
h'f, i.e.
base of the cone.
To determine the true length of

to
draw IL perpendicular
and equal
in length to
the
Fig. 188.
vertical height of
V above
to be a
V.
Join &L, which
is
the radius
required.
Next assume ab
pendicular to
it,
ground
line.
Draw
aA. and
&B perand
h'
and equal in length to the heights of
a'
above XY.
Join AB.
Draw
a line through
perpendicular to
AB, and make
BP
and
BQ
each equal to the radius 5L.

5,
Join
Is,
A to P and Q.
and meeting
it
Set off from
on the line hg produced, hr and
each equal to BP.
Draw lines from P and Q

^;
perpendicular to ab,
rs is the major,
in the points
and
q.
Then
and
390
'pq
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
the minor axes of the ellipse forming the base "of the cone.
Complete the plan of the cone (Prob. 181, Plane Geometry).
Draw
make
projectors from r
&'
and
/.
s till
they meet a horizontal line

a projector from p, and^
drawn through
same way.
in
r'
and
Draw
the height of j/ above
XY
equal to ^jP.
r's
Find q in the
Join
]j'l'-
Then pq' and
are the conjugate
diameters of an ellipse forming the base of the cone in elevation.
Draw
the ellipse (Prob. 185, Plane Geometry), and complete
the cone.
Problem
The
traces of
155.
line heiîg given, to determine
a plane containing a
the projections of
a cone which shall touch
the
plane in the
Pig. 189.
given line; the vertex angle of the cone
to he 45.
Let H.T. and V.T. be the traces of the given plane, and
ah', the projections of the
ah,
given
line.
Find the projections of any point

ee,
on the given
line, as
and through them draw
lines perpendicular to the traces of

line
the plane.
Find the H.T. of the

is
drawn through
e,
as d.
Join
dl),
which
the H.T. of a plane perpendicular to the given

line.
plane through the given

axis of the cone.
This plane must contain the
Construct the triangle hed on to the H.P. as follows

line
Draw a
Draw
e'
from
perpendicular to
ec,
hcl
and cutting
it
in
c.
eE'
perpendicular to
and equal in length and

Join
to the height of
above
till
XY.
meets
With
ec
as centre,
cE' as radius,
draw an
d.
arc
h
it
produced in E.
to &
and
At
draw
FS,
making an angle with &E equal

(45 -r- 2
to half the given vertex angle
224),
to
and meeting
eE
till it
rffi
produced in F.
/.
from
F parallel
h
meets de produced in
Draw a line Draw a line
from
through
/.
This
is
the plan of the axis, indefinite in
length.
Draw
a projector from
till
it
meets de" produced in
/'.

Draw
a line from
h'
391
tlirough /'.
This
is
the elevation of the
axis, indefinite in length.
Construct the axis on to the H.P. by drawing fY' perpendicular to/&, and equal in length to the height of/' above
XY.
Draw
a line from & throuQ-h F'.
Fig. 189.
Find the true length

Join Ah.
of ab as follows
Draw A perpenXY.
dicular to ah, and equal in length to the height of a above
Construct on each side of
hY an
angle equal to half the
given vertex angle, and
make
in
h.
the lines forming the angles each

h.
equal in length to Ab, which give the points g and

cutting &F' produced
Join
gli,
Then hk
is
the true length
of
the axis.
392
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Draw
it
a line from
Z;
perpendicular to &/ produced, and cutting
in
0.
Set off from o on this line,
and
I,
each equal to
kg.
From g and
cutting
it
h draw lines perpendicular to ho produced, and
in the points
n and
j9.
Then ml
is
the major, and np
the minor axes of an ellipse forming the base of the plan of the
cone.
Draw
the ellipse (Prob. 181, Plane Geometry), and com-
plete the cone.
Draw a projector from o till it meets I'f produced in o\ Draw projectors from / and m till they meet a horizontal line
drawn through
projector from
o in
/'
and
on.
Find the point n by drawing a
till its
height above
XY
is
equal to ng.
Find
n'p'
the point p' in the same way, and join

are conjugate diameters of an ellipse.
185, Plane Geometry),
n'p'.
Then
I'm'
and
Draw
the ellipse (Prob.

of the cone.
and complete the elevation
Problem
To determine
the 2Joint
156.
of contact hetioeen a right cone and a sphere:
the cone to he lying
on
its
side
on
the
H.P. with
its
axis
parallel to the V.P.

to
the sphere to he resting
on the H.P. and

-J"
touch the cone 4"
from
its
vertex.
Scale
1 foot.
Fig. 190.
Draw
plan A.
the elevation A' of the cone, and from
it
project the
Draw
the axis to each projection.

c
Set off from
along the upper part of the cone,
c'h,
the re-
quired length
(4").
Draw
ah at right angles to the axis.
Draw
5E perpendicular
to the
upper surface of the cone, and equal in
length to the radius of the sphere.
With E
as centre,
and radius E&, draw a
circle.
The point
of contact required
must be on the
vertex.
line ah, as this is the eleva-
tion of the circle of contact round the cone at the required
distance
from
its
Produce E& to
d',
and draw
'Ef
parallel to ah.
We will
its
now
roll the
sphere along ah
the sphere
till it
rests
on the H.P.,
required position.
When
is
resting on the H.P.

we know
that the height of
its
393
is
centre above the H.P.

line
c
equal to
its radius, so
draw a horizontal
at this height
above
XY.
Let us imagine the line

a centre, and assume
(/'E to
revolve round the point d' as
E/
to be the edge of a plane in

e
it
which
moves.
When E
reaches the horizontal line

its
gives
the
centre of the sphere in
required position.
Draw
the sphere.
Fig. 190.
To complete the plan we

elevation of the sphere.
shall
require a supplementary
Take a section through the

on the line
ah.
cone, at right angles to its axis,
Produce the
equal to
ol,
axis,
and
at
any point
as centre,
and radius
meets
till it
draw a
circle.
Draw OE'
perpendicular to the axis

till it
produced.
Draw
With
a line from
as centre,
OE' in
E'.
and radius OE', draw an arc

This
is
meets a line from
e parallel to the axis in E".
the position
it.
of the centre of the sphere.
Draw
e,
the circle representing
Draw
e is
a projector from
and make ge equal to GE".
Then
circle
the centre of the sphere on plan.
Draw
it.
We
have already stated that the line ab represents the

cl'e
of contact between the two solids, so where the line

this line in
]j' is
intersects
the elevation of the point of contact.
394
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Draw
Then J3
is
tlie
projector d'd.
Join
de.
Draw
the projector
p'lj.
the plan of the point of contact.
Peoblem
To determine
the traces of
to
157.
a T.P.
to three
given itnequcd spheres,

;
tangenticd
sjjheres to
each other, resting on the H.P.

on,
the two larger
have their centres
line parallel to the
V.P.
Project the points of contact between each sjjhcre
and
the T.P., cdso
where the spheres touch each
other.
Fig. 191.
Let A, B, and C be great
circles of the
given spheres.
Take a height above
XY
equal to the radius of the sphere

a'.
A, and draw a short horizontal line
Draw
another hori-
zontal line at V, equal to the radius of B, above
XY.
at
h'.
At any
convenient point
a'
as centre,
and radius equal

line
to the radii of
h'
A + B,
draw an arc intersecting the
through
Draw
the circles A' and B' about the centres
a'
and
h'.
Draw
a horizontal line ah at any convenient position below
XY, and draw projectors from a' and h' till they meet it in a and l. Draw the circles A and B about the centres a and h. "We will now make a supplementary elevation (C") of the
smallest sphere.
radii of
With
a' as centre,
and radius equal

h'
to the
A + C,
draw an
arc.
Also with
as centre,
and radius
equal to the radii of

other at C".
a line
d'e'
B + C, draw
XY, and
another arc intersecting the

this centre C".
Draw
the sphere
C about
Draw
e'.
parallel to
at a height
above
it
equal to
the radius of C, intersecting the arcs just drawn in d' and
Produce
it
ah,
e.
and draw projectors from
d'
and
e' till
they meet
h as
in
d and
With a
hd,
as centre,
and radius ac ; and with

c.
centre,
and radius
draw
Draw
the
C about c as centre. This completes the plan. Draw a projector from c till it meets d'e' in c. This is centre of the sphere C. Draw it, to complete the elevation. If we now assume two cones lying with their vertices on
sphere
the
the

H.P.,
395
and each enveloping two of the spheres, a
line joining
their vertices
must he the H.T. of the
T.P. required.
Draw
tangents to the circles
Also draw tangents to the
circles
and B till they meet in /. B and C till they meet in g.

line joining
f and g
are the vertices of the
assumed cones, and a
them determines the H.T.

circles
If
we were
to
draw tangents
to the
A and C, they would also meet on this line, as shown in plan. We will now draw a supplementary elevation of the three
Assume, in any convenient
position, a
spheres, projected on a V.P. perpendicular to the H.T.
new ground
a,
line
X'Y'
till
perpendicular to H.T.
it
Draw
circle
a line from
parallel to H.T.,
meets X'Y' in
h.
Set off on this line
liA!'
equal to the radius
of A,
I,
and complete the
with A" as centre.
Join A" with
the point where the H.T. meets X'Y'.

to the circle A".
Also draw the tangent
JI
396
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Where
the two ground lines intersect at 0, draw OiST per-
pendicular to X'Y'.
to " rotate " it
ION is a right-angled
till
triangle,
and
if
we were
on the line 10
the point
was immediately
this,
above 0,
IsT
would be a point in the V.T.
To do
draw ON'
perpendicular to
XY.
With
as centre,
and radius ON, draw

the V.T. converging
an arc
till
it
meets ON' in N'.
Draw
towards the point where the H.T. meets

Geometry),
XY
(Prob. 32, Plane
Draw
spheres
lines
from
and
till
they meet
A"I in the points B" and C".
These are the centres of the
and C
in the
supplementary elevation.
Draw
them.
JI.
Draw A" J, B"K, and C"'L, each Draw lines from the centres
till J, k,
perpendicular to the tangent

a, h,
and
perpendicular to
J,
the H.T.,
they meet lines drawn from the points
K, and
parallel to H.T. in the points
and
/.
of contact of the T.P. with each sphere on plan.
To obtain
projectors
corresponding
j,
Tc,
points
I
in
the
elevation,
draw
K,
from the points
on plan, and make their heights

corresponding points
I'
above
XY'" equal to the heights of the
J,
and
above X'Y'.
Then
/,
h',
and
are points
of contact
between the T.P. and the spheres, in elevation.
To determine the point of contact between the spheres

C.
and
Join
ac.
Draw the projector irim. With a

till it
as centre,
is
and radius
am, draw an arc
meets ac in
n.
This
the plan of the
point of contact required.
Draw
a projector from
till it
from m' in n\
This
is
the elevation of the point of contact
between the spheres
and
C.
The points of contact between.
and B, and
and
C, are
determined in the same manner.
Pkoblem
To determine
sphere
Note.
;
158.
T.P. to a given
Pig. 192.
the traces
and point of contact of a

a given
line.
the T.P. to contai7i
There are
two
T. planes that fulfil these conditions

one touches the upper surface of the sphere, aud the other
lower surface.
Let
397
its
and A' be the plan and elevation of

the projections of the given line.
tlie
given sphere,
and
ah, a'h',
Find the H. and Y. traces of the given

(Prob. 67).
If
line, as
C and D'
we assume two enveloping
cones, tangential to the sphere,
Fig. 192.
with their vertices on the given
line,
the intersection of the
bases of these cones on the sj)here will be points in the T.

planes.
The projection
positions
of these cones will necessitate the

;
drawing
of the ellipses forming their bases
but
it
is
possible to select
of the ellipses,
i.e.
by which we can dispense with two
by making one
axis in each projection parallel to one of the
co-ordinate planes.
Draw
a line from
o,
the centre of the plan of the sphere,
398
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
parallel to
XY, and meeting
the plan of the given line in /.
Find the point/' by a projector from/.
Draw
lines
from /' tangential

Join
i'f.
to the sphere,
is
meeting
it
in
the points i and /.
This
the base of one cone.
Draw projectors from this cone and complete its plan. From draw a line parallel to XY, and meeting the
tion of the given line in
e'.
eleva-
This
is
the axis of the second cone.
Complete the plan and elevation as just described.
Having completed the

and
projections of these cones,
we
find
that their bases intersect each other on the sphere in the points
gli
g'h'.
g, g',
are the projections of the point

h, h',
where the
upper T.P. touches the sphere, and
those of the lower T.P.
We
each
have now determined the projections of three points in

viz.
T.P.,
CD^, C'Dy, of one plane, and
CD/z,,
C'DVi', of
the other.
From
three given points in a plane
we can determine
its
traces (Prob. 115).
Draw
the traces required.

i.e.
H.T., Y.T., are
the traces of the upper T.P.,

point
the one passing through the
and
H.T.', V.T.', are those of the
plane passing through
point H.
gg\ and
It
The
projections of the points of contact are, of course,
liJi.
is
interesting to
know
that
if
any number of cones were

tangential to the sphere,
placed with their vertices on

their
AB, and
bases would
intersect each other in the
same point on the
sphere.
Problem
To determine
the traces
159.
and
the projections of the ]joints
of contact
of a T.P. to three given unequal spheres.
Fig. 193.
i.e.
There are eight possible variations to these conditions,

eight T.
planes could be projected in accordance with the data
furnished.
These are illustrated in Fig. 194.

in
We
will take
those
shown
D
;
and E.
A',
Let A, B,
spheres.
C, be the projections of the three giyen

If
399
we assume two enveloping
cones, tangential to each paii'
of spheres, the intersection of their bases will be points in the

T. planes required.
Draw
tangents to
e'.
and
meeting in
e ;
also to
A' and B'
meeting in
We
full
must now make a supplementary elevation showing the
length of this cone.
Fig. 193.
Draw
make
a line from
a,
the centre of plan A, to

line.
e,
and assume
ee",
this to be a
new ground
ee"
Draw
the projectors aa",

a'
and
also
the length of aa" equal to the height of
above
XY,
the length of
equal to the height of
e'
above XY.
With
Join
a" as centre,
draw a
e",
circle
equal to A.
it
Draw
lines,
g'.
tangential to this circle, to

f'g'.
meeting
in the points /'
and
Then
e"fy'
is
the supplementary elevation of the
400
SOLID GEOMETRY
Project the base of this cone on
cone tangential to sphere A.
by means
of projectors
it
drawn
g.
and meeting
in
and
and g perpendicnlar to ae Complete the ellipse forming the

from /'
projection of the base of this cone.
We
Draw
will
now
project a cone
enveloping the spheres

projections ad, a'd' of
,
and
C.
tangents, as before,
and
its ^xis.
We
shall recûire another
supplementary elevation showing
the side of this cone.
Assume
d'
the line ad to be another ground line.

,
Draw
the
projectors aa!" dd", respectively, equal to the distance of a'
and
above XY.
sphere A.
circle.
With a'" as centre, draw another elevation of From d" draw the lines d"h', d"i', tangential to this
-
Join
h'i'.
Then
df'h'i'
is
the supplementary elevation
of the second cone.

li
Project
its
base by drawing projectors from

it
and
i'
perpendicular to ad and meeting
in h
and
i.
Com-
plete the ellipse forming the projection of the base of this cone.
The bases
points
/
of these
two cones
intersect each other in the
and n on the sphere A.

supplementary elevation.
to ad,
till
To
find these points in the

I
Draw
projectors from
and n perpendicular
they meet the
Fig. 194.
line
h'i'
in the points
I"
and
n".
Take the distances these points

off
I',
are from the line ad,

I
and measure them
on projectors from
n.
and n above XY.
These give the points
We
have now obtained the projections of three points in
each of the T. planes illustrated in
and
(Fig.
194);
viz.
XXXI

shown
in D,
401
den, d'c'n, for T. plane
and
del, d'e'l',
for the T.
plane shown in E.
Find the traces of these planes (Prob.
115).
T. plane
The H.T. and V.T. shown in

containing the points D, E, L.
taining the points D, E,
!N",
Fig.
193 belong to the
The
traces of the T. plane conlimits of the diagram.
come beyond the
To
point
also
h
find
where the
T.
plane that touches sphere
in the
to
e ;
X
h'
will touch the other spheres.
Join
to
e,
and n
01
to d,
and
n' to d\
Join an and ctn.
From
c
the centres
and
draw
n'e'
lines parallel to
an and
a'n
till
they meet the lines
ne and
to
in the points
p and
p'; also
from
and
c',
parallel
an and
o\
ein', till
they meet the lines nd and nd' in the points
and
The points
same manner.
of contact for the other T.P. can be found in the
Problems on Teingent Planes andj
Solids
constructed
by
Horizontal Projection will be found in the next chapter, from

Prob. 185 to 194.
2 D
CHAPTEK XXXII
IIOEIZONTAL PROJECTION
In 07'thographic 'projection (Chap. XXIII.) two planes are used perpendicular to each other, and the position of a point
is
ascertained
by
its
projection on each of these planes.
It is stated
on page 204,
perpen-
" that
the length of a projector determines the distance of a point

its
from
projection."
We
also
know
that a projector
is projected.
is
dicular to the plane on

to
which the point
mark
the projection of a point on a

its
we were plane by a number denotIf
ing the length of
projector,
i.e.
its
distance from the plane

able to ascertain its
on which
it
is
projected,
we should be
is
position from one projection only.
In horizontal projection the H.P. only
used,
and
figures are
given indicating the perpendicular distances of the points either
above or below the H.P.

the point
is
These figures are called
" Indices."
(
If
below the H.P., the negative sign
is
placed
is
before the figure.
The unit which
is
generally used
one-
tenth of an inch
(0"1").
If the position of points can be thus determined, it necessarily
follows that the inclination

also be found.
and length
of lines, planes,
etc.,
can
By
horizontal projection
in projection are very
many of the more complex problems much simplified. It is of great utility in

etc.,
the drawing of
forts,
as well as
showing the
levels
and
contours of surveys.
CHAP. XXXII
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
403
THE PLANE OF REFERENCE.

If the index
numbers were
high,
it
would be very incon-
venient to have to measure them from the H.P., so to avoid this

a horizontal plane can be taken at any assumed level, called
" the
plane of
reference'.'
We
can have any number of them to
suit our convenience, either
above or below the H.P., but we

or
must make the necessary additions

indices to suit the
deductions from the
assumed
level.
is
Kg. 195
is
a perspective view in which H.P.
the horizontal
Fig. 195.
Fig. 196.
plane,
which
is
always at the level of

is
zero.
P.E.
is
the plane of
reference,
and ah
an indexed
line.
cib
Fig.
196 shows the same line
with
its indices.
To
find the true length

line,
and inclination of
this line,
assume
end of
ah to be a ground
it, e.g.
and
erect perpendiculars at each
make
ak.
= 0-3",
a,
and &B
= 0-6", and join AB.

we could draw
Then
AB is
the true length of the line.
Instead of setting up the heights

a H. line at the
from the level of

level of A, as Ac,
reference.
this height
the H.P.,
and assume
this to be the level of the plane of
As
this level is O'S''
above the H.P., we must deduct
from the index number of

0"3'''
(0-6"
0-3" = 0-3").
AB
cB
will then be
high.
this
BAc
gives
6,
the angle
forms with
(Fig. 195).
the H.P.
Compare
with the perspective sketch

is
If the plane of reference
taken at the level of 15 and a
point
is
indexed 25 (the unit being O'l" as before), the point
will be 10 units or one inch above the plane of reference (25
15
= 10)
or if a point
on the same plane
is
indexed 10,
it
will be
5 units or \
an inch below the plane of reference (10
15 = 5).
404
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Unless stated to the contrary, the plane of reference should
be taken
If
at the zero level,
i.e.
the level of the H.P.
any point in a
line bears the

is
same index number
as the
plane of reference, that point

plane,
e.g.
the H.T. of the line on the
(Fig. 195) is the
H.T. of AB.
THE SCALE OF
SLOPE.
In horizontal projection, lines are indicated by their plan,
which gives
their direction
on the H.P., their indices giving their
inclination to this plane.
Planes are indicated by a plain scale called "the

This scale
is
scale
of slope."
always drawn perpendicular to the H.T. of the plane.

that a line contained
We
plane.
know
by a
plane,
and perpendicular
to the trace of the plane,
always gives the inclination of the

is
Let us refer back to Fig. 107, in which the line ab

ca,
perpendicular to the line

gives the inclination of
the
H.T. of the plane A,
and
ab
is
to the H.P.
lines.
Let ab and cd (Fig. 197) be two horizontal
As
indexed
zero, it
must be on the H.P., and

cd
represents the H.T. of a plane containing
the line
cd.
As
is
indexed
5, it
must be
5 units above the H.P.
In any convenient position draw a plain

scale perpendicular to these
two
lines,
and
divide
it
into as
many equal
lines (5).
parts as there
are units between the level of the
two
This will form

is
a scale of slope.
When
this scale is
made
the plane
said to
be determined.
Note.
left
The thicker
scale of slope
line of the scale should

;
always be on the
hand on ascending the slope

which way the plane
is
by
this
means we can always
see
inclined.
The
which
is
generally used as a ground line upon

is
the elevation of the plane
constructed.
U.g. to
determine
cd, set off
the actual slope of the plane containing the lines ah,
on cd from the
ccl is
405
scale,
eE
= O'S"
in length
the number of units

Then EOe
above
ab.
Join
E to
the lower end of the scale.
is
6,
or the inclination of the plane to the
H.P.
Eig.
198
is
a perspective sketch illus-
trating this problem.

Note.
The
scale of slope in the followis
ing problems
letter Z.
always indicated by the

Fiff.
198.
Pkoblem
To dravj a
line
160.
to
from a
given "point parallel

Eig. 199.
a given
line.
Let ah be the given

parallel to ah,
line,
and
the given point.
Draw
cd
and equal
to
it
in length.
If
we make
the difference between
the indices of cd equal to the difference
between those of a and

^^'
'
h,
the lines will
be parallel:
e.g. if
d must
same
15,
because d must exceed
h as
we make c = 11, then much as c exceeds a.

must be
parallel to
Note.
Lines
parallel to each other
on plan, and having the
difference in level for equal lengths,
each other.
Problem 16L
From a
given indexed, line ah,

length, H.T.,
to
determine
its
true
and
0.
Fig. 200.
Draw
and
the perjoendicular
aA =
is
0'2"
&B = O'o".
Produce
Join AB, which
the
true length of ah.
AB
AB
till
it
meets ah pro-
duced.
This gives the H.T.

to ah is
d.
The
inFig. 200.
clination of
4o6
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
i.
162.
From a
and
To find
given indexed line ah,

6.
to
determine
its
true length, H.T.,
2.
the position of
tlie
a point
c2.
d.
3.
To determine
1.
index of a given point
Fig. 201.
As a
is
prefixed by the negative sign

dicular
),
the perpen-
the
aA must be drawn below ah. Draw Join AB, perpendicular &B = 0'4".
is
which
the true length of ah.
Where
Pig.
AB
intersects ah is the H.T.

lines is 6.
201
The angle between the two

2.
Set off on &B, ho
= 0-2". Draw
Then
c is
c'C
parallel to 5.
Draw
Cc perpendicular to
ah.
its
the
position of the point required on ah,

3.
and C
it
position on
Erect a perpendicular on d
till
meets
is 3.
AB
in
1).
AB. The
length of
dD
is
the index required, which
Peoblem
1.
163.
From a
given scale of slope
(shoioing itnits), to determine the
inclination of the plane

2.
to the
H.P.
a,
Through a given point
c'6 to
draw
plane parallel
to Z.
Fig. 202.
It will
be seen that only one index

that this
is
is
given to Z,
viz.
12.
We
know
left
the higher end of

is
the scale, because the thick line
always
slope;
on the
hand when ascending the
and
as each division of the scale repre'^

Fig. 202.
sents one unit, the index of h should be
7 (12
1.
- 5 = 7).
Assume the plane of reference to the level of h. Draw aK O'o" in Join Kb. Then kha is 0.
length, perpendicular
be at
to ah.
2.
407
Note.
;
If planes are
parallel, their traces are also parallel

is
(Prob. 94)
consequently, as the scale of slope
always perpen-
dicular to the H.T. of the plane, the scales of slope of parallel
planes
must be
parallel to each other.
Draw
Z',
a line through the given point c^ perpendicular to Z.
At any convenient
parallel to Z,
point on this line draw another scale of slope

to
it
and equal
is 7,
in length.
As
less
the index of
h,
the lower end of Z,
and the lower end of
Z' is 6,
we must
make
the
liiffher
end of Z'
11,
i.e.
one unit
than 12.
Problem
164.
Two parallel planes
being given, to determine the distance

Fig. 203.
hetioeen them.
Let
Z and
Z' be the given scales of slope,

9.
and
let
the reference
plane be at the level of
Draw
9
a perpendicular
al>\
hh'
= OS"
(12
= 3).
Join
Draw
the perpendicular
dd', and make d' = 0'4" above ah (13 9 4).
Through
d'
draw a
line parallel to a//.
In any convenient position draw

pendicular to
ah'.
ef
Z'.
per-
jf/3
Then
e'f is the distance
Fiff.
203.
between the
parallel planes
Z and
Problem
TJiree points a,
h, c
165.
heing given, to determine the scale

Fig. 204.
of slope of
a plane containing them.
Join the two points that have the highest
and lowest indices {a and

inclination
of
cd),
h).
Find the
;
as
Ah
(Prob. 161)
the
3.
plane of reference to be at the level of
Determine the position of the point

(Prob. 162), as c.
Fig. 204.
on
Ah
Draw
^'^^-
c'd
perpendicular
ô
^''^'
^^'^
jo^^
I^^
^^y convenient
4o8
SOLID GEOMETRY
position
lines
draw the
scale of slope
perpendicular to
cd,
and draw
from a and
h parallel to cd.
Figure the scale of slope

h.
with indices corresponding to a and
Peoblem
Tvjo planes being given
to
16G.
them
1.
determine the line of intersection hetiveen
2.
3.
When the H.T.s. of the 2Jla7ies are 'jjarallel to When the H.T.s. are inclined to each other.
Wlien the H.T.s. are nearly
ijarallel.
each other.
Figs. 205, 206, 207.

1.
Let
Z and
Z' be the
two given planes
(Fig. 205).
Take any
line
xy parallel to the scales of

this to be the
slope,
and assume
ground
line of a plane
9.
of reference taken at the level of
Draw
As
c is
perpendiculars at
and
d.
indexed 16,
we must make
above xy (16
This forms
the point
C 7
units
-9 = 7).
Fig. 205.
&.
Join CD.
71.
with xy the Q of
Draw perpendiculars at a and As a is indexed 7, we must draw

2).
2 units below xy (7
9=
it
The index of
meets
&
being 12,
make B
3 units above xy (12
9 = 3).
till
Join AB, and produce
it
CD
in E.
This
is
where the two planes

This
is
intersect.
Draw EF
at right angles to xy.
the line of intersection required.
Note.
Either
The
scale of slope could be taken as a
ground line
if desired.
2.
line
xy
is
taken to simplify the problem.
Let
Z and
71 be the
two given planes
(Fig. 206).
Take the plane of reference
at the level 6.
Draw
a perpendicular at
c,
and make cC 7 units in length

of 71
corre-
(13 6 = 7).
Join Qd, which makes with cd the

Cc^ of
Find the position on
A' and
B', their indices
sponding to a and
& of
409
(Prob. 162).
till
Draw
lines
from
tliese
points at right angles to Z'
they meet perpendiculars drawn

e
from the points a and
h,
perpendicular to Z, in the points
and/.
Draw
a line
through
and /, which
is
the line of intersection
required.
Draw
the line cE perpendicular to
cf,
4i
units in
length.
Fiff.
206.
Fiff.
207.
Join E/.
Then E/e
is
6 of the line of intersection between
and Z\
3.
Let
We
of lines
Z and Z' know from
be the two given planes (Fig. 207).

the preceding problem that the intersection
indices
drawn from corresponding

but
and perpendicular
to
each scale of slope will give points in the required line of intersection
;
if
these scales are nearly parallel, these points of

so remote, sometimes, as to
intersection
become
be inaccessible.
assumed, and
When
lines
this is the case, other scales of slope are
are
drawn perpendicular
to
them from corresponding
indices.
These lines will intersect those from the given planes
in the same points.
Assume
a plane Z" with indices corresponding with those of

at
5.
Z and
Z',
and take the plane of reference

indices are
Note.
The
the
taken the same in each plane
to
facilitate
work
if
they are of different values,
corre-
sponding indices could be found in the same way as shown in the

preceding problem.
4IO
SOLID GEOMETRY
Draw
perpendiculars to corresponding indices in each of the

till
three scales of slope
they intersect
i,
e.g.
the perpendicular
7/ in k
from bZ" will meet that from Z in
and the one from
the perpendicular from lOZ" will meet that from
in
_;",
and
the one from Z' in
I.
Join
ij
and
Id,
intersecting each other in m.
This
is
a point
in the line of intersection required.
Assume another plane

to find point
n.
Z'",
and proceed in a similar manner
Draw
a line through
and
n,
which
is
the
line of intersection required.
It will be
seen that this line joins the point

o.
where 5Z
intersects 5Z' in
The other end
of the line, if produced,

lOZ'.
would
intersect the junction of
lOZ with
To index the points

Z", as
m and n.
Draw
Find the inclination of plane
E/ (Prob.
163).
a line from
m perpendicular
This
is 7"2.
to Z",
which gives pr, the required index,

of point
Note.
viz. 6"75.
Find the index
n in the same manner from
Z.
These
indices could be found from any of the scales
that are conveniently placed.
PliOBLEM 167.
From hvo
given lines that intersect each other,

the angle between them.
to
determine
Fig. 208.
Let ah and
he
be the two given
lines. ah,
Find the inclination of

aT>
;
as
also the elevation of he (Prob.
161).
Find on
he a
point corresponda,
ing to the index of

162).
as
d (Prob.
value
Fig. 208.
As a and d have the same index (6), we will take the plane
of reference at that level.
Draw &B
to
he,
perpendicular to
ah,
6).
and 5B' perpendicular
each 6 units in length
(12-6 =
With a
centre,
411
arc.
it
as centre, and. radius oB,

(/B',
draw an
till
With d
is
as
and radius
in B".
draw another arc

d.
meets the arc

the angle
from
Join B" to a and
Then a^'d
ah,
required.
Wê have obtained the true lengths of three sides of

;
a triangle abd
aB
being the true length of
and
B'c? of hd.
The
intersection of these sides at

hd.
B" must be the angle between
ah and
Problem
To draw
line,
168.
to
perpendicidar
a given plane through
a given point.
Let
Fig. 209.
Z be the given plane and a the given Use Z as the ground, line, working
3.
point.
from the level of
Find the inclination of the plane, as
/C
(Prob. 163).
^
a,
Determine the elevation of

(Prob. 161).
as
a'
From a draw
from
h' till it
ah' an indefinite length,
Fig. 209.
at right angles to /C.
Draw
a projector
h.
meets a horizontal line drawn from a in
Then
ah, ah',
are the projections of the line required.

of the point of intersection
The index
is
equal to de (5"35).
Problem
169.
to
To draio a plane through a given point perpendieidar

given
c'
line.
Fig. 210,
line,
Let ah be the given

given point.
and
the
Find the elevation
of the given line
(Prob. 162), working from the level of the

H.P.,
line.
i.e.
zero,
and using
cd)
as the
ground
Fig. 210.
Find
the
elevation
of
c,
as
by
412
SOLID GEOMETRY
c
drawing a line through

length.
perjpendicular
to
ab,
units
in
From
d,
draw a
line at right angles to a'h' till

e.
it
meets ah in
and
intersects a'h' in
c'c.
Draw lines from d and e perpendicular to ah, and produce Draw the scale of slope Z parallel to ah, and index it with
i.e.
the levels of d and c,
and
6.
This
is
the plane required.
Peoblem
170.
to
A plane and
a right line being given,
determine
their intersection.
Fig. 211.
Let
given
Z be
the given plane, and ah the
line.
Use Z
as the
ground
line,
working from
the level of
Find the inclination of the given plane,

as
^C
a'h'
(Prob. 163), and the elevation of the

line, as a'h' (Prob. 161).
given
Fig. 211.
intersects
dQ
at
e, >
which
is
the point i'
required.
The index
of the point of inter-
section
is
equal to ef
(1'5).
Problem
To project a
H.P.,
line fro^m
171.
loith the
a given point, making an angle 9

Fig. 212,
and contained hy a given plane.
This
is
similar to Prob. 109.
Let
be the given plane and a the
given point.
using
"Work from the level

ground
line.
4,
as the
Find the elevation of a by drawing a

projector from
a,
7 units above Z, as a' a line
(11 4 = 7).
From a draw
making
a'd.
jij
the angle 6 with the scale of slope, as
This line
is
the generatrix of a cone.
212
XXXII
a line through the level 4 perpendicular to Z.
413
Draw
With
is
a as centre, and radius equal to cd, draw an arc cutting the
perpendicular through 4 in the points

of the base of a cone, of
and
/.
This arc
part
which
a'd
is
the generatrix.
Join ea
aud/rt, either of
which represents the plan of the

the elevation of both ea and fa.
line required.
Join
4a'.
This
is
Problem
To
'project
172.
line inclined
6 from a given point, and parallel

Fig. 212.
to
a given plane.
Let
Z be the given plane, and let the given point be &9. Draw hg parallel to fa, and equal to it in length. As a
units higher than/, g
is
must be 7 units higher than
h.
Problem
To determine
173.
the scale of slope of
a plane inclined 6 and

Fig. 213.
containing a given
line.
This
is

line,
5.
Let ah be the given
which
is
used as the ground
line,
working from the level of
Find the elevation of

(Prob. 161).
ah,
as
cd)'
From
6 with
he,
cd).
h'
draw
h'c,
making the angle

and radius
X
y
/^^-f^
a
With
circle.
h as centre,
draw a
of
This
h'c
is
the base of a
generatrix.
cone
which
is
the
^CT
ryî^^y
Any
plane tangential to this cone, and
^^^~^^^^v__^
Fig. 213.
containing the given line, must be the
plane required.
Draw
to
it.
ae tangential to the circle,
and a
line
from
h parallel
In any convenient position draw Z perpendicular to these
414
SOLID GEOMETRY
lines,
two
and index
it
with the levels of a and
h.
This
is
the
scale of slope required.
There are two planes that woxild

the second
is
fulfil
the reqiiired conditions

line
found by drawing the tangent ad, and a
from
h parallel to
it.
Draw
the scale Z' as described for Z.
Peoblem
To determine a
'plane
174.
making a given angle with a given plane

it
and
This
is
intersecting
in a given
line.
Fig. 214.
Let
line.
be the given plane,
the given angle, and at the given
Use Z
as the
ground
line,
working to the level of
6.
Make an
(Prob. 161).
elevation of ab, as
a'b'
Assume any line
de,
drawn
it
at right
angles to db, and cutting
in g, as the
H.T. of a plane perpendicular to the

line ab.
Make an
using ab
elevation of the line ab,
as a plane
of reference, as
Ab
Fiff.
(Prob. 161).
214.
dicular to Ab.
struct "
Draw gf perpenWith g as centre, " conZ

at the level of
b,
on
to the plane of reference
ab in P.
as
b'e.
Draw
Join Pe.
a horizontal line in plane
Draw
'Fd,
making an angle with Pe equal

d.
to
the given angle C, and meeting de in
As
as
it.
b'.
de
is
the H.T. of a plane,

is
it
;
must be on the plane of

so
c?
reference,
which
at the level of 6
is at
the same level
Draw a line through db', and make Z' perpendicular to Draw a line from a parallel to db'. Index Z' with the levels
and
a.
of
b'
This
is
the plane required.
415
I'ROBLEM 175.
To determine
This
is
the angle hctwccn tivo given planes.
Fig. 215.

Z' be the given planes,
Let
Z and
and 7 the
level
of the
plane of reference.
Note.
These
planes have the same

If
indices to simplify the construction.
they were of different values, points in each scale could be found to correspond
by Prob. 166,
2.
Draw
levels
slope,
till
lines
from the corresponding

each scale
of
Fig. 215.
perpendicular to
they meet in the points a
and
h.
Draw any
produce
line
ccl
at right angles to ah, cutting
it
in g,
;
and
it till it
meets lines drawn through a produced
cd will
then be at the level of the plane of reference, and represent the

H.T. of a plane perpendicular to
db.
Make an
(Prob. 161).
elevation of db, using ab as a ground line, as
aB
Draw gf
/ on
is
perpendicular to Ba.
With g
as centre, construct
to the plane of reference, as F.
Join Fc and Yd.
Then
c'Fd
the angle required.
Peoblem
To determine
the angle
176.
line ab will
a given
form
ivith
given plane Z.
Fig. 216.
This problem
is
The principle
of this
problem
is
explained at the commence-
ment
of Chap.
XXVI.
Draw
the inclination of the given plane, as cD, working from
the level 6 (Prob. 163).
4i6
SOLID GEOMETRY
Find the elevation of the given
line, as
ah' (Prob. 161).
From
ec
till it
a'
draw
a'e
perpendicular to cD.
Z.
Draw
from
e
the projector
etc'.
meets a line from a parallel to
ac is the plan of
Draw
till
a line
]3arallel to
it
meets a.y in/'.
Draw
ctb
the
projector
ff
This
till is
it
meets
in /.
Join
ef.
the plan and true
length of the line EF.
To determine the true length

the line
of
AF, draw the

af,
line ak. per-
pendicular to
to ha.
and equal in length

the true lengths
Join A/.
We
Fig. 216.
now have
a'cf.
of the three lines forming the triaef,
angle,
whose projections are
To
find
the
angle
af, we must construct this triangle on to an H. plane at the level of ef. With e as centre, and radius equal to ea, draw an arc. With / as centre, and radius /A, draw
between ae and
another
arc,
cutting the one
drawn from
in A'.
Join A'e
and
A'/.
Then eAf is the angle between the given line and a perpenFind the complement of this angle dicular to the given plane.
by making A'g perpendicular
required.
to
Af.
Then gA'e
is
the angle
Peoblem
To determine
177.
the scale of slo-pe of a -plane

to
perpendicular
a given plane and

line.
drawn through a given

217.
Fig.
Let
given
Z be
the given plane and ah the
line.
Find the inclination of

from the level of
5, as
Z,
working
cD
(Prob. 163).
&',
Draw
lines from a'
and
perpen-
dicular to cD,
e'
417
till
they meet the plane of reference in the points

h,
and
/'.
Draw
This line
till
they meet
lines
drawn from a and

ef.
parallel to Z, in the points e
and
/.
Join
is
the H.T. of a plane perpendicular to Z.

ef produced,
At any convenient point on

to
it,
draw
ef.
Z' perpendicular
and from a draw a

to
line parallel to
Index Z' with
numbers corresponding
slope required.
a and e;
it
will then be the scale of
Peoblem
Through a given ]Joint
e to
178.
draw a
and
line to meet tioo given lines
db
and
cd, inclined, to
each other
not in the same plane.
Fig. 218.
Find the elevations of ah and
cd, as o-B
and cD (Prob. 161).
Find a point on each of the

given lines of the same index
as the given point e (10), as
and h (Prob. 162).
Draw a
e,
line
from g through
scale
;
and make the

it
Z
h,
pera
pendicular to
line
also
draw
from
the
it.
through
Z'
and
make
scale
perpendiFig. 218.
cular to
Find another point on each

of the given lines bearing the
same index, 7
for example, as h
and
(Prob. 162).
Draw
till
a line from h parallel to
eg,
and from
e
parallel to eh,
they meet in m.
n,
Draw
Then
a line from
through
m intersecting
i.e.
ah in
and cd in
jj*.
ep is the line required,
it
is
the
.intersection of
two planes, each of which contains one
of the
given lines
and the given
point, the given point being contained
by the
line of intersection also. 2 E
4i8
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
1.
179.
to
To draw a
line cd.
])lane.
through a given line ah iKtrcdlel
a given
2.
To drato a
line
perpendicular
the
to
two given lines inclined

i^lane, e.g. the lines
to
each other
cd.
and not in
same
ah and
Fig. 219.
1.
From any
point in the given line ah draw a line he parallel
to cd (Prob. 160).
On
162).
ah determine a point
/ with
the same index as
(Prob.
Draw
a line through
and/, and in any convenient position
Fig. 219.
draw the
required.
2.
scale
perpendicular to
it.
Index the scale with
figures corresponding to the levels of h
and
e.
This
is
the plane
Find the inclination of Z as

d, as d',
AK
as a
(Prob. 163).
Determine
the elevation of
using
ground
line
and working
from the level of h (Prob. 161).
g'.
Draw a line from d' perpendicular Draw a line from d parallel to Z

Then
,
to 'K.h
till
it
and meeting
it
in
meets a projector
from g' in g.
dg, d'g' are projections of a line perpendicular
to the plane Z.
Draw
a line parallel to gd, and equal to
it
in length,
till it
meets ah and cd in the points n and m.
This
is
419
the line required
its
indices (n 6*2
and
m 2'5)
are
determined from elevations of the lines ab and cd (Prob. 162).
Problem
To determine
180.
the scale of slope of
p)la'ne
passing through a
Fig. 220.
given point a on the surface of a sphere.
Let
be the centre of the given sphere.

ca,
Join
and assume
a,
it
to
be a ground
Make an
elevation of
e
as a',
(Prob. 162).
Assume
elevation,
the plan of the sphere to be

a'
its
and from
draw a
lines
line tangential
it
to the elevation of the sphere till
meets ca
& per-
produced in
pendicular to
&.
Draw
from a and
cb,
and draw Z perpendicular

to correspond
to
Fig. 220.
them.
Index Z
h.
with the points
a and
This
is
the scale of slope required.
Problem
181.
o.ngle
From a given point a

the H.P.,
to
determine a plane making an

to
6 with
and perpendicular
the given plane.
a given plane.
Fig. 221.
Let
Z be
Find the
163),
a'
elevation
of
(Prob.
a,
also
of
the
given point
as
(Prob. 162), working from the level

e.
of
From
From
c'
ct
draw a
line
making
it
the angle
c'.
with Z, and meeting
in
draw a projector
a,
till it
meets a line from

c.
parallel to Z, in
With a
as
centre,
and radius
ac,
draw a
circle.
This
etc
is
is
the base of a
cone of which
the generatrix.
line perpendicular
From
a'
draw a
420
to the elevation of
SOLID GEOMETRY
{cVe),
and meeting Z in
h.
h'.
Draw
a pro-
jector
from
h
6' till it
meets ac produced in
Erom
draw a
line tangential to the base of the cone.

&,
From
scale
a draw a line parallel to the tangent from

of slope Z' perpendicular to them.
and draw the

Z'
Index
&.
with numbers
is
corresponding with the points a and

slope of the plane required.
This
the scale of
Peoblem
To determine
H.P.
a,
;
182.
the T.P. to
a given
cone,
with
its
base resting on the
the T.P. to contain

to he
line
draion from a given point
and
an angle of 30.
Pig. 222.
Let
be the plan of the vertex of the given cone.
Join
ox,
and
let it represent xy.
Pind
a'
and
c,
the
elevations
of
the
points
a and
c,
(Prob. 162).
Join
till
c'a',
and produce the

xy
in
d.
line
it
meets
This line
contains the given point, and
must
be in a plane tangential to the cone,

as
it
contains the vertex c.

a tangent to the
it
Prom d draw
This
is
base of the cone, touching
in f.
the H.T. of the plane re-
quired.
Fiff.
Produce df and draw a line

parallel to
it.
222.
from
Draw Z
is
per-
pendicular to these lines, and index

it
to correspond with the points
and
c.
This
the scale of
slope of the plane required.
To determine the plan

with the cone.
of the line a'e
and
its
point of contact
Assume
is
a'e to
ac,
be the generatrix of a cone.

arc
till it
With
a as centre, and radius

in E,
is
draw an
meets the H.T.
This arc
a portion of the base of the cone, of which a'

is
the vertex.
Join aE, which
the plan of a generatrix, and
must consequently be
at tlie given angle
(30)
421
with the H.P.
Draw fc

T.P.,
This
is
the line of contact

it
between the cone and the

in the point
-p
and where
intersects
aE
is
the point of contact between the line and
the cone.
To determine the index

height above
of ^, find its elevation Qj').
Then
its
XY is the index required.

Peoblem
183.
to
To determine a plane tangential
a given cone and sphere,

Fig. 223.
the T.P. to pass hetween them.
This problem
is

h
Let a be the centre of the given sphere, and

the vertex of the given cone.
the plan of
Draw
assume
H.P.
it
a line through ah and

to be the level of the
Find
the
h,
elevations
as
of
the
points a and
162).
a and
(Prob.
Draw an
sphere (with
elevation
a' as centre).
of
the
Also
Fig.
223
draw the elevation
of the cone.
{a'),
Draw a
and radius
tangent cd to the elevation of the sphere
parallel
to the side of the cone,
and touching
circle.
it
in e.
is
With a
as centre,
ad,
draw a
a'.
This
the H.T.
of
cone
enveloping the sphere
Draw
a tangent to this circle and
the base of the cone, passing between them, as hg.
This
is
the
H.T. of the T.P. required.
Produce
hg,
and draw a
lines,
is
line
from
t parallel to
it
it.
Draw Z
with the
perpendicular to these
points
and index
to correspond
h and
gh.
e'
I.
This
is
the scale of slope of the T.P.
Join
This
the line of contact with the cone.

parallel
to xy.
Prom
draw
e'k'
This
is
the circle
of
422
SOLID GEOMETRY
between the sphere and the enveloping cone. Draw With a as centre, and radius ae, draw an the projector e'e. Draw a line from a, perpendicular to hg, till it meets this arc.
contact
arc in
i.
This
is
the point of contact.

of
is
i,

height of this point above xy
find its elevation, as
i'.
The
the index required.
Peoblem
Through a given point a on
184.
the surface of
to
it.
an
ellipsoid, to
determine a 'plane tangential
Fig. 224.
Let cedf be the plan of the
ellipsoid,
and a the given point

to
on
its
surface
:
assume the plane of reference
be at the level
Id
9. a,
Draw
line
through
perpendicular to the longer axis

of the solid,
and cutting
it
in
''
\>
"Xt/Vv?
^^^^\
i
i
/.
and the plan of the
solid in
^^
'"'-^
With
as centre,
and radius
This reof
kl,
<ia
ks
il,
draw a
a
semicircle.
presents
solid,
Fig. 224.
half- section
the
taken on the line
and
" constructed "
on
to the plane of
reference.
Draw the line aa' perpendicular to M. If we assume hi to be the ground line

ence, a'
is
of the plane of refer-
the elevation of
a.
iVoê.Âll lines tangential to a curved surface, and passing
through the same point on that surface, must be contained by

the same plane.
If
we determine two
a,
lines
tangential
to
the
solid,
and
passing through point
a plane containing these two lines will a tangent to

;
be the one required.
Draw
a',
meeting
is ak.
ik in k.
Then k
is
the H.T. of the tangent
its
plan
Take a
longitudinal section through the solid, passing through point a
and the
till it is
422
axis,
e.g.
on the curve
ca'Ed,
and rotate
it
on the axis
on the plane of reference.
It will
then coincide with
the curve cAed.
Draw
a tangent to point
(Prob. 183, Plane

01.
Geometry), meeting the plane of reference in

H.T. of the tangent An, and an
i.e.
This
is
the
is
its
plan.
If
we
join nk,
the H.T.s of the two tangents,
we
obtain the H.T. of a plane
containing them.
to
it.
Produce hi, and draw a line from a parallel

it to
Draw Z
perpendicular to these two lines, and index
correspond with the points

n and
a.
This
is
the scale of slope
Problem
Let
tioo
185.
given lines ah and
cd,
inclined to each other
and
not in
the
same plane, represent
the axes of tivo cylinders of equal
diameters vjhich touch one another.

cylinders,
Project the
plan of
the
and determine
the point of contact.
Fig. 225.
To simplify
this problem, let the
two given
lines represent
225.
ah and cd in Prob. 179.
We
know
that the point of contact
must be on a
line perpendicular to both axes:
the line
nm
(Prob. 179) fulfils these conditions.
424
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
The
lines ah, cd,
and
7ivi,
Fig, 225, are precisely similar to
the corresponding lines of Eig. 192, and are indexed with the
same numbers.
The point
cylinder
is
of contact
must be on the
line
nm ;
of
and
as each
to
have the same diameter, the point of contact will

line.
be on the centre of this
Make an elevation
is
nm as
(6*2
follows.
As n is
3"7).
2'5, draw ?iN 3'7 long perpendicular to nm

Bisect mji in
o.
2'5 =
Through
Then onO
the radius of each cylinder.
Make an elevation of the draw 5V perpendicular
line cd, as
cD
(Prob. 161).
to cD.
Set off the radius of the

q'
cylinder (mO) on each side of

lines
in the points of
and
/.
Draw
from q, r, perpendicular to cd produced, till they meet it in the points q, r. Set off on the perpendicular through d
produced, ds and
di,
each equal to mO.
Then
is
st
and qr will be
the major and minor axes of an ellipse which forms the end of
one of the cylinders required, of which cd

the axis.
Draw
Proceed in the same

cylinder.
it
manner with the
axis ab,
and complete the other
Draw
in p.
a line from
is
perpendicular to mn, and meeting
This
the point of contact between the two cylinders.
Problem
To determine
the T.P. to
to
186.
to the
a given cylinder inclined
H.P,
and parallel
a given
line cd.
Fig. 226.
e
Let ab be the plan of the
axis,
and
the projection of a
point in the circumference of the base of the cylinder.
Pind the elevations of

as
cc'
a,
and
e,

is
h,
and
e'
(Prob. 162).
he',
Join ah, which
axis.
Also join
which gives the radius of the base of the

and radius
h
he',
cylinder.
With
e'b
h as centre,
draw
a semicircle
meeting a perpendicular through
in
the
he'.
points
/
g'e'
and
is
h.
Produce
to
g',
making
hg'
equal to
Then
the
g'g.
elevation of the base of the cylinder.
Draw
the projector
Then
fli is
425
the major, and ge the minor axis of the
ellipse
forming the projection of the base of the cylinder.

ellipse (Prob. 181,
Draw
the
Plane Geometry).
cd (Prob. 160).
a line through
this line
From a draw cdi parallel to the given line Draw ^'K perpendicular to ah. From a draw
till it
meets eg' produced in

cik till it
is
/'.
Find the plan of

cib
by
I.
producing
Join
lb,
meets a perpendicular to
through V in
which
a line of intersection of a plane containing
cib
Fig. 226,
and a
base.
line
ah
(parallel to the given line),
with the plane of the

"With
To
lo,
construct this line

HI' ,
on
to the
plane of reference.
centre
and radius
draw an arc
it
till it
meets ah in
"
L'.
/
Draw
in L,
a projector from L'
till

constructed
Join
Z/L,
which
is
the
line hi "
on to the plane of
reference.
This line
is
the H.T. of a plane containing the axis and a
Une
parallel to the given line cd,
and the
T.P. will be parallel
to this plane.
The
semicircle
drawn through
"
is
a part of the base of the
cylinder also " constructed
on to the plane of reference.
Draw
426
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
a tangent to this semicircle, parallel to
U, and
cutting
it
in T.
From T
set off
TS
ah,
equal to hL in length.
cutting
Also draw the line
Til parallel to
the projection of the base of the
cylinder in
t.
Make
is
tu equal to ah in length.
From u draw
a line parallel to ak
s.
till it
meets a line from

Ih,
S, parallel to ah, in
Join
st,
which
parallel to
and represents the tangent

in the plane of the base of
ST
" rotated "
on the centre q
till it is
the cylinder.
The
line
tic
should be indexed to represent the same inclinat.
tion as ha.
To determine the index of

ah.
Draw the
ho,
line
To per-
pendicular to
till it
With
h as centre,
and radius
draw an arc
meets the elevation of the base in P.

is 2'5.
The height of P above

elevation
5*5).
ah produced
t.
This added to the index of h gives 14'5 for

I
The index of point

which
is 6'5
(5'5) is
determined from
its
(I'),
below the plane of reference 12 (12
6'5 =
a2.
The
line us is
indexed with the same inclination as
The
points
scale of slope (Z) is determined

s,
t,
by Prob. 165, the three
given points being

s
and
u.
Index the scale from the
and
t.
Peoblem
To determine
H.P.
;
187.
loith its hase inclined to the
the T.P. to
a given cone
the T.P. to pass
through a given point p.

axis,
Pig. 227.
Let ah be the plan of the
and
the projection of a point
in the circumference of the base.
Find the elevations of the points

162),
and
c,
as
V and
is
c'
(Prob.

Also join
joining
a.
Join ab\ which
the eleva-
tion of the axis ah.

of the base.
ac',
c'h'
which
is
is
the elevation of half
A line
a generatrix of the cone.

a semicircle
till it
With a
cone
"
as centre,
and radius
"
ac',
draw
meets
a perpendicular through a
infg;
this is half of the base of the
constructed
on to the plane of reference.

ac.
From a on
ce
ah set off ae
equal to
Then fg
is
the major and
the
minor axis of the
ellipse
427
forming the plan of the base.
Draw
the ellipse (Prob. ISl, Plane Geometry), and complete the projection of the cone.
Find the elevation of p,

]j' till it
as p'.
Draw
a line from
h'
through
Also
li
meets the elevation of the base produced in
li.
draw a
line
from
through p
till it
in h.
Construct the point
h' into
the plane of reference, as H'.
Fig. 227.
Draw
in
a projector from
H'
P.
till
it
meets a horizontal line from h
H.
Then
H is the
H. trace of a line containing the vertex
and the given point
From H draw a tangent to the semicircle, touching it in T. Draw a line from T, parallel to ab, till it meets the projection
of the base in
t.
Join
th,
which
of
t.
is
the line of contact.
Draw TS
perpendicular to
till
ah.
With a
as centre,
and radius
s.
aS,
draw an arc
it
meets the
s
elevation of the base in
The perpendicular height of

its
above
ab (3'6) added to the index of a (4) gives
index
(7*6).
The
scale of slope (Z) is determined

t,
by Prob. 165, the three
given points being
h,
and jJ-
Index the scale from the points
p and
h.
428
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
The axis of a cone with
laell
188.
its
base inclined to the H.P. heing given, as
as the centre of a sphere, to determine the projections of

Fig. 228.
loth solids, ivith their point of contact.
Let
cd)
be the given axis and
the given centre.
Join
ac,
and on this inclined line find a level corresponding to the index

I,
as
(Prob. 162,
2).
Witli
as centre,
and radins cB, draw
Fig. 228.
the plan of the sphere.

dicular to
it.
Join B&, and through
draw
cf perpen-
Assume
Join
as
etc'.
ef to be a
c,
ground
line,
and iind the elevations of the

h,
points a and
as
a'c'
(Prob. 162).
Construct these points on to the plane of reference,
A'C, and find their horizontal projections, as AC.
centre,
draw an auxiliary plan
of the sphere.
Join A&.
till it
With C as Prom
meets a
draw a
line tangential to the auxiliary sphere
perpendicular to
A&
h,
in d,
and touching the auxiliary

ah,
circle in 0.
it,
Draw gh
perpendicular to
and
set off
along
on each g and
h.
side of the point
a distance equal to Id in the points
XXXII
gli is
429
Then
the major axis of the ellipse forming the projection
of the base.
Now
is
assume
h,
aJ)
to be a
ground
line,
a,
and find the elevation

as
h'.
of the point
Join
h'a,
which
the elevation of the axis.
Draw
I'
the line k'V perpendicular to

V, a distance
db',
and
set off along
it,
on each side of the point
equal to
Id, in the points
and
l'
A/.
Then
7/
I'k' is
the V. trace of
the plane of the base.

to ab till
Trom
and
draw
and
lines perpendicular
n.
they meet
it
in the points
Then
mn
is
the
minor axis of the
ellipse
forming the projection of the base.
Draw
to
a'c
ef.

of contact.
&0',
To determine the point
Draw 00' perpendicular

draw an
arc
till it
With
0'.
h as centre,
and radius
meets
in
Draw Op
perpendicular to Ah.
0,
Draw
a projector from
0' till it
meets Op in
which
is
the point of contact required.

0,
of the point of contact
we will make
arc
till
a supplementary di;awing, to avoid confusion in the diagram.
With r
it
as centre,
and radius equal

q^.
to Op,
draw an
meets a line drawn through r in
Assume
is
qr to be a ground
ah'.
line at the level
of^
(lO'*^)-
The index of^

is
determined from
ah,
Set off rs equal to the distance
from the axis
and draw
ss
perpendicular to
qr.
Then / is the
elevation of the point of contact

it is
on a V. plane.
We must now " rotate " it till

db'.
in a plane per-
pendicular to the inclined axis
Make
the angle ^sq equal to
the angle the plane of the base forms with the plane of reference.
With
in S.
as centre,
and radius ss, draw an arc
till it
meets the line Ss
The perpendicular height of S above qr (3)
+ 10-7 = 13
'7.
Problem
The axes of a cylinder and
cone,
189.
the
with
diameter of the cylinder,
being given, to determine the projection of the cone,
and
its
point of contact ivith the cylinder.
Fig. 229.
its
Let db be the axis of the cylinder, and

also let cd be the axis of the cone,
diameter 6 units
and d
its
vertex.

43
SOLID GEOMETRY
al),
as ah,

from
I).
Through
draw the
and
line no perpendicular to ah,
dicular to ah,
set off
on these
(3).
it
lines
and
hlc
perpen-
h, n, h,
and
is
equal to the given radius

dicular to ah
till
Draw
lines
from h and h perpenI
they meet
in the points
and m.
Then no
the major, and
hn the minor
axis of an ellipse forming the pro-
jection of the base of the cylinder.
Draw the
ellipse (Prob. 181,

o parallel to ah,
Plane Geometry).
to
Also draw lines from n and
complete the cylinder.
Fig, 229.
Determine a tangent plane

vertex of the cone, as follows
:
to the cylinder, containing the
Find the elevation

to the axis a'h. h as centre,
d'
of the vertex
Assume on
ho,
to be a
and radius
draw a
Draw cl'e perpendicular new ground line. With semicircle. Draw a projector
cl.
from d
off
till it
meets on produced in E.
ed'.
On
this projector set
ED
The
equal to
semicircle represents a section of the upper part of the
cylinder,
and
e,
the position of the vertex of the cone taken on

a'h.
a plane at
perpendicular to the axis
From Draw G7
draw a tangent touching the semicircle
in
G.
parallel to the axis ah.
XXXII
is
431
G-
The index of g
from
determined by taking the distance of
on, setting it off
from
on M, and then finding
its
perpen-
dicular height above ah (2)
+ 4 = 6.
and equal
to
it
From g draw gp
indexed
for the
parallel to ab,
in length,
and
same inclination with the plane of reference

is
(Prob. 160).
cylinder.
This
the line of contact of the T.P. with the
To
find its scale of slope (Z),
draw
lines
from g and
parallel to ah,
and draw Z perpendicular
to them.
Figure the
scale of slope with indices corresponding with the points
Note.
A plane containing the

two
planes.
axis of the cone,
g and^. and perpen-
dicular to the T.P., will also contain the line of contact between
the cone and the T.P.

section between the
This line of contact
is
the line of inter-
Draw
ground
the elevation of Z, as ir (Prob. 163), using
as the
c',
line,
c.
and working from
level of
(6'0).
Find
the
its
elevation of
As
the point
c is
indexed
20,
we must make
elevation {c) 14 above
(20
- 6 = 14).
is its
From
c'
draw a
in
line perpendicular to the elevation of the T.P.

its
and meeting it
/;
c
index
distance from Z(ll)
+ 6 = 17.
r'r in r.
Draw
Join
T.P.
a line from
rd.
parallel to
till it
meets the projector
This
is
the line of contact between the cone and the
Where
this line intersects the line of contact of the cylinder
in
gives the point of contact between the two solids.
To determine the base

line,
of the cone,
assume cd
c,
to
r.
be a ground
and find the elevations of the points
d,
and
off
Note.
As the index
;
number
of
c,
if set
from
cd,
would
to suit
it,
occupy too much space, we can lower the plane of reference

our convenience
e.g.
draw xy
parallel to cd
this line
;
and 10 units below
and measure the heights from
or
we
could deduct 10
cd.
units from each of the indices and measure
them above
are
The elevations of the three points required

Join Q'U.
This
is
C, D', and
of the
as
-u'v'.
E'.

is
axis
O'D',
cone.
Through
draw a
This
The
elevation of the plane of the base
on
this line.
Join DTt'.
is
the elevation of the line of contact of
"
432
SOLID GEOMETRY
Produce D'R'
till it till it
the cone.
meets
idv' in w'.
From
w' draw a
perpendicular to cd
meets dr produced in w.
Join wc.
The
index of
w is determined by measuring the distance of lo' from xy.

" construct
To determine the radius of the base of the cone,

cxo
on to the plane of reference by making cC perpendicular to
cw,
c
and equal in height
to the difference
between the indices of

is
and
w
c
(20
17'7 = 2-3).
QiW.
Join
Qio,
which
the radius required.
With
as centre, set off on the line through cQ' the points s
and g
each equal to
This
is
the major axis of the ellipse forming
the projection of the base of the cone.

to
c%o.
Draw
c/'
ihi perpendicular to cd.

cu.
From Q! set off C%' equal From c set off on cd pro-
duced,
equal to
Then_;w
is
Draw
the ellipse, and complete the cone.

of the point of contact
t
The index
is
obtained from the
scale of slope (Z).
Zo
Fiff.
id
40
SO
60 ft^t
230.
The application
piece of land
is
of horizontal projection to the plan of a in Fig. 230.
shown
The
indices
433
show the
level,
levels of the different points

feet apart.
above or
below the zero

line, called a "
and are taken 10

is at
Each curved
foot.
contour^
an even
level throughout its course.

is
The
difference of level
between each contour
one
The upper part of the figure shows a section and two elevaThe section is taken on the line AB, and the tions of the plan.
elevations on the lines
CD
and EF.
The
vertical heights are
usually drawn to an enlarged scale (in this instance four times

that of the plan), so
tliat
the inequalities of the land can be

line
more readily
the
contours.
seen.
The dotted
represent
shows the zero

levels
level,
and
horizontal
lines
the
of
the
different
In practice,
lowest
it is
usual to take a plane of reference below the

the
"
level, called
datum
level" so as to avoid
using the
minus
sign.
Regular plane figures can be determined from their plans

without their indices being given,
illustrated
when they
are in a V.P., as
by the two following problems.
Peoblem
190.
to
From
the given 'plan of

elevation.
a square
determine
its
Eig. 231.
Let ahdc be the horizontal projections of the corners of the

given square.
From a draw
dicular to ac
as ad'.
line
it
perpenin length,
and equal to
.
Erom
on ad'
set off disc'
tances equal to & and
d, as
and a.
c
till
Draw
from
C.
is
projectors
from d and
lines
they meet horizontal

d'
drawn
and
in the points
and
Join la, &C, CD, and Da', which

the elevation of the square reFig. 231.
quired.
2f

434
SOLID GEOMETRY
Note.
CHAP. XXXII
If two
lines of equal length
meet in the same
point,
their projections
on two planes perpendicular to the plane con-
taining the two lines, and forming the
same angle with each
other as the angle contained by the two lines, will have the
following proportion
The sum
equal to the
e.g.
of the projections of one line
on both planes
is
sum
of the projections of both lines in one plane

(Fig.
let ac
and acV
231) be the edges of two planes at the

as the
same angle with each other

and the dotted
or do
two
;
lines
AB
and
AD
(90),
lines the projectors
i\\Qn acl.-\-a'd'
= aa' \-ad\
;
+ d'c dc + ad.
of the projections of each diagonal
is
The sum
ac
also equal
e.g.
+ ac' = hd + ad'.
Problem
191.
From, the given
j^lan, ate,
of
an
equilateral triangle, to determine

Fig. 232.
its elevation.
First determine an auxiliary
ground
line (X'Y'),
making the
same angle with

angle
sides
(60).
XY
as the
between two of the

of the
given triangle
At any convenient point

on
XY draw X'Y' at an angle

with
cc'
it.
of 60
Draw
set
c'a'
the
projector
perpendicular to
c
XT'.
Fisf.
From
ca,
off
c'h'
232.
equal to
ta.
and
equal to
Draw
cA, which
projectors from a'
and
h'
till
they meet projectors Join AB, Be, and
drawn from a and

is
& in the points
and B.
CHAPTEK XXXIII
PKOJECTION OF SHADOWS
PART
Shadows
light at
L SHADOWS
USED IN PRACTICAL WORK

viz.
:
are of
two kinds,
those
point,
cast from a source of
an
infinite distance,
when
the rays of light are practically
parallel to each other, as is the case with the light
from the
for
sun
and those
cast
by a luminous
instance,
when the rays are divergent.

;
a lighted candle,
In
all
mechanical projections of shadows, unless specially
stated to the contrary, the rays are supposed to be parallel to
each other
tion of the
then
if
the direction of the light
is
given, the projec-
shadow can be determined.

and engineering drawings a conventional
is
In
all architectural
treatment of shadows
is
used
the light
assumed
to
be in a fixed direction,
that of the diagonal of a cube, as the
angle a'ha, Pig. 233.
This direction has

it
special advantages, viz.
makes equal
angles with each co-ordinate plane, and

its
projections on the H.P. and V.P. are
each 45 with XY.

tion,
ab
is
the H. projecline
Fig. 233.
and ah' the V. projection of the

all
ah
(Fig. 233).
In
drawings of this kind the shadows are drawn at an
angle of 45 with each co-ordinate plane, and the length of the
shadow
is
made equal
to the projection of the object
from the
436
SOLID GEOMETRY
is cast.
plane on which the shadow

rectangular prism with
its
Fig.
234
is
the plan of a
shadow
cast
on the H.P.
The length
of the line
ctb
;
determines the height

so
of the prism
from a single pro-
jection of this solid all its dimensions
can be ascertained.
The diagonal
cb'
(Fig. 233) is
some-
times taken instead of

Fig. 234.
ah ; the light is generally assumed to come from the left (exercises excepted). The direction
while the direction
cb' is
a'h is generally
used for
details,
better
suited for drawings illustrating large surfaces, especially elevations.
Note.
The
angle aha (Fig. 233) will be denoted by the
sign
6.
It should
be understood by the student that making the
length of the shadow equal to the projection of the object from

the plane on which
to Fig.
it is
cast
is
purely conventional.
If
we
refer
233 and assume
a'h to
its
be the direction of
light,
and
aa'
a line casting a shadow,
shadow ought
really to be equal in
length to ab.
squares, db
cb' is
Now
as ah is a diagonal
and aa' a side of equal

In the same way,
if
must be longer than aa.

light,
taken as the direction of

a'h',
the shadow of the line
ca'
ca'.
ought really to be
which we know must be longer than

fixed
But the advantage of having a
and equal angle

and
to
for the to
direction of light on each co-ordinate plane,
be able
it
determine the length of the shadow by always making
equal
to the projection of the object, so greatly facilitates the
work
necessary in the projection of shadows, that a convention of

this character is admissible.
Frequently, in- architectural drawings,

projection casting the
the
width of the
at right angles
45, as
re-
shadow
is set off
on a line
to the projection, instead of along a line at
an angle of
ca'a (Fig.
just described.
E.g. let the side of the
cube
233)
present a projection from the surface a'ah, upon which
we wish
TROJECTION OF SPIADOWS
to cast its sliadow.
437
Set off ah' equal to ca

this
whicli will be the
width of the shadow by
method.
AVhen surfaces perpendicular to each other only are considered,

this
method answers very well
but
it
does not give us readily
the projection of a line by
its
shadow, as shown in Fig. 236.
Neither
is it
so well adapted for the projection of curves, etc.
The
first
method
described,
and
illustrated in the following

latter,
problems, has
many
advantages over the
which
will be
more apparent by studying the following

Sometimes we have
sheet of paper,
e.g.
illustrations.
different views of
an object on the same

;
front elevation, side elevation, etc.
but each
view, as regards the direction of light, would be treated in the
same manner, otherwise, one of the views might be on the

of the object
side
where
it
would receive no
would be
light
the direction of
light, in a case of this kind,
fixed with reference to the
plane of the paper, and not with respect to the different views
of the object.
In Fig. 235,
is
the plan, and
A' the elevation of a cube with one

of its faces against the V.P.
;
B_^ is
the shadow on the H.P. of part of
the edge
tc
and
h'B' is a
shadow
This
on the Y.P. of the same edge.

figure
shows very plainly the con-
ventional nature of this method of

projecting shadows
;
for
we
get the
shadow of the point

ordinate
plane,
on each cocould
which
not
happen
if it
were a true projection.
Peoblem
To determine
192.
6.
the angle
With d
it
as centre (Fig. 235),
and radius
dh,
draw an arc
6.
till
meets dx produced in/.
Join/c.
Then
dfc is the angle
438
SOLID GEOMETRY
If
we were
to set off this angle at
h,
from the line
he, it
would
meet
XY
in g,
which would determine the width of the shadow,
as shown.
Jsfotc.
For practical work in the projection of shadows

._^
it is
^_
advisable to have a set-square
made
to this angle {9), for with the aid
of this angle
to project all
rig.
and 45 we are enabled

shadows of this nature.
is
236
an arched recess
with
shadow.
Any
line
in
the
shadow drawn
face
parallel to ah (45)
would show the projection of the

Fig. 236.
from the face B.

;
c is
the
at
centre of the arch
cd
is
drawn
an angle of 45, and equal in length to the projection of the

arch
;
is
the centre for drawing the shadow of the arch.
Pkoblem
The
projections of
193.
to cast its shadoiv.
a square being given,

Pig. 237.
Let ahdc be the

square.
j)lan,
and ah' the elevation of the given
The
object of this problem

different
9, e.g.
is to
'
I'
show the
the angle
it off
methods of using
could either set
e,
1| "r:y
Ilk
we
at h to obtain the point

till it
and
f
c
IliK/
9
draw a projector
from
h'
meets a line X
d
e,
Ir
at
an angle of 45 in
it
or
we
could set
point/.
off at
h'
and obtain the
Having obtained either of these points, draw a horizontal line

from
it.
Draw
a line at an angle
till it
Fig. 237.
of 45 from the point a'
meets
PROJECTION OF SHADOWS
this line in the point
g'.
439
Then
a'h'e'g'
is
the
shadow of
tlie
square cast on the
A".P.
Peoblem
The front and
194.
side elevations of
console being given, to
determine
its shccdow.
Fig. 238.
Let
be the front and
the side elevation of the console. the

side
elevation.
Draw any number
of horizontal lines to
We will
take one of these lines (ah) as an illustration.
Produce
Fig. 238.
ab
till
it
meets the front elevation in

ab.
af.
Draw
ab'
at
an
angle of 45, and equal in length to

point
b'.
This will determine
Find
all
the other points in the same way, and draw
a fair curve through them.
The shadows
same way.
of all plane
curves could be
found in the
After having found the shadow of the side,
it is
necessary to
determine the shadow of the thickness of the console.
Take any points

points g and
in
i.
in the lower part of the shadow,
e.g.
the
From
these points
draw horizontal
lines equal
ij,
length to the thickness of the console, as gh and
and
join
them with
a fair curve.
is
This part of the shadow
put in with a lighter shade
in
the illustration, so as not to interfere too
much with
the shape
440
SOLID GEOMETRY
shadow
of the side, but in reality all
tone.
cde, is 0.
of tlie
would be
of the
same depth of
The angle
Peoblem
The, ]jlan
195.
and
elevation of a cylinder being given, to

its
determine
shadow.
Fig. 239.
Let
be the plan, and A' the elevation of the cylinder.

the horizontal and vertical diameters of the cylinder,
Draw
d'
D'
Fig. 239.
as a'h'
at
and c'd', intersecting each other in a'. Produce ah', and any convenient point 0' on this line as centre, and with a
o'd',
radius equal to
draw a semicircle D'B'C.

(three),
Divide O'B' into

lines
any number of equal parts
and draw
through them
parallel to the diameter CD'.
Prom
at
the points a and
on plan draw the
lines
&B and aJ
Join
projected
an angle of 45 with XY, and equal in length to O'D'.

This represents the position of the diameter
ali
JB.
PROTECTION OF SHADOWS
into tlie shadow.
441
equal parts,
Draw Make
lines
As we have divided the radius into three we must divide this line (the diameter) into six. through each division at an angle of 45 with XY.
e.g.
these lines equal in length to the corresj)onding lines
in the semicircle D'B'C,

to gh, etc.
make
OD
equal to O'D',
GH
equal
Draw
Next, find the shadow of the length of the cylinder, as follows.
Find the position in shadow of the diameter

find the points in the curve in the
ef,
as
EF.
Then
from
same way
as described
JB, and join them as shown.
Tangents drawn to these curves, as

the shadow.
EJ and FB, will complete

it is
If the curves of the elevation are accurately drawn,
not
necessary to draw the semicircle D'B'C.
We
could divide the
diameter
aV
into the required
number
of equal parts,
and draw
parallel lines as shown,
and take the lengths of the
lines in the
shadow from these

figure, to
lines.
Horizontal lines are drawn in the
show
that these lines are the
same
length.
This also
illustrates another
method of projecting
project the
circles.
If
cylinder,
we wished to we should
shadow of a
disc instead of a
repeat the lengths of the parallel lines in
the shadow, on the opposite side of JB, and join the points, as
shown by dotted
lines.
Problem
To
'project tlie
196.
shadow of an oeiagonal cap on

Fig. 240.
set-
a square prism.
Draw
square
the lines ah and ed with the

192).
(Prob.
Draw
the projectors
a'b'
aa, hh\
cd'
etc., till they meet the lines drawn with the 45 set-square.
and
These
give the points necessary for projecting the
shadow.
The following shadows
are all projected
442
SOLID GEOMETRY
in the
same way,
i.e.
tlie
lines in the plans are
drawn with the
6 set-square, and those in the elevation by the 45 set-sqnare.
The reason
for this will
be understood by studying Fig. 235.
Fig. 241.
Fig. 242.
Fig. 243.
Fig. 244.
Fig. 245.
Fig.
241
is
the shadow of a square cap on an octagonal prism.

,,
242
243
,,
a cylinder. a square prism.
,,
circular
244
245
an octagonal prism.
a cylinder.
an octagonal
443
Problem
To 'project
the sliadow of
197.
a circular Jlange upon a

Fio-.
cylinder.
246.
In this instance the side elevation

purpose as the plans in the preceding examples.
answers the same
Any number
the flange.
of points
may
jL
be taken in the circle forming
We
will
take one
point as
instance.
an
illustration,
a for with
Draw the
set
-
line
ctb
the
square.
horizontal line aa.
Draw the From a draw

^^g- 2*6.
the line a'V with the 45 set-
square
till it
h in V.
Find
all
the other
points in the
same manner, and
join
them with
a fair curve.
Peoblem
To
198.
project the shadov) cast on the

interior of a semicircidar recess.
Fig. 247.
Let
A be
the plan, and A' the
elevation.
Take any number

in
a',
of points
the arch over the recess, as

c,
etc.,
and find the correthe line ah with
sponding points in the plan, as

a,
c,
etc.
Draw
the
set- square.
Draw
a',
the
projector
and from
with
the 45 set- square, draw a line

Fi^. 247.
till
it
meets
in V.
All the
444
SOLID GEOMETRY
in
chap.
points
the
shadow below the
sofiit,
or
curved top, are
determined in the same manner.
Draw
jector
del'.
the line cd with the
set-square,
and draw the pro-
We
soffit
must now
"
construct
"
on to the H.P. the curve of the
of the recess in a plane on the line cd.
We
wish
know
that all sections through a sphere are circles, and

is
as the soffit of the recess

to find
a quarter of a sphere, the curve

of a circle.
e.
we
must be the arc

it
Continue the plan of
the recess
till
meets cd produced in
Then
cd
is
the plan
of the section through a sphere containing the arc required.
Bisect cd in /.
till
With /
as centre,
c
and radius fd, draw an arc

This
is
it
meets a perpendicular on
"
in C.
the arc " con-
structed
on a H. plane.
c
From
draw a
D',
line at
an angle of 45
cJ\)
till
it
meets dd'
cd,
produced in
Draw
the line
perpendicular to
and
G-.
equal in length to c^D'.
Join CD, cutting the arc CcZ in

cd.
Draw
in the
the line
G^
perpendicular to
c'D' in g.
Draw
the projector gg
soffit
meeting the line
Find the other points in the

to complete the shadow.
same way, and join them
PART II. SHADOWS OF OBJECTS CAST BY PARALLEL RAYS OF LIGHT AT GIVEN ANGLES
Pkoblem
Tlic
199.
plan and
elevation of a cube, with the direction of light, being
given, to determine the shadotv on the
HP.
Pig. 248.
Let
and D' be the projections of the cube, and

from the points
and E'
the projections of a given ray of light.
Draw
E', till
lines
a',
c',
and
5',
parallel to the ray

B'.
they meet
a,
XY
h,
in the points A', C, and

c,
Draw
lines
from the points
and
parallel to E,
till
they meet projectors
drawn from
Join
tlie
445
points A', C, and

to
B',
in the points A, C, and B.
AB
and BC,
complete the shadow.
Fig. 248.
The two
ab and
Ic,
sides of the cube turned
away from the
light, as
are said to be in shade.
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION.
In the preceding chapter {Horizontal Projection)
it
has been
shown how
from one of
all
the dimensions of an object can be determined

a plan, providing
its projections, ^dz. its
we have
the
heights given of
several parts.
it is
In a similar manner
possible to determine the elevation
or height of an object from its plan and shadow, if the inclination of the given ray of light to the H.P,
is
known.
The shadow,
in fact,
is
another projection of the object on the same plane,

this is
and when
determined by parallel rays of
light, it is called
Orthogonal Projection.
In Fig. 249 we have the plan and shadow of a pyramid, in
which
is
the shadow or second projection of the vertex a on
the H.P.
446
SOLID GEOMETRY
Let the inclination of the ray
Join Aa, and assume
it
with the H.P. be
60.
to be a
ground
line.
Set off at A,
with
Act,
the angle 60
till it
meets a perpendicular on a in a.
Then a
vertex
a.
is
the elevation
of the
AVith a as centre, and
radius ab,
draw an
arc
till it
meets
is
Aa
in B.
Join Ba', which
the
true length and inclination of the
edge ha of the pyramid.
The Line of Separation.

rays
of
light
"When
in-
coming from the
same source
tercepted
facing
or direction are
solid,
is
by a
light
the
part
the
illuminated,
while the part turned from the

light is in shade.
Yis..
The
division
is called
249.
between these two parts

e.g.
the line of separation,
the line cah (Fig. 249)
is
the line of
separation between the light and shade on the pyramid.
In cylinders and cones this line

intersection between a tangent plane
is
similar to the line of

solid.
and the
The T plane
would contain a
line parallel to the given ray.
Pkoblem
To determine
the
200.
shadow and
line of separation of
a given right
Fig. 250.
vertical cone, the direction of light being given.
Let
and B' be the plan and elevation of the cone, and

ray.
till it
and E' the projections of the given
Draw
a line from the vertex a parallel to E'
meets
XY
in A'.
Draw
a line from a parallel to
till it
meets a
projector from A' in A.
Draw Ah and Ac
ha and
ca.
tangential to the base of the cone, and join

is
Then hAc
the shadow of the cone, and hac the line
of separation.
447
Draw
the projector
ho',
and join
h'a.
This
is
the elevation of
the line of separation.
Fig. 250.
Fig. 251.
Peoblem
To determine
the shadoio
its huse
201.
and
line of seixtration of
to the
a given right
cone with
inclined
H.P., the direction of light
heing given.
Fig. 251.
Let C and
C be
the plan and elevation of the cone, and

ray.
and P/ the projections of the given
Enclose the plan of the base of the cone in a rectangle parallel

to
XY,
as gefh.
till it
Draw
e'E' parallel to E',

e
and from E' draw a

E.
projector
meets a line from
Draw
G/i
a line from g parallel to
drawn parallel to E in E till it meets E'E in G.
Join
and E/.
Then GE/A
is
the shadow of the rectangle gefh.
Inscribe an ellipse in
is
GE/A
(Prob. 185, Plane Geometry).
This
the shadow of the base of the cone.
Draw
a line from the vertex d' parallel to E'
till it
meets
XY
448
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
in D'.
Draw
a projector from D'
till it
parallel to
in D.
Draw
tangents from
to the ellipse
forming the shadow of the base (Prob. 183, Plane Geometry),

as T>i,
Dy'.
These give the shadow of the cone on the H.P.

as jk.
is
hd.
Erom j draw a tangent to the base of the cone, Draw a projector hh', and join M'. Then hd
h'd'
Join
the plan,
and
the elevation of the line of separation.
Problem
To determine
the
202.
shadmv and
line of separation of
a given right
Pig. 252.
vertical cylinder, the direction of light being given.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the cylinder, and

ray.
and R' the projections of the given
From
till it
the top point of the axis (c) draw a line parallel to R'
meets
XY in
c
C.
Draw
a projector from
in C.
till it
meets a
line
drawn from
parallel to
Draw a diameter to the plan A perpendicular to Draw a line through C parallel to de, asfg. With C
and radius equal
to cd,
cC, as de. as centre,

eg,
draw
a semicircle.
Join df and
which
complete the shadow of the cylinder.
Draw
tion.
a projector from d,
which gives
d'h,
the line of separa-
Problem
To determine
the shadoiv
203.
and
line of sc2Jaration of a given cylinder
inclined to both
being given.
2ylc('nes
of ]}rojeetion, the direction of light
Pig. 253.
Let
B and
B' be the plan and elevation of the cylinder, and

ray.
Enclose the plan of the cylinder in a rectangular prism by
drawing the lines op and
mn
perpendicular to
its sides
produced
and tangential
to its base.
Proceed in the same manner with
XXXIII
tlie
ij
449
plan of the top of the cylinder by drawing the lines

this rectangular prism.
and U.
First find the outline of the of this prism,
shadow
to the plan of the base
they meet
XY
by drawing lines from d and jj' parallel to E' till Draw lines from o and 2^ parallel in 0' and F,
Fig. 252.
to
till
they meet projectors from 0' and P' in
and
P.
Join
ellipse
OP, Om, and Vn, and inside
this parallelogram inscribe
an
Proceed in the same manner with
the plan of the top of the prism, and draw tangents to the two
ellipses thus
found to complete the shadow.
Draw
tangents to the ellipses forming the plan of the top of

its
the cylinder and
shadow, as
qi-
and
st.
Draw
the projector
2g
450
25'',
SOLID GEOMETRY
and draw
of the
((u parallel to the line m'h'.
Then 5%
is
the line
of separation in the elevation.

side cylinder.
From
draw
sv parallel to the
This
is
the plan of the other line of
separation.
Problem
To determine
the
204.
shadow of a given hexagonal prism, inclined
to
loth planes of projection, the direction of light being given.

Fig. 254.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the prism, and

ray.
Fig. 254.
Draw
B' and
lines
from
h'
and
parallel to E'
h
till
they meet
XY in
Draw
lines
from
and
and
parallel to
till
they meet
projectors from B'
and
C in B
C.
Find the shadows of the

as shown.
other edges in the
same way, and join them
Pkoblem 205.
To determine
the
451
shadow on both
j)lcincs
of jjrojeetion,
and
line of
scixiration, of a given verticcd octagonal cone, the direction
of light being given.
Fig. 255.
solid,
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the

ray.
and

First determine the
H. and V. traces of a ray passing through
Fig. 255.
the vertex, as follows.
Draw
a line
from
b'
parallel to E'
till it
meets
XY in
c
B'.
Draw
a line from b parallel to
till it
meets
a projector on B' in B, and cutting
XY in
B
c.
Draw
a projector
c'
from
till
it
meets
b'B' in
c'.
Then
is
the H.T., and
the
V.T. required.
Draw
cutting
lines
from
B
is
till
they meet the plan

c
in e
and
/,
is
XY
in
and
ehf
F.
Join
to
and F.
The shadow
then completed,
the line of separation.
452
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem 206.
To determine
the shadoiv
on hoth planes of projection of a given

to
rectangular prism inclined

direction of light heing given.
hoth co-ordinate planes, the

Fig. 256.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the prism, and

ray.
and E' the projection of the given
Draw
a line from
h'
parallel to E' till it
meets
XY
in
B'.
Draw
a line from h parallel to E, cutting
XY in d,
d
till till
it
meets meets
a projector on B' in B.
h'E' in d'.
Draw
Join
a projector from
it
Then B
is
is
the H.T., and d' the V.T. of a line from h
parallel to the given ray.
hB by
a line cutting
XY in
H.
Then AB
and
the H.T. of a plane containing the edge hh, and a

e
parallel to
c'
till
they meet
till
from
and
and
e'
parallel to E'
Draw lines from c C and E. Draw lines they meet projectors from C and
Join Hd'.
XY in
in
Join
E'C and
G'd\

453
Draw
from
a line from /' parallel to E'
till it
meets
XY in J'
also
parallel to
till it
J' in J,
and
F'.
cutting
XY in F.
Draw
a projector from
F till
it
meets /'J' in
Draw
a line from
g' parallel to
R'
till
it
meets
XY
in G', also
from g parallel to E till it meets a projector from Gr' in G. Join GJ, cutting XY in /. This is the H.T. of a plane containing the
edge fg and a line parallel to the given ray.
the shadow.
Join ^F' to complete
Problem
To
project the shadoio of
the disc to
207.
a given
disc
on hoth pla7ies of projection
he inclined
to the
H.P., the direction of light
being given.
Fig. 257.
disc,
Let
A and
A' be the plan and elevation of the
and

First project an outline of the
ray.
Enclose the plan in a
rectangle parallel to the V.P., as dice.
shadow of the
:
entire rectangle
on the H.P., also on the V.P., as follows
Draw
a line from
parallel to
till
it
meets
XY
in C.
454
SOLID GEOMETRY
a line from
c'
chap.
Draw
parallel to E', cutting
XY
in/,
till
it
meets
a projector from
iu
C.
/ till
it
meets cC in /.
i'.
Draw a perpendicular to XY from Draw a line from e parallel to E till it
meets jf produced in
Draw a line from h' parallel to E' till it meets XY in B'. Draw lines from h and d parallel to E till they meet a perpenThis is the Join D* and B/. dicular from B' in B and D.
shadow
dicular
of the rectangle
on the H.P.
ei
From
meets
in g.
the point E, where the line
cuts
XY, draw
line
a perpen-
till it
meets
c'G' in
E'
and where the

till it
&B produced
&'B'
XY
iu g,
meets
produced
This
Join
Q'g'.
Also draw the line E7i' parallel to
Q'g'.
completes the shadow of the rectangle on the V.P.
In each of these rectangles inscribe
ellipses (Prob. 185,
Plane
Geometry), and complete the shadow of the disc as shown.
Peoblem
To 'project
the
208.
shadow of a given
vertical rectangular
prism on a
given cylinder, ivith the shadows of both objects on the H.P.,

cdso the line of separation, the direction
of light being given.
Eig. 258.
Let
and
;
A!,
and
B',
be the plans and elevations of the

ray.
two
solids
and
Enclose the elevation of the cylinder in a rectangular prism.
Draw
parallel to
lines
from
and
cV parallel to
E'
till
they meet
c
XY
in the points
C and D'.
till
Draw
lines
from the points
and d
they meet projectors from

is
C and D' in
ellipses in
C and
D.
Join CD.
This
the outline of the shadow of one end of
the prism enclosing the cylinder
on the H.P.
Proceed in the
same manner with the opposite end, and draw

to complete the
them
Draw
tangents to these ellipses
shadow of the cylinder on the H.P.
Draw a line from e' parallel to E' till it meets XY in E'. Draw a line from e parallel to E till it meets a projector from
E' iu E.
455
Find the other points of the

as
vertical
prism in the
its
same manner, and join them,

on the H.P.
shown, to complete
shadow
In any convenient position draw the end elevation of the

cylinder, as Y',
and draw the diameter

till
g'h perpendicular to
it
XY.
Draw
a line from g' parallel to E'
meets
XY
in
^',
also a
Fig. 258.
line
from h parallel
to
R
is
till
it

arc
till it
in
i.
"With h as centre, and radius
hi,
draw an
meets
XY in
R
to
Join
g'l.
Then
g'lh
the true inclination of the ray
the H.P.
Draw
the diameter
H perpendicular to g'J.
I
These are
the points in which tangents parallel to the given ray would
touch the cylinder.
Draw
i.e.
a line from
parallel to
o'.
XY
till
it
meets the ends of the cylinder in n and

separation in elevation,
This
is
the line of
the line of contact between the cylinder
456
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
and a tangent plane containing a
The other
is
line of separation,
on the opposite side of the cylinder,

k.
determined by drawing a horizontal line from
Draw
tion.
projectors from n'

to obtain the
and
o'
to obtain
n and
o in plan,
and join them
H. projection of the
line of separa-
Draw
the semicircle
it
at the
end of the plan of cylinder,

parts, as g, p,
q,
and divide
into
any number of equal
etc.
Also divide the upper part of the

of parts, lettered to correspond, as
circle F' into the

g', p', q', etc.
same number
lines
Draw
from
each of these points, both in plan and elevation, parallel to the

axis of the cylinder.
lines ^T
Where
these parallels in plan meet the

vertical
and
till
riJJ
of the
shadow of the
prism,
draw
;
projectors
they meet the corresponding parallels in elevation
and draw
plete the
J}iote.
fair
curves through the points of intersection, to comin elevation.
shadow of the vertical prism on the cylinder,
The projectors for one curve only are shown, to avoid

Problem
209.
confusion.
To determine
the projections of the line of separation on
a given
sphere, with
the shadoio of the sphere
on
the
H.P., the
direction of light being given.
Fig. 259.
Let
and A' be the projections of the given sphere, and

of the given ray.
and E' those

to the V.P.,
First determine a line
from the centre of the sphere,
parallel
making the same angle with the H.P.
as the given
ray, as follows.
till it
Draw
a line from the centre of A' parallel to E'
meets
XY in
Draw
arc
a projector from
C.
till it c
meets a
line
from the centre of

cC,
A parallel to E in
till it
With
as centre,
and radius
c
draw an
meets a horizontal line through

is
in d.
Draw
c
the projector dd', and join d'c, which
the eleva-
tion of the line required.
Through
were parallel
to the V.P.,
draw ef perpendicular to c'd'. If the ray of light then e'f would be the elevation of the
circle
457
forming the line of separation on the sphere, in a plane

light.
perpendicnlar to the direction of
To
find this line in its
proper position, produce

projector
g'g.
it
till
it
meets
XY
in
g'.
Draw
arc
the
till
With
as centre,
and radius
eg,
draw an
^ft
it
meets Cc produced in
A.
Draw
the projector lih\ and
draw a
and j'
line
e
from
li
through d
till it
meets horizontal lines drawn from
and/' in the points

they meet CA in
%
and /.
Draw
and
I
projectors
c
from
i!
till
and/
V.
Through
draw
hi perpendicular
to
ij.
Draw
projectors from h
^''
till
they meet a horizontal

ij, h'l'
line through c in
and
Then
and
and
i'j',
are the
axes of the ellipses forming the plan and elevation of the line of
458
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
separation on the sphere.
Draw
the ellipses (Probs, 181 and 185,
Plane Geometry).
To draw the shadow of the sphere on the H.P.

through C perpendicular to cC
till
Draw
a line
it
meets lines drawn from k

L.
till
and
parallel to
lines
J'.
cC in the points
i'
and
Draw
in
I'
from
and
parallel to E'
I'
they meet
XY
and
Draw
I
projectors from
and
J' till
they meet cC
produced in
and
J.
Then IJ
also
is
the major, and
KL the
ellipse.
minor
axes of the ellipse forming the shadow.

Hote.
Draw
the
This problem
line
shows the projections of a given

cylinder, with its axis at a given
sphere, enveloped
angle.
by an oblique
of contact
The
between the sphere and cylinder

between the light and shade on
would be the
given ray.
line of separation
the sphere, and the axis of the cylinder
would be
parallel to the
The shadow
of the sphere
on the H.P. would be the
base of the oblique cylinder.

are indicated
The
projections of the cylinder
by
faint lines.
Problem
The
2^lctn
210.
and
elevation of
an
icosahedron, with the direction of

its
light,
heing given, to determine the projection of

Pig. 260.
shadoio
on the H.P.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the

ray.
d',
solid,
and
Draw lines from

parallel
E', A',
the points e,
E',
till
a,',
V,
and
c',
in the elevation,
in the
to
the
arrow
they meet
XY
points
D; B', and C. Draw lines from the corresponding points

arrow E,
till
in the plan, parallel
to the
they meet perpendiculars drawn from the
corresponding letters on
XY.
These give the points A, B, C, D,

Also join
and
E.
Join them as shown.
A to g,
and
to /, to
complete the shadow.
459
Pkoblem
TliG
211.
plan cmd
elevation of the gronjJ of objects (Fig. 261), with the
direction of light, Icing given, to determine the ]jrojection of

their shadoivs.
The points
of the
shadows of the dodecahedron, and the
Fig. 260.
rectangular prism on the H.P., are determined as described in

the preceding problem.
Some
of the points of the
shadow
of the dodecahedron are
46o
SOLID GEOMETRY
e.g.
chap.
intercepted by the rectangular prism,
a line
drawn from V
Fig. 261.
parallel
to E' will
Draw
a line from h parallel to
meet the top surface of the prism in B'. R till it meets a projector from

xxxiii
B,
461
tlie
B' in
The points G,
the line from
G- is
F,
and
are
found in
same
manner.
Draw
line
BE
parallel to the line PJ.
The short
from
found in a similar maniier.

of the rod on the dodecahedron
is
The shadow
found in the
following manner:
First determine the
face
shadow
of the edge
TS
of the rod on the
of the solid.
The shadow of
:
this line is
the line of
intersection of
two planes
one plane will contain a line parallel
to the given ray
and the
line TS,
and the other plane
is
the face
of the solid.
Determine the traces of these planes in the
following manner.
Note.
As
the traces of these planes,
if
taken on the H.P.
and Y.P., would come beyond the limits of the drawing, we can
assume supplementary co-ordinate planes
e.g.
let a line
drawn
through u parallel to XY, as vu, be the H.T. of a V.P., and a

line
drawn
at the level of
t
xV
be the Y.T. of a H.P.
Draw
r.
a line from
parallel to the ray as

v', is
till it
meets vu in
t'
The elevation of
Pl'.
v,
determined by a line from

%v,
parallel to
line vu,
From
the point
till it
where the line

t's
ts
meets the
draw a projector
a line from
v'
meets the line

till it
in
x'l'
iv'.
Draw
H'.
t.
through w'
meets
line
produced in
Find the plan
of H', as
H, and draw a
from
through
Then Ht
is
the H.T., and H'v the Y.T. of a plane containing
a line parallel to the given ray and the edge
Produce the line
Ix till it
meets
vio
y'.
in
TS of the Draw a y.
y'lc'.
rod.
projector
is
from y
till it
meets
I'x'
produced in
Join
This
the
Y.T. of the face Q' of the solid.
From
to
t'.
the point q, where the two Y.T.s intersect, draw a line

q,
Find the plan of q, as and

therefore the
and join
qt.
Then
qt is
the plan,
and
qt' the elevation of the line of intersection

is
between the two
planes,
shadow
of the line
TS on
M'
the face
of the solid.
To
find the
shadow of the rod on

meets
face
of the solid.
m', as
Produce
?^'p' till it
XY in ni.
Find the plan of
m,
462
SOLID GEOMETRY
till it
chap.
m'.
by producing np
from

This
d, as
is
Draw
Dc
a line
m parallel
to xl, as me.
the H.T. of the face
M.
Find the shadow of the point

to the rod.
D.
c,
From
as
c'.
D draw
e.
parallel
Find the shadow of
point
c,
as C, cutting the H.T. of the face

hr.
M in
Draw
a line
from h parallel to De, as

of the rod
These two lines form the shadow
on the H.P.
projectors from r
Draw
c'c
and
e till
they meet
XY in
r'e'.
Join
a line
and
c'
t'r.
These give the shadow on face M'.
Draw
from
parallel to t'q,
and draw
till
lines
from the top of the rod

lines, to
parallel to the ray E'
they meet these
complete the
shadow on
face Q'.
Complete the plan of the shadow on face
in the
Note.
same manner.
The shadows of
all
lines cast
upon
solids could be illus-
trated
by
the
problems in Chap.
XXX.
If the
cutting
plane in each instance contained the line that casts the shadow
and a
line parallel to the given ray, the edge of the section facing
the direction of light would represent the shadow of the line
upon the
solid.
To determine the
If the
solid,
traces of a plane containing
two given
lines not parallel to each other, see Prob. 115.
shadow of a cone or cylinder were
cast
upon another
the shadow would be the intersection of the solid by
tangent planes to the cone or cylinder containing lines parallel

to the given ray.
To determine the
traces of a tangent plane
parallel to a given line, see Probs.
143 and 147.
PART III SHADOWS OF OBJECTS CAST FROM A LUMINOUS POINT

The principle of construction
of the
for finding the various points
shadows in
this Part is the
same
as that illustrated in
Part IL, only the lines that determine these points are drawn
463
radiating from the projections of the luminous ;point, instead of

parallel to the projections of the given ray.
few problems will
suffice to illustrate this principle.
Peoblem 212.
To determine
the
tions of the
shadow of a given square on the H.P., the luminous point heioig given. Fig. 262.
projec-
Let
A and
A' be the projections of the given square, and L^
and
L' the projections of the
luminous
point.
Draw
meet
lines
from L' through the points
e\
h', c',
d' till
they
XY in
the points E', B', D', C.
Draw Imes from L through

projectors from the points
the points
c,
d, c,
till
they meet
B, D, C.
E/ B/ D/
C in the points E,
Join these points, as shown.
464
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem 213.
To determine
tions
the shadotv of the
same square on
the V.P., the projec-
of
the
luminous point heing given.
Fig. 263.
c,
Draw
lines
from
L througli
the points
e, h,
till
they meet
XY
in the points E, B, D, C.
>3
Fig. 263.
Draw
D',
lines
e',
h', c',
d' till
they
meet projectors from the points E, B, D, C in the points

C.
Join these points, as shown.
E', B',
Problem
To determine
jection,
214.
the shadoiv of the
same square on hath planes of proluminous point heing given.
Fig. 264.
Eind the points

problems.
and
D', as explained in the
two preceding
Find the H.T. of the ray through
c
465
in the following
manner
Draw
a line from L' through
till it
meets
XY
in
g'.
Draw
YiK. 264.
a line from L' through
c till it
meets a projector on
g' in g,
and
c.
cutting
XY
in C.
Draw
e,
a projector
Then g is the H.T. of from C till it meets eg' in C.

and D'C.
a line through
Join B^, cutting
XY in h.
Join
liQ'
Find the H.T. of a line through

i
as /, in the
same manner, and determine the points
and
E'.
Join the points, as shown, to complete the shadow.
Peoblem
To determine
the shadoio of
215.
lioth 'planes
a given octahedron on
of
projection, the projections of the
luminous point
lacing given.
Fig. 265.
Let
and A' be the projections of the given

of the
solid,
and
and L' the projections
luminous point.
2
466
SOLID GEOMETRY
Find the points
and
G', as
described in the Problems 212
and 213.
Find the Y.T. of a
line
through
in the following
manner
i.
Draw
a line from
through
e till it
meets
XY in
Draw
'.^T-.JZi"/'
\/\
\
d
7
/
\
v?r.
'n;^\
Fig. 265.
"0
a line from
jector
U through
i.
e',
cutting
XY
in E', till it
meets a pro-
from
it
This
ei
is
the Y.T. required.
Draw
and
a projector from
E'
till
meets
in E.
/.
Draw
^G'.
a line from the Y.T. through
till it
meets
XY
in
Join
Join
Dh
E/i.
Find the H.T. of a line through

as shown, to complete tlie shadow.
c,
as described in the pre-
ceding problem, and determine points n and C.
Join the points,
467
PROBLEM
To determine
tlic
216.
the,
line
of se^paration and
p)'^'OJections
shadoiu of a given
sphere on the H.P,, the
of the luminous point
heing given.
Fig. 266.
Let
and A' be the projections of the given sphere, and
and L' those of the given luminous point.
Fig. 266.
First determine a line
from the centre
of'
the sphere to the

468
SOLID GEOMETRY
till
chap.
luminous point, "rotated"

follows
:
it
is
parallel
to
the V.P,, as
Draw
parallel to
a line from
o,
the centre of the plan of the sphere,

oL,
XY,
as og.
arc
till it
meets og in M.
With o as centre, and radius Draw a projector from
draw an
meets
the line
till it
a horizontal line
from L' in M'.
Join M'o', which
is
required.
From M' draw

points
e!
lines tangential to A',
and touching
in d^
:
it
in the
and
/'.
Join
^f
cutting
is
MV
till its
ef
should be
perpendicular to 'Wo'.
M'e/'
the side elevation of a cone.
Through
d!
draw a horizontal
Produce
it
line cutting L'o' in c.
We
will next " rotate " this cone

e'f
vertex coincides with
the luminous point.

a projector
till it
meets
XY in
g'.
Draw
and
from g
till
meets og in
it
g.
With
o as centre,
Ji..
radius
og,
draw an
lili.
arc
till
meets oL produced in
A',
Draw
meets
the projector
Draw
a line from
e
through
c', till it
horizontal lines
drawn from
from
and/' in
-i'
and/.
till
it
Join Lo.
Draw
a projector from
i!
c'
meets Lo in
c.
Draw
and /
projectors
and
/
c
till
they meet Lo produced in
Draw
from
I
a line through
c,
perpendicular to Lo.
set off
and
ck,
each equal to d'f.
On this line Draw projectors

c'
from h and
till
ij,
they meet the horizontal line through
in
and
/'.
Then
M, and
i'f, h'l',
are the axes of the ellipses form-
ing the projections of the circles, which are the lines of separation
of the light
and shade on the surface of the sphere.

181 and 185, Plane Geometry).
of the sphere
i'
Draw these Draw
ellipses (Probs.
To determine the shadow

lines
on the H.P.
they meet
I'
and /
till
XY in
they
the points
and
J'.
Draw
I
projectors from
J.
and
J' till
meet Lo produced in
projector
and
Bisect IJ in C, and draw the

M'o',
it
CC.
Produce the axis

it,
and draw a
line
through
C perpendicular to
W.
With
and meeting
in D,
and M/' produced in

till it
as centre,
and radius J)W, draw an arc

IST.
meets
a perpendicular to
DW from C in the point

C
Draw
a line through
at right angles to I
and
J,
and
set off
XXXIII
from C, K, and P, each equal to C'N.
469
on
it
Then IJ
is
the
major, and
KP
the minor axis of an ellipse forming the shadow
of the sphere on the H.P.
Draw
the ellipse (Prob. 181, Plane
Geometry).
This problem also illustrates
inclination of
sphere.
its
an oblique cone, with the

angle,
axis
at a given
enveloping a given
;
The
line of separation is the circle of contact
and a
line
passing from the luminous point through the centre of the sphere,
the given inclination of
the H.P.
is
its axis.
The shadow of the sphere on
the base of the cone.
CHAPTEK XXXTV
INSCRIBED SOLIDS
SOLID
is
said to be inscribed
when
all its
it.
angular points are
in contact with the solid circumscribing
The
five regular solids
(Chap. XIX.) can be inscribed in a
sphere, as there is a point in
them from which
all
the angular
points are equidistant.
Eight cones and pyramids can be inscribed in a sphere,
and an octahedron in a cube,
etc.
All
these
solids
can
likewise
their
circumscribe a
sphere,
when
surfaces are tangential to the surface
of the inscribed sphere.
Problem
1.
2.
217.
*
To
inscribe
inscribe
a given cone in a sphere.
To
spJiere
in a given cone.
Pig. 267.
Let
and A' be the projections
of the given cone.

b'g,
Draw
the axis
h.
and the plan of the vertex,

1.
Bisect the line d'b'
hj
axis
a perin
/.
fb',
pendicular
cutting
centre,
the
With
Fi_ 267.
as
and radius
b
draw a
circle.
With
as
centre.
CHAP, XXXIV
INSCRIBED SOLIDS
circle
471
draw another
of the
same
radius.
These are the pro-
jections of the circumscribed sphere required.

2.
Bisect the angle Vd'e'

c
by
a line cutting the axis in
c'.
With
centre,
as centre,
and radius
circle.
eg,
draw a
circle.
With
&
as
draw a similar
These are the projections of the
inscribed sphere.
Peoblem
1.
218.
To To
inscribe inscribe
giveii
hexagonal pyramid in a sphere.
2.
a sphere in a given hexagonal pyramid. Fig. 268.
Let
1.
A and
A' be the projections of the pyramid.

h'g,
Draw
the axis
b.
and the
plan of the vertex,
With
an arc
b as centre,
(e)
and one of the
angular points
till it
as radius,
draw
through
del',
h in d.
d'b'.
Draw
by
the projector
and join
Bisect
d'b'
a perpendicular
cutting the axis in /.

centre,
With
as
and radius /&', draw a
circle.
With
b as centre,
and with the same

circle.
radius,
circles
draw a similar
These
of the
are the projections
circumscribing sphere.
2.
Bisect one of the sides, hi for

Fig. 268.
instance,
as centre,
i.
in the point
/.
With
and join
b
till it
and radius
bj,
draw an arc
ii',
meets dh produced in
Draw
the projector
i'b'.
c.
Bisect the angle

c
b'i'g
by a
eg,
line cutting the axis in
With
as centre,
and radius
circle.
draw
a circle
and with
b as centre,
draw a similar
sphere.
Note.
These are the projections of the inscribed
The same construction would apply
to all the regular
pyramids.
472
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Problem
1.
219,
sphere.
To
To
inscribe inscribe
a given tetrahedron in a
2.
a sphere in a given tetrahedron.

of this
Tig. 269.
The construction
problem
l
is
the same as the one pre-
.4-
Fig. 269.
ceding,
and
as the different parts bear similar letters, the
same
this
text will apply to both.

Note.
The
inscribed
and circumscribing spheres in
instance are concentric.
Peoblem
To
project
220.
'position to
an octahedron in a similar
a given
octa-
hedron,
but inscribed in a sphere one inch in diameter.
Fig. 270.
Let
and A' be the projections of the given octahedron.

that each of
First inscribe this solid in a sphere.
We
know
its
angular points are equidistant
INSCRIBED SOLIDS
473
from a point which must be the centre of the circumscribing

sphere.
To determine
this point join
any two opposite

c'.
points,
h'Y for instance, and bisect the line in

similar manner.
Serve the plan in a

h'c'
Determine the true
lenQ;th of
in the folio w-
Fi^. 270.
ing manner.
Draw
a line from h on plan perpendicular to

to the perpendicular height of
he,
and equal in length

d.h'.
V above
c, viz.
This will give point B.

it is
Join Be, which
is
the true length
required, consequently
sphere.
the radius of the circumscribing
With
c
and
as centres,
draw
circles
of this radius,
which
will be the projections of the sphere required.
With
and
as centres,
draw
circles half
an inch in radius.
474
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
These are the projections of the sphere circumscribing the

required octahedron.
Join
all
the angular points of the given solid to
in plan,
and
c'
in elevation.
c'h' till
c.
Produce
it
meets the outer
circle in E, cutting tlie
inner circle in
EF',
Join EF'.
in/'.
and cutting Yc
meets
G'c' in
I'c'
From c draw a line parallel to Draw a line from/' parallel to E'G',

from
till it
till
/;
and
also lines
/ parallel to G'l' and G-'H',

i'
they meet
H'c' in the points
and
till
h'.
Proceed in
the same
the solid
manner with the remaining points

is
the elevation of
completed.
plan.
To determine the
Fc in
/.
Draw a projector from /' till it meets

draw
lines in succession
Commencing
at this point,
parallel to the corresponding lines of the given solid, as described

for the elevation,
and complete the plan.
Problem
1.
221.
to
From a
cm
Inscribe
given point on the surface of a given sphere
project
2.
inscribed cube.
an octahedron
in the cube.
Fig. 271.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the given sphere,

c
and
and
Find
Geometry).
Note.
and
o, the
centres of
and A' (Prob.
33,
Plane
It is advisable to arrange the cube so that four of its If the given point
is
edges are parallel to the V.P.
in an incon-
venient position for
this,
the positions of the ground line and
elevation of the sphere could be altered.

First determine the length of one edge of the cube (Prob. 28).
With
centre,
o'
as centre,
and
o'c'
as radius,
draw an
arc.
With
c
c'
as
and a radius equal
to one edge of the cube,

c
draw an
per-
arc intersecting the arc from
in /'.
Draw
a line from
pendicular to fc
radius
Jc',
till it
meets
draw an arc
till it
XY in J. With J as centre, and meets XY in C. Draw a projector

c
from
till it
in C.
INSCRIBED SOLIDS
ISText
475
determine the radius of a
circle that will inscribe in a

:
square with edges equcil to /V, in the following manner
Bisect
till
fc
in
/v.
With k
to
as centre,
1-c
and radius
I.
Tec',
draw an
arc
it
in
Join
Ic.
With C
as centre,
and radius equal

from
in 0.
Ic',
draw an
arc intersecting a horizontal line

as centre,
With
the same radius, and
draw a
Fig. 271.
circle.
Mark
off
round
this circle,
commencing
at 0, with fc' as
distance, B, E,
and D, and join them
to complete a suprplementary
elevation of the square.

this square
till
Draw
projectors
from the corners of
they meet
XY in the
points B', E', and D'.
With
as centre,
and each of these points in succession as radius,

they meet the line
Jc'
draw arcs
(V, e',
till
h'.
produced in the points
and
Draw
lines
from each of these points parallel to
and equal in length
to fc',
and join their ends by the
line g'h'.
This will complete the elevation.
Draw
projectors from each of the points in the elevation
till
476
SOLID GEOMETRY
they meet horizontal lines drawn from corresponding points in

the square
2.
BCDE, and join them

diagonals.
to complete the plan.
Find the centre of each side of the cube in plan and
elevation
by drawing
Join each of these points, as
shown, which give the plan and elevation of the inscribed

octahedron.
Problem
1.
222.
sphere.
To To
inscribe
inscribe
a given dodecahedron in a
2.
a sphere in a given d.odecahedron.
Fig. 272.
solid.
Let
and A' be the plan and elevation of the given
Fig. 272.
Find the centre of the
solid
by joining any two opposite
XXXIV
points, as
c
INSCRIBED SOLIDS
and
g,
477
it
by a
line
and bisecting
h,
in
c.
Join any
angular point to the centre, as

face, opposite
h,
and bisect the edge on the same

dc.
in d.
Join dh and
Proceed in the same
manner with the

c,
h', d',
elevation,
and find the corresponding points
and join them.

the projections of these three lines, forming a triangle,
From
As C
Describe
2.
determine their true lengths and angles, 'as
CBD
(Prob. 78).
represents the centre of the solid, and
one of the
angular points,
EC must
be the radius of the sphere required.

c
circles,
with this radius, from
and
c.
The
faces of the solid are tangential to
an inscribed sphere.
BD
line
represents the centre line of one of these faces.
Draw
c
from C perpendicular to BD, as CF.
Then CF
is
the radius
of the inscribed sphere.
Draw
circles of this radius
from
and
c.
CHAPTEE XXXV
INTERPENETEATION OF SOLIDS
Solids mutually intersecting are said to interpenetrate, and
lines
tlie
formed by the intersection of their surfaces are called
lines of interpenetration.
The principle
intersected
of this subject is similar to that illustrated in
Sections of Solids (Chap.
XXX.),
that
is,
where
solids
are
by cutting
planes.
its
When
one solid intersects another,
various surfaces
may
be taken to represent so
many
cutting planes, and their inter-
section with the other solid determines the line of interpenetration.
One plane always

two
points
intersects another in a right line,

line will
and any
in
this
determine
its
direction.
The
following problems
have been devised
to
show the various
methods used
to determine these
two points.
is
When
one or both of the solids
composed of curved
which
necessi-
surfaces, the line of interpenetration is a curve,
tates the finding of a succession of points to determine its form.
Note.
The method of projecting the

Problem
223.
various solids given in
this chapter is fully described in Chaps.
XVIII. and XX.
To .dS'termine
to he
the inteipcnetration of tivo rectangular prisms, one
IV X
1"
1", ôith its
longer edges parallel to the V.P.
CHAP.
XXXV
INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS
its
479
and one of
to
faces inclined to
it
at
its
an angle o/30;
the
other 'prism to he 2"

the
f"
|",
with
longer edges parallel
H.P. and
its
inclined, to the
V.P. at an angle of 25, and
one of
faces inclined to the H.P. at

to hisect
an angle o/
30.
The
two axes
one another.
Pig. 273.
Draw
the plan and elevation of the vertical prism in the
Fig. 273.
position given.
Draw
diagonals to the plan to find the axis
o.
Draw
off
a line through o at an angle of 25 with the V.P.,

it
and
set
is
upon
the points
and m, each one inch from
o.
This
the axis of the horizontal prism.
Draw
the lines ah and ed
perpendicular to the axis.

48o
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
Construct a supplementary end elevation of the horizontal

prism, using ab as a ground line, as follows
:
Produce the
axis,
and make 10 equal
to half the height of
the vertical prism. the end elevation.
The point
is
the position of the axis in
Draw
the end elevation
side inclined at an angle of 30 with ab.
AEBF, making one Draw lines from the
points A, E, B, F, parallel to the axis, to determine the edges

of the horizontal prism
on plan.
The
positions of the edges of this prism in elevation are

a',
determined by making the heights of the points
e,
h',f above
XY
equal to the distances of the points A, E, B,

horizontal lines through these points
till
F from
ab.
Draw
they meet pro-
jectors from the corresponding points
on plan, and complete
the elevation.
To determine
follows
:
the
line
of
interpenetration,
proceed
as
Draw
in
k'.
a projector from
%'.
i till it
meets the corresponding edge meets the edge fh produced meets a projector from h in
in elevation in
Produce
ij till it
till
Produce the edge f'h'

Join
i'k',
it
cutting the edge of the vertical prism in /.
Draw
Draw
a projector from
n'.
till it
meets the corresponding edge
in elevation in
Join j'n.
a projector from
p'.
till it

This completes the line
in elevation in
Join pn' and p'q.
of interpenetration for in the
one end of the horizontal prism.
Proceed
same inanner with the opposite end.

shown.
All the necessary
lines for its construction are
Problem
224.
The projections of a pyra^nid and a rectangular prism being

given, to determine their interpenetration.
Fig. 274.
it
Produce the end of the prism on plan, and assume
to be a
ground
line, as X'Y'.
On
this
ground line construct a supplesolids,
mentary elevation of the two
and make the corners
XXXV
A, B, C,
481
D of the
lines
prism the same height above X'Y' as the corre-
sponding corners in elevation are above XY.
Draw
X'Y',
till
from each of the corners A, B,
C, T), parallel to
they meet the edge of the pyramid in the points
E, F, G, H.
Draw projectors from these points
till
they meet the
Fig. 274.
corresponding edge of the pyramid on plan.

points
From
these four
draw the
lines
e,
f, g,
and h
to
each side of the pyramid
parallel to its base.
We
same
edge
now have
four contour lines on the pyramid at the
levels as the edges of the prism,
and where the edges meet

;
these contours
must give the points
of interpenetration
e.g.
the
is
at the level of the contour F, so
where the corre-
2i

482
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
spondiug edge of the prism on plan meets the contour/ gives

the point
a.
The points
and d are determined in the same
manner.
We
must now determine where the edges

by the prism,
as follows
:
of the
pyramid
are intersected
Draw
lines
from the points where the edges of the pyramid,
in supplementary elevation,
meet the prism
parallel to X'Y'
I,
till
they meet the axis of the pyramid in the points
J,
K,
L.
Set
up above XY, in
I', J',
elevation, corresponding heights in the points
K', L'.
Draw
and
d'j',

in the points
.
till
they
a'i'
meet the edges of the pyramid

and a
I',
i',j', k',
I'.
Join
i'd'
I'V
and
Vic
Proceed in the same manner

to
with the opposite end of the prism
complete the elevation.

projectors either
The plan could be completed by drawing
from the elevation or from the supplementary elevation.
Pkoblem 225.
1.
To dxtcrmine
the interpenetration of
a given hexagonal joyramid
with a given triangular prism.

2.
Develop the true shape of the line of interpenetration.

1.
Fig. 275.
Draw
and
c'
projectors from the points
a, h,
and
on plan
till
they meet the corresponding edges of the pyramid in the points

a,
h',
in elevation,
and join them.

i
Assume
through
i
a vertical plane touching the edge
of the prism,
parallel to lines Id
and
010
of the base of the pyramid.
Draw
it
/'.
ef
parallel to
Id.
Draw
a projector from
till
meets
the corresponding edge of the pyramid in elevation in
Draw
on the
fe' parallel to
h'l'
touching the edge of the prism in
h'.
Join a'h\
is
This vertical plane will also contain the line Jg, which
upper surface of the pyramid immediately above
ef.
Draw
of the
a projector from g
till it
pyramid in g\
i'.
Draw
Join
g'f parallel to no', touching the

c'i'.
edge of the prism in
XXXV
sa?iie
483
Proceed in the
of the prism.
manner
to find the points
on the back
Draw
projectors from the points of the

till
pyramid on the top
surface of the prism
they meet the corresponding edges of
Fig. 275.
the prism on plan, and join them.
These give the plan of the
interpenetratiou of the pyramid with the top of the prism.

2.
To develop the
of the prism. I set off on
c,
line
of interpenetration.
At any
con-
venient point I on
XY
the points C, A, and
to represent the
edge
From
XY
l
equal to the
till
distances of
a,
and
on plan, and draw perpendiculars
they meet horizontal lines drawn from the corresponding points

in elevation in the points
I',
C,
B', A',
and
and join them.

SOLID GEOMETRY
Proceed in the same manner with the points at the back of the
prism to complete the development.
The plan of the pyramid on the top of the prism, being on

a H. plane,
is
the true shape of
its line
of interpenetration.
Peoblem
226.
The projections of a rectangular and a triangular prism being

given, to determine the line of interpenetration.
Pig. 276.
In the preceding problems of this chapter one of the solids

given
is
resting on the H.P.
In
this instance
both the given
solids are inclined to
both planes of projection.
First determine the
H.
traces of each solid, as

:
ABDC
till till
and
EFG,
in the following
manner
Produce the longer edges of each solid in elevation
they
meet XY.
Draw
projectors from the points on

solids
XY
they
meet the corresponding edges of the
produced in plan.
We
will
now assume
a H. plane cutting through the two

level, as X'Y'.
solids at
any convenient
Pind the H. traces
of
the two solids at this level
by drawing
projectors from the

till
points where the edges of the solids intersect X'Y'
they meet
these
the corresponding edges in plan, as aide and
efg.
Where
that
traces intersect will determine points in the line of interpenetration,

e.g.
h and
k.
To draw the
line
ij.
We
;
know
it
is
determined by the intersection of the side cd of the rectangular prism with the side gf of the triangular prism so produce the H. traces of these two sides CD and GP till they meet in H.
This
is
the H. trace of the line

it
ij.
Draw
it
towards this point,
stopping
against the edges of the two prisms.
Proceed in the same manner with the line In through point

/t.
The H.T.
in K.
of this line is found

nj.
by producing
GE
till it
meets
CD
Join
The H.T.
meets
for the line io is

:
found by producing
AC
till
it
FG
produced
this
comes beyond the limits of the
XXXV
cTrawiuo-.
485
AH
the H. traces of the remainino- lines are found in
Fig. 276.
the same manner.
is
the H.T. for the line
qr.
Determine
these lines to complete the plan.
To complete the
elevation,
draw projectors from the points
486
SOLID GEOMETRY
till
CHAP.
in plan
they meet the corresponding edges in elevation, and
join them.
Problem
The
'projections
227.
of a quadrilateral and a triangular pyra.mid teing

Fig. 277.
given, to determine their interpenetration.
In
this
problem we will assume two V. planes cutting

solids,
through the
and determine V. traces of the pyramids
upon them.
In any convenient position on plan draw X'Y' and X"Y",
and assume them to be the H. traces of two V. planes.
Determine the V. traces of the two

planes
edges cut X'Y' and
solids
on each of these
their
by drawing projectors from the points where
X"Y"
till
they meet the corresponding
edges produced in elevation, as
A'D'CB' and ET'G', and
ad'c'h'
and
c'fg.
Note.
The traces on the
plane X"Y" are shown as sections

conspicuous.
is
in elevation to
make them more
Where
the V. traces on the same plane intersect

;
a point
in the line of interpenetration
e.g.
the intersection of A'D'C'B'

o' is
with E'F'G' in
o' is
such a point.
As
common
to the sides
B'C
of one
pyramid and E'G' of the
other, a second point in
the line containing o
can be found by producing the corre;
sponding lines of the other V. traces

the lines
h'c
for instance,
by producing
the V. trace
o'
and
eg'
till
they meet
in 0', which
is
of the line required.
Draw
a line from 0' through
till
it
meets the edges of both pyramids.

All the other lines required can be determined by finding
their V. traces in the
same manner
that
is,
by producing the
till
Y. traces of the sides of the pyramids containing the line
they meet, as described for the H. traces in the preceding
problem
e.g.
the line p'n'
is
contained by the sides C'B' and
ET', the traces of these sides meet in

of the line jp'n.
W, which
is
the V. trace
The
line n'r is the intersection of the sides A'B'
487
with the
side ET',
E'
is
the Y. trace of this
line.
AN
Fig. 277.
The points
of the line of interpenetration
on plan are detertill
mined by drawing
projectors from the points in elevation

488
chap.
SOLID GEOMETRY
they meet the corresponding edges of the solids on plan.
Join
them
to complete the drawing.
Problem
The
'projections of
228.
a group of
three solids being given, to determine
their interp)enetration.
Fig. 2*78.
Let A, B, and
C be
the plans, and A', B', and
C the
elevations
of the three given solids.
In this illustration we will take a series of contours to the

three solids,
i.e.
a succession of H. traces of
them
at different
levels, in the following
manner
In
any convenient position in the upper

draw three horizontal
lines
:
part
2'
j
of
the
elevation
as
1',
2',
and
3', 3'.
These lines represent the V. traces of the planes that represent

the different levels of the contours on plan.
The contours
are found in precisely the

i.e.
same way
as the
H.
traces of Prob. 226,
by drawing projectors from where the

till
V. traces intersect the various edges in elevation
they meet
the corresponding edges in plan, and joining them.
All the contours on plan figured 1 are at the level of the V.

trace
1', 1'
;
those figured
is
2,
at the level of
it is
2', 2', etc.
When
may
a solid
situated as B,
not possible to draw
projectors directly from one projection to the other, but they
be drawn as follows
Take any point D'

jector
level with
a'.
Join
D'h'.
Draw
1',
a pro-
from D'
till it
meets a horizontal line drawn from a in D.
Join D&.
2', 2'
Draw
and
d.
projectors from
c
where the V. traces

they meet
the line
1'
and
meet D'5' in
c
and
d' till
D6
in the
till
points
Draw

2.
they meet the line ab in the points 1 and

Note.
All
the contours on the same face are parallel to
each other.
Having determined
follows
:
all
the necessary contours, proceed as
489
Where two
mine a point
contours bearing similar figures intersect, deter;
e.g.
2 and 3 of
Fig. 278.
intersect 2
and 3 of C in
and
/.
Draw
a line through these
two points from the edge of C

faces at^j.
in s to the intersection of the
490
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
We
of
have next
to
determine
tlie
intersection of the face Im
C with
the upper surface of A.
Produce any two contours
of the
e.g.
same number belonging

1,
to these 1 of
two
faces
till
they meet
o.
produce
1 of
and
1,
till
they meet in
Join
iw intersecting the edge of
in h.
The student
will see that
the contours 3 and 3 belonging to these two faces also intersect
on
this line in g.
iSText
determine the intersection of the face
nm
of
C with
e.g.
the upper surface of A.
Produce any two similar contours

till
belonging to these two faces, as before,

1
they meet
and
produced meet in
i.
Join h to
face Jen
q till it
i,
intersecting the edge

it
C in q. Produce 1 of the Draw a line from j through

of
till
meets 1 of
A in
B
in
/.
r.
meets the solid
Join
rs.
Note.
lines,
Only three
contours are taken, to avoid confusion of
but they could be continued through the lower part of the
figure to complete the plan.
The points in the elevation are found,

projectors
as usual,
by drawing
from the points
in
plan
till
they meet the corre-
sponding edges, and joining them.
Peoblem
To determine
229.
the interpenetration of three given cylinders.
Pig. 279.
Let A, B, and
C be
c.
the plans, and A',
B',
and
the
elevations of the three cylinders.
Bisect ah of
in
With
it
as centre,
and radius
ca,
draw a
(6).
semicircle and divide
into
any number of equal parts

till
Draw
lines
from these divisions perpendicular to ab
they
meet the cylinder

Bisect
e'd'
in the points /, g, h, etc.
of B' in c.
Set off from

lines till
c'
divisions equal to those
on
ah,
and draw horizontal
they meet projectors drawn

g', h', etc.
from the points
/, g, h, etc., in the points /',
Draw

fair
491
curve through these points for the line of interpenetration

B'.
it is
between the cylinders A' and

Eotate the cylinder
following
till
parallel to the V.P., in the
manner
"With
as centre,
and
radii
n and
111,
draw
arcs
till
they
\e
A
y\
\
^
'
J
.1^
,,/
^__^
Fig. 279.
meet a
line
drawn from
parallel to the V.P. in
IST
and M.
Draw
projectors from
and
till
drawn from n and
in the points
W
C.
and M'.
This
Join N'M'.
is
Draw M'Q and
NT
perpendicular to N'M'.
a supple-
mentary side elevation of the cylinder

Bisect the line iST'M' in
V.
"With
V as
centre,
and radius

492
SOLID GEOMETRY
it
chap.
V'N', draw a semicircle and divide

parts
(6).
till
into
any number of equal

to
Draw
lines
from these divisions perpendicular
N'M'
off
they meet the side of the cylinder A'.

the diameter tu to the end of the cylinder C, and set
it
Draw
upon
divisions equal to those
on N'M'.
till
Draw
lines
from
these divisions perpendicular to tu
they meet the cylinder
in the points
2^y s> Q>
stc.
Draw
till
they meet horizontal lines drawn from corresponding lines

s', q',
of the supplementary elevation in the points ^',
etc.
Draw
a fair curve through the points.
Peoblem
To determine
230,
the inteiyenetration of tuio given cylinders
with the
given frustrum of a right cone.
Fig. 280..
Let
and A' be the projections
of the frustrum,
and B,
C,
and
B', 0',
those of the given cylinders.

d.'e'
Divide the lines & and
as described in the preceding
problem
also
draw
parallel lines from the divisions as therein
described.
Produce the horizontal lines in the elevation

the axis of the frustrum, and assume
of
till
they meet
them
to be the V. traces
H. planes common
to
both
solids.
Assume the
parallel lines
on the plan
to represent
H.
traces of V. planes the
same distance from the
axis of
as the
H. planes in the elevation.
The
intersection
of the V.
and H, planes will determine

Their intersection
is
points in the line of interpenetration.
determined as follows
Draw
a succession of contours on plan to represent the

of the
different levels
illustration.
H. planes.
We
will take one as an
Draw
the diameter
mn
in
on plan.
From where
o as centre,
the
horizontal line h'h' meets the side of the frustrum in H',

XDrojector till it
draw a
and
meets the line

arc
till
mn
H.
With
radius oH,
draw an
it
meets the corresponding parallel
lines
493
on plan in
h, h.
The
line cc
shows the intersection of the

on the H.P.
traces of these planes, constructed
To determine
h,
Ji,
the elevation of these points, draw projectors from
till
they
meet the corresponding line in elevation in the points
Ii,
h\
Fig. 280.
Find the remaining points in the same manner, and draw a

fair
curve through them.
To determine
cylinder
the
line
of interpenetration
between the
and the frustrum. and
Find the supplementary elevation

parallel lines, as described in Prob.
of C, with the divisions
229
also
draw horizontal
lines
on the frustrum from the points

494
SOLID GEOMETRY
lines of the
where the parallel
supplementary elevation meet
it.
Let these horizontal lines represent the V. traces of H. planes.
Find the contours on plan
to represent these levels.
Find the
as
points in the line of interpenetration in the

just described for cylinder B,
same manner
and draw
fair
curves through
them.
Peoblem
To determine
231.
a given triangular
Fig. 281.
jmsm
vAth a given sphere.

B',
Let A, B, and A',
be the projections of the two solids.
Draw
lines
to
series
of horizontal
the
elevation
lines
level,
of
the
sphere.
These
at
may
but
it
be
is
taken
any
to
advisable
together
have
them
the
closer
towards
top
and
lines
bottom of the sphere.

in
The
the
at
lower
the
half
should
also
be
same distance from
the diameter ef as those in the
upper half of the sphere.
Draw
to
series to
of
contours
the
the
plan
represent
different levels
in the elevation,
as follows
With
as
centre,
and
radii
equal to half the lengths of the

horizontal lines of the sphere, in
Fig. 281.
elevation^
draw
circles
e.g.
with
radius ah'
draw the
circle
&,
etc.
Where
jectors
e.g.
these circles meet the plan of the prism,
draw pro:
till
they meet the corresponding lines in the elevation

g, h,
i,
the circle h meets the prism in the points
j, k,
and

XXXV
projectors
ITsTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS
from these points will determine
li, h'.
495
six points
on each
of the lines
Determine the points
at the other levels in
the same manner, and draw fair curves through them.
PROBLE^r 232.
1.
To determine To develop
the interpenetration of a given sphere %oitli
given rigid cone.

2.
the line of interpenetration.
Fig. 282.
Let A, A' be the projections of the given sphere, and B, B'

those of the given cone.
1.
Draw an
axis to the cone, also one to the sphere parallel
to
it.
Draw
etc.,
a succession of horizontal lines in elevation, as

to
ct
V
:
and assume them
be the N. traces of horizontal planes.
Draw contours on plan to represent these levels, as follows With as centre, and radii equal to the semi-diameters of
cone at the different
levels,
the
draw
arcs, as a,
t, c,
etc.
Find
n,
the plan of the axis of the sphere.
Contours on the sphere will intersect those at the same

level
on the cone in the
line of interpenetration.
"We will take

to
one as an illustration.
With n
as centre,
and radius equal
semi-diameter of the sphere at the level of a, draw a
circle.
This circle cuts the contour of the cone at the level of a in the
points
e, e,
which
are
two points in the plan of the
line of inter-
])enetration.
Find the other points of the plan in the same
manner.
To determine these points in the

from the points in plan
levels
;
elevation,
draw projectors
till
they meet lines at the corresponding

e,
e.g.
draw projectors from

cc
till
they meet the line at
the level of
in
e',
e.
To determine the points g and li, we must make a supplementary elevation of the sphere with its axis at the same
distance from the V.P. as that of the axis of the cone.
To do
496
this,
SOLID GEOMETRY
take the distance on, and set
iST.
it
off
from
on the line oV.
This determines the point
With
this point as centre,
draw a
supplementary elevation of the sphere, cutting the cone in the

points G- and H.
Find the elevation
i'
of point
i,
and join
i'v.
Draw
horizontal lines from the points Gr and
till
they meet
Fig. 282.
the line
points
i'v'
in the points g
and
Ji.
Draw
projectors from these

h.
till
they meet the line

all
oi in
the points g and
Having
the line
determined
2.
the points, draw fair curves through them.

line of interpenetratiou.
position.
To develop the
Draw
centre,
v'H.'
in
any convenient draw
With
v'
as
and the
points in which the horizontal lines meet the side of the cone
as radii,
arcs as shown.
Make
each of these arcs equal
XXXV
IXTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS
corresponding contours in plan
e'c,
;
497
e.g.
to the length of the
make
the arc E'E' equal in length to the arc

set off
half the length to be
on each side of the
line G'H'.
to
"^
this character
is
Note.
to take
The
best
way
measure an arc of
very small steps with the dividers.
Problem
To determine
otlicr ;
233.
intersect each
the line in
which two revolving surfaces

jpff?'/is
the surfaces to he the
of the generatrices of a cone
and. cllijpsoid.
Fig. 283.
f'e'd! that of the
Let
a'h'
;
be the generatrix of the cone, and
ellipsoid
also let the axes
be inclined
to
each other, but in a
plane parallel to the Y.P.
Complete the elevations of the cone and

ject their plans.
ellipsoid, also protill

it
Produce the axis of the ellipsoid
meets
the axis of the cone.
Assume any number

their traces.
of H. planes to the ellipsoid,
and draw
With
etc.,
Gr,
the vertex a' as centre, and each of the points in which

g', h', i',
the H. traces meet the surface of the ellipsoid as radii, as
draw
I,
arcs
etc.
till
they meet the side of the cone in the points

these points
till
H,
Erom
draw
lines perpendicular to
the axis of the cone
they meet the horizontal lines of the

I',
ellipsoid in the points G', H',
etc.
The points
G', H', T, etc.,
must be points in the

surfaces
;
line of interpenetration
between the two
e.g.
the point
H on the
cone moves in a plane of which
HH'
h'n
is
the trace, Mdiile the point h'
moves
in a plane of
which
on
is
the trace.
The paths of these two points

;
cross each other
in two places,
H' being one
the other
is
directly behind H',
the back of the ellipsoid.

G', H',
I',
Draw
a fair curve through the points
etc.
To determine the points in the plan, draw contours

represent the various levels of the H. planes in the elevation.
Note.
to
It will facilitate
the
work
if
the H. traces in the
498
SOLID GEOMETRY
ellipsoid are
as
chap.
upper part of the elevation of the
drawn
in
at the
same distances from the minor axis

half
those
the lower
Draw
a projector from n'
till
it
meets a line drawn through
Fig. 283.
ca produced in n.
circle.
"With a as centre, and radius an, draw a

is
This circle
the contour of two of the H. planes
one
at the level of n' in the
upper
part,
and the other

from L'
at
in the
till
lower part of the ellipsoid.
Draw, a projector from H'

h, h,
it
meets this
it
circle in
/,
I.
the points
also
till
it
meets
in the points
These are four points in the plan of the

XXXV
499
line of interpenetratioii.
Determine the other points in the

curve through them.
same way, and draw a
fair
Problem 234.
To determine
with with
its
axis parallel to the
a given fnistrum of a cone H.P., with a given right eone

Fig. 284.
B',
its
axis parallel to the V.P.
Let A,
A',
be the projections of the cone, and B,
those of
the frustrum.
Assume
etc.,
a series of H. planes
common
to both solids.
lines
The
G',
traces of these planes are in elevation.
shown by the horizontal
C,
H'
The
intersection of the contours of each solid on plan, repre-
senting the levels of these H. planes, will determine points in

the line of interpenetration.
Note.
If
were a cylinder, instead of the frustrum of a

as its contours
cone, the
problem would be comparatively simple,
would then be
rectangles, with widths varying in proportion to

;
the level of each contour
but in the case of the frustrum of a
cone these contours are hyperbolas.

Construct the contours of
in the following
manner
Assume
a series of V. planes perpendicular to the axis
the
H. traces of these planes are shown by parallel

Bisect the line
lines in plan.
radii equal to
aC
in
c.
With
as centre,
and
the semi-diameter of B, on each of the H. traces draw semicircles.
Draw the
manner
line
cE perpendicular to aC, and divide

c'e'
it
in the
same
as the line
in elevation.
These divisions give the
levels of the contours in a
supplementary end elevation of the
upper part of B.
Projectors
drawn from the points where these

they meet the H. traces on
;
lines intersect the semicircles till
will determine
points in the contours

I,
e.g.
projectors
drawn
from the nine figures on the line
parallel to the axis, will
determine the nine points bearing corresponding figures in the

contour at the level of I
:
this also represents a similar contour
500
SOLID GEOMETRY
Determine the other
in the lower part of B' at the level of T.
contours of
]\ôte.
in a similar manner.
It is
sometimes necessary to take additional contours
to determine the proper curve of the line of interpenetration, as
^^M"^
r
[
^
.'
^H
V|\
7^ ~^
\l'
ff'
% V
,\x^
Vc
/oy'i. d
/'
!
\\
",
I
/:
y
",
/~"^
1
/
X ^-VA
-
.;^'^
_,'
^^s^X^
Fig. 284.
shown by the dotted

upper part of
B'.
line
between the levels of H' and
I'
in the
We
cone.
must now determine the contours on the plan of the

as centre,
With
and radius equal
to the semi-diameter of
XXXV
Gr',
501
the upper part of the cone at the level of
draw a
circle.
This will cut the contour at the level of

the other
in
gf/.
Determine
intersections of the contours on plan in a similar

fair
manner, and draw a
curve through the points.

of
To determine the elevation

interpenetration,
the points in the line
of
till
;
draw projectors from the points on plan

g on plan
they meet the Y. traces of the corresponding levels in elevation

e.g.
draw projectors from the points
g,
till
they meet
the line at the upper level of G' in the points g\ g. the other points in the same way, and
Determine
draw a
fair
curve through
them.
To determine the points

elevation
off o'Q'
î',
U.
Draw
From
the line
it
om on plan
rind the
perpendicular to the axis of B, and cutting
in 0.
of m,
and join
ni'v
on the line
"
cd
set
equal to oO.
circle.
With
is
0' as centre, and radius equal to Op,
draw a
This
a section of
B on the linep'^'
constructed
"
on a plane parallel to the V.P,

the cone in the points
points
till
IST,
This section cuts the side of

horizontal lines from these
11
,
K.
Draw
v'-ni
they meet the
line
till
in the points
//.
Projectors

the points n,
l\
they meet the line
om on plan
give
Pkoblem
235.
h,
point
is seen
from
three stations, a,
is
and
he
c,
all at the
same
h 25, the
level.
The distance ah
45.
200 yards,
the
125 yards, and ca

is 26, at
150 yards.
The altitude of
point at a
and
at
Determine the plan and elevation of
point.
Scale 1"
is
100 yards.
Fig. 285.
This point
determined by finding the intersection of the
generatrices of three inverted right cones.
Join
cd), he,
and
ca.
Assume
"
a, h,
and
"
to
be the vertices
of three inverted cones.
Construct
on the H.P. elevations

e.g.
of the generatrices at the given angles;

at
ch.
draw a
and
ce
line at
an angle of 26 with
ac, at
25 with
cca\
hh',
he,
at c 45
with
Draw
the axes of the cones
and
any convenient

502
SOLID GEOMETRY
all
height, but
set off
equal.
Assume any
points
d',
e'
on aa, and
at the
on the other two axes corresponding points

h
same
height above
and
c.
Draw
till
lines
from
all
these points perpendicular to the axes
they meet the generatrices.
These lines represent the levels

cone.
of H. planes at the
same height on each
We
must now
:
find contours on plan representing these levels, as follows
Where
till
the lines from a, c, cV on the axis
act'
meet the generaand
trix of a in the points A', E',
D' draw
lines parallel to the axis
they meet ac produced in A, E, D.
With a
as centre,
A, E,
as radii,
draw
arcs.
These are the contours on plan of

is a.
the inverted cone whose vertex
Eind the contours
to the other cones in the
same way.
The
points on plan in which these contours meet are points in their

lines of interpenetration.
till
Draw fair
is
curves through these points
they meet in
jj,
which
the plan of the point required.

P.
To determine the elevation of
Assume
XY
to
be the

IXTERPEXETRATION OF SOLIDS
level of the points a,
h,
e.
503
"Witli
as
j;
centre,
and radius ph,
draw an
arc
till
it
meets a line from
parallel to
XY
in B.
till
it
Draw
the projector BB'.

j)
At
in
2^'-
B' set off the given angle
This
is
Peoblem
This prohlein
is
236.
hi/
an
illustration of the intcrpenctratio7i of solids
liorizontal projection,
and
slioics
liovj
the
etc.,
intersection
of
inclined planes in eartliv-orhs, roofs,

rig. 286.
are determined.
The bases of the
solids are resting
on the H.P., and the

feet.
indices to the vertices are their heights above the H.P. in
Fig. 286.
Determine a contour common

above the H.P., in the following
to all the solids, three feet

:
manner
As
the vertex of the hexagonal pyramid

its
is
six feet above the

lines joining
H.P., bisect each of
inclined edges, and
draw
these points parallel to its base.
Proceed in the same way with

for their vertices.
the pyramids that have

c
and
is
fZ
The vertex
of the triangular
pyramid
9 feet above the H.P., so
we must
trisect its inclined edges
to
obtain a contour three feet above-
the H.P.
The intersection
of the bases of the solids will determine
points in the lines of interpenetration at that level.
Where
the

504
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
contours intersect will determine a second point in each line of

interpenetration.
JE.g.
Ave will take the interpenetration of the

c is
hexagonal pyramid with the irregular four-sided pyramid,

point where their bases intersect, and
intersect.
li
is
where their contours

till
it
Join these points and produce the line

g.
meets
the edge of the pyramid in
In the same way join
/ and
hi.
till
they meet the edge of the
pyramid in h
To determine the
from
through h
line
Produce the bases of the sides conthey meet in

o.
taining the line, as ef and

till it
In, till
Draw
a line
i.
meets the edge of the pyramid in
Determine the other

manner.
lines of interpenetration in the
same
All the working; lines are shown.
Problem
To determine
237.
the interiênetrcdion of ttoo cylinders

to
with their axes
inclined
hoth 'planes of 'projection.

B',
Pig. 287.
Let A,
cylinders.
A',
and B,
be
the
projections
of
the
two
Determine the H. traces of each cylinder as follows
Draw
the two axes in plan and elevation, and produce those

till
in elevation
they meet
till
XY
in
D' and
G'.
Draw
projectors
from these points

the points
they meet the axes in plan produced in
and G.
till
Draw
a line through D, perpendicular to
the axis cD,
it
meets the sides of the cylinder

J.
is
produced
in the points I
and
Set off
DK equal
to D/i
on the line cD
produced.
ellipse
Then
AK
the major, and IJ the minor axis of the
forming the H. trace of cylinder A.
Draw
the ellipse

in the
Find the H. trace of cylinder
same way.
.H. trace of a plane containing
Determine the
follows
:
both axes, as
Take any point
on the axis
e'D',
and from
it
draw a
line
xxxv
SOS
Fi?. 287,
5o6
SOLID GEOMETRY
till
chap.
parallel to the axis /'G'
it
meets
XY
in C.
Draw
it
a j^roc.
jector from
till
it
meets the axis eD on plan in the point
From
jector
draw a
line parallel to the axis
/G-
till
meets a proThis
is
from
C in C
Draw
a line from
C through D.
CD,
the H, trace required.
Draw any number

and assume them
to
of lines parallel to
as 0, P, Q, E, S, T,
be the H. traces of parallel planes.
As
these planes are parallel to the axes of the cylinders, they will
intersect their surfaces in parallel lines,
and the
parallel lines
on cylinder
A will
intersect the corresponding lines

;
on cylinder
e.g.
the plane
intersects the
H. traces of the cylinders in the points PI, P2, P3, and P4.
Draw
points
till
they meet
XY
in the
PI, F2, F3, and
P'4.
Prom
the points P'l and
F2
draw
lines parallel to the axis D'e'
till
from the points P'3 and P'4 parallel

points y, li
,
to the axis /'G' in the
'p, p'.
These are four points in the line of inter-
penetration.
Determine the points belonging to the other planes in a

similar manner,
and draw a
fair
curve through them.
The points in the

to the axis De,
line of interpenetration
on plan could be
determined by drawing lines from the points PI and P2 parallel
and then drawing projectors from the

till
corre-
sponding points in elevation
they meet these
lines.
Another
method
lines
is to
find the intersection of the corresponding parallel

E.g. the
on plan.
plane
intersects the
H. traces of the
cylinders in the points El, E2, E3, and E4.
Draw
lines
from
El and E2
T, r, r, T.
De
till
from the points
E3 and E4
and draw a
G/ in
the points
Find the points belonging to the other planes in a

fair
similar manner,
Note,.
curve through them.
It is advisable to arrange the
H. traces of the planes

;
so as to include the
extreme points of the curve
for instance,
the points
I,
o,
n,
gr
on plan.

xxxv
interpenetration of solids
Problem
238,
507
To determine
a.res
the interpeneiration of
to
a cylinder with a
cone, their
hcing inclined,
hoth planes of projection.
Fig. 288.
Let A, A' be the projections of the cylinder, and B, B' those

of the cone.
Determine the H, trace of the cylinder,

preceding problem
:
as described in the
the H. trace of the cone can be determined
from Prob. 216.
The
principle of this problem

;
is
somewhat
The H.
similar to the
all
preceding one
but the planes, instead of being parallel, must
pass through the vertex of the cone.
traces of these
planes will pass through the H.T. of a line drawn from the vertex of the cone parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
Deter-
mine the H.T. of
this line as follows
From
it
/'
draw a
line parallel to the axis of the cylinder this point
till
meets XY.
From
draw a projector
till
it
meets a
line
from / drawn parallel
to the axis Dg.
This point
is
beyond
the limits of the drawing.
Draw any number

of the cylinder
of lines converging towards this point.

to the axis
;
These lines represent the H. traces of planes parallel
and passing through the vertex

passing through
of the cone
conits
sequently they will intersect the cylinder in lines parallel to

axis,
and the cone in
lines
its
vertex.
The
intersection of corresponding lines on each solid will determine
points in the line of interpenetration.
We
Mdll take one plane as
an
illustration.
The plane
cuts the H. traces of the two solids in the points
PI, P2, P3, P4.
Projectors
drawn from these points meet
XY
P'3,
in the points P'l, P'2, P'3, P'4.
Draw
lines
from the points P'l,
P'2 parallel to the axis
DV till they
meet
lines
p)',
drawn from
,
P'4 to the vertex of the cone in the points
p',
1^'
Determine the points belonging to the other planes in the
same manner, and draw The points on plan
a fair curve through them.
are found
by drawing
lines
from PI, P2
Sc8
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
De
till
they meet lines drawn from P3,
P4
Fig. 288.
drawn to the vertex /
in the points 2^,
1^, 2^,
p.
Complete the plan.
509
]|py.
jy^.
1
^
-fy
i
SiSi
1
=^
'
^
V.^'^V
J/
iP/.
://V-.^ x___x_\
\1p<3
FiiK.
V
\
--V
289.
Pkoblem
To
239.
determine, the inteoyenetration of tivo cones, their axes "being
inclined to hoth j^lanes of
lor ejection.
Fig. 289.
Let A, A!, and B,
B',
be the projections of the two cones.
5IO
SOLID GEOMETRY
Determine their H. traces (Prob. 216).
Join the vertices
ef, e'f,
chap,
xxxv
and determine the H.T. of
this line
(Prob. 67).
This point
is
beyond the
limits of the drawing.
Draw any number

and assume them
of lines converging towards this point,
to be the
H. traces of planes passing through

*
the vertices of the cones.
The
lines
intersection of these planes with the cones will be in
passing
through their vertices, and the intersection of
corresponding lines on each cone will determine points in the

line of interpenetration.
The
lines in connection
with plane
are
shown on drawing.
Determine the other points in the same
manner, and complete the curves.
CHAPTER XXXVI
ISOMETEIC PROJECTION
This system of projection was discovered by Professor Parish, of

Cambridge, about the year
1820.
In orthographic projection
two views of an object
are required (plan

tion),
and eleva-
but Isometric projec-
tion combines both views in
one projection.
It possesses
also, to a certain extent,
the
natural appearance of perspective projection, with the
additional advantage of uni-
formity of scale
reason
it
for
this
has been termed
"the perspective of the workshop."

Its principle is
based on
the projection of a cube.
In Pi" 290 we have the

plan and elevation of a cube
with
its
diagonal ah' perFig. 290.
pendicular to the H.P.
512
SOLID GEOMETRY
Assume
generatrices.
line a'c
a'g' to
be the axis of a
riglit
cone,
and
etc
ad'
its
As
the edges of a cube are all of equal length, the

to ad'.
must be equal
On
plan the generatrices of a
right cone are always

to ad.
drawn
of equal length, so ac is equal
The same thing would apply

cone, or
a'g', c'h',
h'i'
if
we
took
c'h'
for the axis of a

all
for the axis of

h'i'
an inverted cone.
As
three axes
and
are equal in length, their generatrices are also
equal
therefore the projection on plan of every edge of the culie

of equal length.
real length of
is
must be
The
an edge of the cube

g'd'.
is a'd',
: :
but the length

:
of its projection
only
Now
a'd' -.g'd'
ah'
h'd',
as they
are similar triangles.
As
ah'
is
the diagonal of a cube, and

:
h'd'
a diagonal of one
of its faces, a'h'
h'd'
v3 v2
:
(Prob. 123, Plane
Geometry).
This
is
the proportion between the actual scale of an object
and
its
isometric projection.
Peoblem
To construct an isometric
sccde
:
240.
the representative fraction (E.F.)
tohc^^,le.^^"^lfoot.
Pig. 291.
Draw
a line ah of any convenient length, and at the end

erect a perpendicular he equal
to
off
it.
Join
ac.
Prom
h set
dc.
hd equal to
::
ac,
and join
:
Then dc:dh
Measure
sjs
^2-
off
from d on dc
a plain scale of JL/'
1 foot,
and from the

sions
Kg. 291.
different divi-
draw lines perpendicular
to dh.
Then dh
is
the iso-
metric scale required.

Pig.
till
292 represents the plan of the cube in Pig. 290, "rotated "
is
the corner d
the lowest point on the drawing.
It repre-
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
sents the isometric drawing of a cube.
513
All the edges, with the
exception of the three perpendicular lines, are at an angle of 30
with a horizontal
line.
Fig. 292.
30 set-square, working against the edge of a tee-square
will give all the lines in the projection.
In an isometric drawing we should always commence with

the point
a,
called the regidating point
the three lines radiating

axes.
from
a,
as ac, ad,
and ak are called the isometric
Pkoblem
To determine
12"
First
241.
the isometric 'projection of
a rectangular solid
Fig. 293.
IV X
4f"
the E.F. to he 1
construct an
isometric
divisions,
scale (Prob. 240).
The
showim^ inches, on the scale of

real length will each be
|-".
to the tee-square, 7i" long.
Draw the line ah perpendicular Draw

ad with the 30
set-square.
c 4|", and ad 12" in length;
ac and
Make
all
the dimensions to
be taken
from
the isometric scale.
Draw
2 L
Fig. 293.
5H
lines
SOLID GEOMETRY
from
c
and d perpendicular
& parallel to ad,
to the tee-square.
5
Draw
to ac,
lines
I'roni c
and
and from
and d parallel
with
the 30" set-square.
Peoblem
To draw
242.
the isometric 'projection of circle
circle.
Fig. 294.
Let ahdc be a
square efgh.
drawn geometrically.
Inscribe
it
in a
Draw
diagonals to the square, also bisect

points.
its sides,
and join the opposite

If
we
refer
to Fig. 292, in
wnich acck
is
a square
drawn
isometrically,
we
shall see that a diagonal joining ch remains its
Fk.
2C
true length.
The diameter of the

from
I.
circle,
ij,
in Fig.
294
also
remains unchanged, for the same reason.
Draw
square.
lines
and g
at
an angle of 30
till
they meet in
the points k and
This gives the isometric projection of the
points
Draw p and
lines
from
ij
i,
at
an angle of 30, to determine the

jpci
([.
Then
and
are the major
and minor axes
of an ellipse.
Where
the lines ac and hd cut the sides of the

ellipse are determined.
is
isometric square four
more points in the
In practical work the isometric scale

with,
generally dispensed
and the dimensions
set off at
once on the drawing.
This
method greatly
simplifies the work.
The
relative proportions^ of
the different parts of the object represented are not affected
by

this
is
515
means, bnt theoretically

direct
it
represents a larger object than
shown by
measurement.
illustrations in this chapter represent objects
:
The following
drawn in
Fig.
this
is
manner
an
295
illustration of a double floor,
drawn
to a scale
to
^"
1 foot,
and shows the application of isometric projection

enables us to
practical construction.
It is specially applicable to this class of
work, as
it
show uot only the manner
in
which
Fig. 295.
the different timbers are framed together
when
in their j)roper
position, but also the detailed character of each joint.

Fig.
296 represents a hollow cylinder passing through a
rectangular solid and projecting an equal length on each side

of
it.
This
may be drawn to any scale. Draw the rectangular solid, bisect

;
each of the front edges,

to its face.
and join the opposite points
also
draw diagonals
With
enclose
it
as centre,
draw a quadrant aed geometrically, with a
radius equal to that of the outer circle of the cylinder, and
in a square, as shown.
Draw
a diagonal to the square
5i6
SOLID GEOMETRY
c,
from
off
cutting the quadrant in

c,
c.
Draw
ch parallel to cd.
cIi
Set
from
set
the centre of the face, c'a and
equal to
ca.
From
till
a
it
oft'
ab' equal to ah, and draw a perpendicular line

e
meets the diagonals in
and
e.
Determine similar points

fair
on the opposite side of the

them.
circle,
and draw a
curve through
Let h'r represent the projection of the cylinder from the
Fig. 296.
face of the rectangular solid.

circle
From each
h'l'
of the points in the

to it in length, as
lines.
draw
lines parallel to
and equal
en', ao', etc.,
and draw a
h'l',
fair
curve through the ends of these
Produce
block.
and make h'p equal

of the points
Ji,
to the thickness of the
From each
fair
e,
a,
etc.,
set
oft"
on the
a
respective lines produced a distance equal to
pi',
and draw
curve
through the points.
Sir
With
and
treat
as centre,
draw the quadrant
iff
equal to the radius
of the bore of the cylinder.

it
Enclose the quadrant in a square,

as the larger quadrant.
in the
same manner
Draw
a square on the end of the cylinder with sides equal to twice cu,
as
shown, with diagonals,
etc.,
and
find the necessary points for
drawing the
circle as described for the exterior of the cylinder,

fair curve.
and join them with a
Fig. 297.
Fig.
297 shows the interpenetratiou of a cylinder
and
rectangular prism.
First
draw the projection
of the square ahdc with sides equal
to the diameter of the cylinder.
Draw
diagonals and diameters
to this square.
On
the side ca draw an end elevation of the cylinder and
prism geometrically.
Draw
a semicircle on the side ca,
and
5'8
ol3tain
SOLID GEOMETRY
the points
g,
g where the
of the cylinder.
circle
cuts
the
diagonals. of the
Having obtained corresponding points on the diagonals

square,
draw the base
On
fair
each of the eight points determined for drawing the

equal to ac in height, and draw a
base, erect perpendiculars
curve through the top points of these lines for the top of
the cylinder.
To determine the interpenetration of the prism.
Draw any
number
of parallel lines perpendicular to
ca,
and project them
isometrically on the square ahdc.
Where
these lines meet the
base of the cylinder, draw perpendicular lines, and set

off
on them
those
e.g.
corresponding heights to
on
the supplementary elevation; the line erected on
on
set off
from p',
o
and
n',
equal to the distances of
and n from p
there
are four lines
on the cylinder with heights corresponding to these.

Treat the other
perpendiculars in the same manner,
Fig. 298.
and draw a
j)oints
fair
curve through the
thus found.
Eig.
298
is
the projection of an octahedron.

lines perpendicular
solid,
Note.
The isometric axes consist of three

which
is
to each other,
not the case with the corner of this
but
its
axes
fulfil
these conditions.
Assume a
Ic, de,
as the regulating point,
and draw the three axes
and/^ through it
at the isometric angles.

a,
Make
each of the
ends of these lines equidistant from
and join tliem as shown.
In
all
the foregoing illustrations in this chapter the upper

It is
sides of the objects are shown.
sometimes necessary to show

can be accomplished by
till
the under side of an object.
This
rotating the plan of the cube (Fig. 290)
the point
becomes
the lowest point in the drawing.

Fig.
299
is
an object projected in this manner.
XXXVI
surface.
519
To determine the octagonal

tlie
Draw
a semicircle on
line ah,
and enclose
it
in half an octagon geometrically.
Fig. 299.
Draw
lines
from the points

d!.
and d perpendicular
to ah to obtain
the points c,
square,
Set off these distances on each side of the

as shown.
and join them
CHAPTEE XXXVII
PEINCIPLES OF MAP PROJECTION
The
object of a met])
is
to
show the
relative position of the
physical features of a large extent of the earth's surface, such

as the coast-lines, rivers, mountains, cities,
etc.,
so that they can
be measured by scale.
When
a chart.
the sea
is
delineated, with its shores,
etc., it is
called
If the portion represented
is
small in extent, so that the

is
amount
plan,
i.e.
of the earth's curvature
imperceptible,
it is
called a
a plane surface.
Isles,
So we should speak of a majp of the British

the
a chart of
German Ocean
or the English Channel, or a plan of an
estate or a building.
As a map
The shape
represents a curved surface different methods
have been devised to express this surface on a plane.

of the earth
is
nearly spherical,
an oblate spheroid,
its its
and
surface
is
to locate positions,
;
imaginary lines are assumed on
e.g.
a great circle, in a plane perpendicular to
axis,
called the equator.
From
degree a
the earth
the equator to each pole of the axis

circle, parallel to
:
is 90,
and
at each
the equator,
is
supposed to encircle
these are called parallels of latitude, and are figured from 0 (the equator) to 90 at each pole, and are distinguished
by north
or south latitude.
CHAP. XXXVII
TRINCIPLES OF MAP PROJECTION

of the equator contains 360,
circle,
521
The circumference
each degree a great
equator, is
and through
the
in a plane perpendicular to
earth.
assumed
to pass
round the
These great
circles
intersect each other at the poles,
longitude
they are figured from 0 to 180 east and west.

is
and are called meridians of The

side of the earth is 180 E.
meridian 0 (in England)
supposed to pass through Greenwich.
The same meridian on the opposite

and
W.
There are three methods used
for projecting these lines
on
spheres, viz. Ortliographie, Stereographic,
and Gnomonic.
called
to the
The plane on which the projection is to he made is the primitive, and the circumference of the sphere drawn
scale of the projection
is
the circumference of the primitive.
Lines drawn from different parts of the parallels and meridians

to the eye
form the projection.
If the eye is
is
assumed
to be at
an indefinite distance, or
if it
supposed to he directly opposite each point to be projected,
the lines of vision are parallel to each other and perpendicular

to the primitive.
This
is
called orthographic projection.

is
In stereographic projection the primitive
supposed to pass
through the centre of the sphere, and the eye to be on a line

perpendicular to
it,
on the surface of the sphere.

the primitive
is
In gnomonic
p)rojcction
supposed to be a
tangent plane to the sphere, and the eye placed at the centre of
the sphere.
Note.
The
is
circumference
of the
primitive
in
gnomonic
projection
not the projection of the circumference of the
sphere, but of one of the parallels of latitude.
A projection can be either equatoricd, meridional, or horizontal,

according to the position of the primitive coinciding with, or
being parallel
projected.
to,
the equator, meridian, or horizon of the place
In
scale
:
all
these projections there
is
an absence of uniformity of
j)ortion of a continent, etc.,
the comparative size of any

its
can only be ascertained by
position with reference to the
522
SOLID GEOMETRY
and meridians.
parallels
Guomonic
from
tlie
projection
enlarges
the
scale of parts at a distance
centre, while orthographic

;
projection reduces the scale of those parts
consequently they
are only used to show the general arrangement of geographical
features on hemispheres
surface.
or very large portions of the earth's
Problem
243.
To determine parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude on a hemisphere hj orthographic projection. Fig. 300.
Let
WNES
be the primitive.
Draw
WE
jST
and
NS
at right
angles to each other.
Let
the
and S represent
and
poles,
WE
line
the
projection of the equator.
Draw
the
ah
through the centre of the

sphere, at an angle of 30
with the equator, meeting

the primitive in a and
&.
Draw
lines
to
from a and
the
parallel
equator.
Then the
^'
line at a is the
projection of
the parallel
of 30 N. latitude,
and that at
30
S. latitude.
N".
Determine the
line cd
parallels for 60
and
S.
by drawing the
through the centre, at an angle of 60 with the equator.
All the other parallels could be determined in the same way.
To determine the meridians of longitude.
Assume
sphere,
the quadrant
lines
ES
to be a plan of one-quarter of the
and the
from
S, d, h,
and
to the centre, to
be the
plan of meridians.
radius,
From
the centre of the sphere, with
as
draw a quadrant cutting the meridians d and h in the points / and h, and the equator in r. Draw lines from I and li
till
they meet the parallel at
h in
the points
PRINCIPLES OF MAP PROJECTION

i
523
and
J.
Set off siniilar distances on eacli side of the axis on

a, also
the parallel at
parallel at
h.
on the opposite side of the axis on the

the quadrant
eg,
Draw
c
and determine points on
the parallels at
and d in a similar manner.
Draw
fair
curves
through these points, as shown,
for the projection of the meridians.
All the other meridians are determined in the same way.

Spheres projected orthographically in different positions are
illustrated in Chap.
XXI.
Peoblem
To determine
2-i4.
the stcreograpMc 'pTojection of
a hemisphere, with
its
.parcdlels
and
'meridians.
Mg. 301.
Let
WXES
be the primitive.
Draw
Note.
WE and XS at right anoies to each other.

stereographic projection generally used for this
^
The
is
purpose is of a conventional
nature
:
every parallel and

divided
into
J<C
c/
meridian
the same
parts.
7 \X K
1
number
of equal
Divide each diameter

,90
and
T\\ f %
30'
1 r
^-
1
~l
eh
L-
30
60
\ 2
/
semicircle
into
six
divi-
equal parts.
These
sions will determine three
3d
points in each of the arcs
^
and
e,
60
J 7
parallel of 60.
forming the parallels and

meridians.
E.g. a,
h,
\\ L/<
Ficr.
are
301.
the
three
points
in
the
/,
parallel of 30 X. latitude;
h in the
X, g, S are the three points of the meridian of 30 E. longitude, and

Xf^S those of the meridian of 60.
From each
of these three points
we can determine
the arc
524
SOLID GEOMETRY
Problem
To determine
the projection of
245.
sphere, hij
a portion of a
Fig. 302.
is
gnomonic
projection.
Note.
This
kind of projection
generally used
its
for
the
it
projection of a sphere in the vicinity of
poles,
when
is
known
as polar projection.
In polar projection the circle
of the latitude for 45
is
generally taken as the
cir-
cumference of the primitive,

as ahccl.
To determine the parallels of latitude.
At a draw
primitive,
a tangent ef to the circum-
ference
of
it
the
and
let
represent
in
section,
the
ac
primitive
being the
pole.
is
Fio-.
axis,
and a the
of sphere
The centre
the position of the eye.

line
302.
from the centre at

i ;
an angle of 75 with hd will meet this tangent in

radius for drawing the parallel of 75.
ai
is
the
The other
parallels are
determined in the same manner, the primitive being the parallel

for 45.
The distance between each succeeding The
parallel will
increase, the equator being at infinity.
lines
radiating
from the pole represent meridians 15 apart.
Another form of projection used

"development."
cylinder and cone instance
is
for
maps
is
that
known
as
In Probs. 51 and 52 the development of a

is
illustrated.
The curved surface
in each
developed, or straightened out, into a plane.
This
is
not possible with a sphere.

Pig.
303
is
an illustration of this method applied
to a
map

of the AYoiid,
525
and
is
called Mercators projection.

cylinder.
parallel
This
is
based
on the development of a
The meridians are drawn

parallels of latitude are
and equidistant.
The
drawn
at right angles to the meridians,
and
their distances apart increase in proportion to their distance

;
from the equator
so that the degrees of latitude are in proper-
/eo
Ted
740
Fig. 303.
tiou to the increased size of the degrees of longitude, caused
by
the meridians being
drawn
parallel to
each other instead of
meeting
at the poles.
The degrees
of latitude in Mercators projection are set off

;
from tables of meridional arcs
but they can be approximately
determined by construction, as shown in the following problem.
Problem
To determine
liy
246.
the imrcdlels of latitude for
Mercator
s projection,
construction.
Scale
1^ of longitude.
Fig. 304.
;ôte,
As
there are 360 in a circle, which

57'3.
is
Stt
radius,
the radius will be
Draw
the line
CA = 57-3. With C
till
as centre,
and radius
CA, draw a quadrant
it
meets a perpendicular on C in B.
526
SOLID GEOMETRY
figiire
Divide this quadrant into nine equal parts, and
them
from
O''
to 90".
Produce the arc of the quadrant from
to E,
and make
AE = 20.
Assume
apart,
Join EC.
AC
;
and
EC
to be the plan of
two meridians 20
different latitudes
to
and determine the plan of the arcs of the

e.g.
between them
draw a
line
from 70 perpendicular
CA
Fig. 304.
and meeting
is
it
in h.
From
the centre
C draw
the arc AG-.
This
the plan of the arc of 70 latitude.
At
the arc
to
CA, and make Ac equal
to
AE
Draw
ef parallel to
AC.
These two lines will represent the distance of 20 apart

Join eC.
of the meridians of longitude.
As an example,
parallels of 60
let
us determine the distance between the
and
80.
The mean distance betv/een these two

g,
will be 70.
perpendicular from 70 cuts the line eC in

i.
and the
line fe in
Draw
in
I.
a line from C, through

is
i, till
it
meets Ac produced,
Then AI
the distance between the parallels 60 and 80.
XXXVII
PRINCIPLES OF
parallels
IÎAP
PROJECTION
527
The other
manner.
shown
are
determined in the same

;
AL = the
to 60^.
distance from 0 to 20
is
AK = 20
to 40
AJ = 40
The construction
shown
in the diagram.
:
To determine the
latitude for every 10, proceed as follows

for 30, bisect
For instance, to determine the latitude

Hiid a point to represent
Ae
to
10\
Draw
a perpendicular from 20 on
the quadrant
till
it
meets the line

till
fe,
then draw a line from C
through this point

this point
it
meets
AL
The distance from
to
on AI will be the latitude between 10 and
30.
perpendicular from 40 on the quadrant, served in the same way,

will give
on
AI
is
the latitude from 30 to 50,
etc.
This construction gives a very close approximation up to 70.

Fig.
304
drawn four times the
scale of Fig. 303.
Another form of development
is
the conical.
The map
is
supposed to be projected on to a cone and then straightened out

into a plane.
This
is
is illustrated
in the following problem.
The cone
supposed to encircle or cut the sphere, according

sphere developed, and the circle of contact
to the portion of the
between them
is
taken as the middle latitude of the map.
Problem
247.
conical
To determine
the 'tneridians
and loarcdlels of a map hy

Fig. 305.
2rrojection.
Draw a Assume A
Set off
distance
line
CE
to represent the middle meridian of the
map.
to be the position of the parallel of 55 and the
middle parallel of the map. 4-C =

57-3, the
Let
AB = 5
of latitude.
radius of sphere,
and repeat the
AB
above and below
for the positions of the parallels
on the middle meridian.
Let us
now refer
to Fig. 306.
This
is
drawn
to half the scale
of Fig. 305.
Make AC =
a quadrant
line
57'3.
With
as centre,
and radius AC, draw
till it
A in D.
AE
at
an angle of 55 with AC, cutting the arc in F.
Draw the Draw
528
SOLID GEOMETRY
from
a line
line
perpendicular to
AD
till it
meets
AE
in E, also a
from
parallel to
ED
and cutting
AD
in G.
Draw CI perpendicular to AC and 10 in length. Draw EH perpendicular to AC and cutting lA in J.

Then
cosine,
Join lA.
and
DE is the JH = 10
co-tangent of the angle 55,

of the latitude at 55.
GE
is
the
Fig. 305.
Now
Eig.
radii,
is
return to Eig. 305.
As
and
the scale of this
figure
is
twice that of Eig. 306,

306.
make
AD = twice
all
the co-tangent
(DE)
of
With
as centre,
the divisions on
draw
arcs for the parallels of latitude.
The arc
DE as EG (55)
the development of the circle of contact between the cone
and the sphere.

Set off on this arc, on each side of A, divisions equal to
(Eig. 306).
JH
As
Eig.
305
is
twice the scale of Eig. 306, each of

5.
these divisions will represent
529
Draw
Note.
lines
from
through these divisions for the meridians
of longitude.
As the generatrices of a cone are

be the
all of
equal length,
a circle
the development of a cone must

(Prob. 52).
sector of
In small maps the meridians and parallels are drawn as

straight lines.
The meridian passing

centre
of
through
the
the
map
to
is
divided in a similar
line
manner
the
DE
(Fig. 305)
and the extreme
parallels, top
and bottom, are divided
in proportion to their latitude, in the
same way
as the arc FG- (Fig. 305),
by
the construction
shown
in Fig. 306.
consists in
^'
'
FlamstcacVs projection
making
all
the parallels straight lines
instead of arcs, as
shown
in Fig. 305.
The middle meridian

;
is
a straight line perpendicular to the parallels
and the proporfrom

this
tional divisions for the degrees of latitude are set off
meridian on each of the parallels, and curves drawn through
them
for the meridians.
Note.
The proportional divisions
for the degrees of latitude
could be determined by Fig. 306.
An
off
improvement on this projection
is to
make
all
the parallels
concentric arcs by conical development (Fig. 305), and then set
on each arc divisions in proportion

306),
to the degrees of latitude
(Fig.
and draw curves through the
divisions
for
the
meridians.
CHAPTEE XXXVIII
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
The
geometrical principle of simple proportion
is
illustrated
in Chap. VII.
The same
principle can also be applied to the

A'iz.
other branches of arithmetic,

plication, division, involution,
addition, subtraction, multi-
and evolution.
Any magnitude
all
can be considered as a unit.
The
%init is
the
element in measuring and expresses the standard with which
magnitudes of the same character can be compared. In the following terms

ten inches, nine acres, Jive
article denotes the
etc.,
grammes,
of units
it
etc.
the quantity of each

;
number
contains
inches, acres,
grammes,
are the units
employed
any other quantity of the same kind would equally well serve
for the unit, as convenient.
A line
x inches in length one inch
=M
=
X
units.
.:
2/
inches
My
X
If
N = the number of inches

A
line
contained in a line
x,
x X
inches in length
=N = one =M
units
,,
unit
Mx
,,
units.
CHAP. XXXVIII
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
number,
cjj.
531
If a given line be taken to represent a
a line
4 Indies
long = 40
units, other
scale.
numbers could be represented
by means of the same
line
two inches long

three
^L. of the given
aV
"
= 20 = 30 line = 4 = 1
units
unit.
ADDITION.
PitOBLEM 248.
Find
the suvi 0/
+ 2 + 6,
the imit being I".
Fig. 30*7.
Draw
a line and set off from
A
I
to
5 units, from
to
2 units, and from

I
-
to
D
1
6 units.
G
Fig. 307.
Then
AD
is
the line required.
SUBTRACTION.
Pkoblem
249.
Fhicl the differ enee between 9

the unit being
|".
and
4, or
Fig. 308.
Draw
off
a line
AB
9 units in length.
From B towards
set
units.
Fig. 308.
Then
AC
is
the line required.
532
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
REPKESENTATION OF NUMBERS BY LINES.

PllOBLEM 250.
A (jiven
Let
line is 9 units in. length
determine the unit.
Tig. 309.
AB
be the given
at
line.
Draw AC
any angle with AB, and
set off
along
it
from
si
,5/
Fig. 309.
9 equal divisions (any convenient size).

line
unit.
Join 9 to B.
in D.
Draw
from 1 parallel to 9B, meeting
AB
Then
AD
is
the
Pkoblem
Find a
251.
line to represent 5, ivlten |"
2.
in C.
Fig. 310.
Draw
a line
AB
|" long,
and bisect
it
Fig. 310.
Produce AB, and
set off
from
a distance equal to
is
AC,
three times, to determine D.
Then
AD
the line required.
Peoblem 252.
A given
Let
line
AB,
1|-" long, re-presents
11
produce the line
till it
represents 14.
line.
Fig. 311. at
AB
be the given
Draw AC
any
angle,
and
set
XXXVIII
off along it
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
from
533
14 equal divisions (any
size).
Join IIB, and
Fig. 311.
draw
D.
a line parallel to
it
from 14
till
it
meets
AB
produced in
Then
AD
is
the line required.
Peoblem 253.
Determine a
line to represent ^, the unit heing 1"75".
Fig. 312.
Draw
AB
I'To" in length.
Draw AC
at
any
angle,
and
set
Fig. 312.
off
from
equal divisions (any
size).
Join CB.
in D.
From 4
draw a
line parallel to
CB
till
it
meets
AB
Then
AD
is
the line required.
Problem
Show graphically
5
254.
-l-".
Draw
a line
+ 3 2 + 4, the unit heing from A indefinite in length.

Fig. 313-.
Fig. 313.
Set off
AB =
5 units.
Set off from B,
BC = 3
units.
From
534
SOLID GEOMETRY
towards A,
4:
chap.
C,
set
oft'
DE =:
units.
Then
CD = 2 units. From J), AE is the line required.

Problem
255.
towards C, set
off
Jf a given
line
rcijresents the unit,
determine the length of B.
Fig. 314.
Draw
a line
CE
equal to the line B.
From
at
C,
on the same
line, set off
CD
equal to A.
Draw CG
any angle with CE,
and on
line
it
set
off"
CF =
it.
inch.
Join DF, and from

is
E draw
B
EG
parallel to
Then
CG
the length of
in inches,
in this case If ins.
Therefore
if
represents 1 unit,
will
represent If units.
MULTIPLICATION.
When
6
:
one number
is
multiplied
is
by another,
as
6x3
;
for
instance, the
]
answer (18)
as the unit
:
the
:
same
18 x 1
if
therefore
3, or,
a^;
consequently
two lengths
and the unit are known, we have three terms given, from which
we can determine
the answer
x.
Peoblem
To determine a
line to represent
256.
AX
B,
C
At
leing the unit.
Fig. 315.
Draw
a line de equal to the unit C.
draw a perpen-
dicular ef equal to B.
Draw
a line from d through f.

GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
Set off from
d,
535
on dc produced, dj equal to A.
meets df produced in
gh
or, r/A
.-.
:
At
[/h
draw a
B.
perpendicular
till it
h.
Then
Ax
dg
:
-.fc
:
:
'.
dc
B C. r/AÂxB.
:
Fi?. 315.
Problem
Determine graphically
257.
y', the
IV X
unit being
f".
The given
Fig. 315.
lines in the preceding
problem (256) are drawn
this length, so the solution is precisely the
same
as
shown in
Pkoblem
To determine
the piroduct
o/"
258.
AXB
C,
being the unit.
Eig. 316.
First determine the product of
AX
B, as follows
Draw two
indefinite lines
from
d, at
any
angle.
de
=D = B.
de
:
(the unit).
df=A.
dh
Join/d
Draw gh
:
parallel to fe.
Then
or,
df
:
dh dg ;
: :
D A
.-.
x.
f/^
= AxB.
536
SOLID GEOMETRY
Set off dj
C.
Join
de
:
eg.
From j draw ji
:
parallel to
er/.
Then
or,
dg
:
dj
di
:
D A
.-,
X B C di= k X B X
:
C.
0.
Problem
Midti'ply I"
259.
IL"
l^".
The unit
= f".
to these
The given
required.
problem are drawn
data, so the construction
shown
in Fig.
316 gives the solution
Problem
To determine
260.
etc.
the continued product of 2, 3, 4,
The unit
This problem
is
= i".
same way as Prob. 258,
:
also constructed in the
but the given lines will have the following lengths
A=
;|",
B=
",
C=
1",
and
D = I"
DIVISION.
Problem
To divide a
line
d,e
261.
hy a line B.
C=
unit.
Pig. 317.
Draw two Hues
and df perpendicular
to
each other.
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
dc
537
Join fe.
= A, df^B, d(j = C. From g draw gh parallel

*
.
to fe.
dh
dc
is
dg
df.
Then dh
the quotient.
Fig. 317.
Peoblem
To divide 2^" hy
l^".
262.
The unit
= fi".
to these
The given
data, so

is
problem are drawn
Kg. 317
the solution required.
INVOLUTION.
Involution
is
the term applied

itself.
it
when we multiply
result
is
is
number
one or more times by
The
called a iôwer.
])o%oe.r,
A
when
power
cidje,
number
it is
;
before
is
multiplied
called the first

etc.
:
multiplied by itself the second poicer,

square,
e.g. first
= 3 second power or 3x3x3, = 27 etc.

;
3x3, =
third
power or
These powers are expressed by a
small figure above the number; as 3^

If
9,
or 3^
= 27.
3
: :
we
consider these figures

e.g.
we
shall see that involution is a

i.e.
form of simple proportion,

second power
If
is
3x3 = 9,
so the
the third proportional to a given number.
we
continue the proportion
as 3,
9,
27, 81, 243, etc.
we
shall find that

to the
any number in
this series is a third proportional

it.
two numbers preceding
53^
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
Determine the square,
ciibe,
263.
fourth, fifth,
and
sixth jJoiuer
of a given line A.
B = unit.
ce
Fig. 318.
Draw from
the lines cd and
at
any
angle.
cf=A;
in h.
crj
= B.
Join/^r.
With c as centre, and radius cf draw an Draw hi parallel, to gf. With c as centre, and radius ci, draw an
Drawj/j parallel
to hi.
arc
till
it
meets cd
arc
till
it
meets cd
inj.
Then
required.
ei
= the
square,
and
ck
= the
cube of A.
Proceed in the same manner to obtain the other powers
Peoblem 264
Determine the value of
l-J-"^.
The unit
1".
The given
accordance
required.
Note.
lines
in
the preceding problem (263)

is
are
in
with these data, so en (Pig. 318)
the
value
The two preceding

;
problems are based on the greater
third projjortioiial
less
the two following problems are based on the
third proportional (Probs. 114
and 115, Plane Geometry).
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
Problem
Determine
of
a,
539
265.
the square, cute, fourtli, fifth,

{^).
and
sixth 'power
Fig, 319.
fraction
The
line
AB = the
unit.
Draw the lines AB and AC at any Make AC = ^ of AB (Prob. 253).

With
angle with each other.
A
A
as centre,

BC.
till
it
meets
AB AB
in D.
Draw
DE parallel to
parallel to
"With
in E.
as centre,
and radius AE, draw an arc
till
it
meets
Draw EG
DE.
Then
AE is
the square, and AG- the cube.
The other powers
are determined in the
same manner.
Problem
Find
the value of
r5
-'
.
266.
The
line
^tnit
= 2|".
and the
line
In the preceding problem the
AB = 2^"
AC = |-
of
AB,
so
AH
is
the value required.
EVOLUTIOX, OR THE EXTRACTION OF ROOTS.

If a
number
is
multiplied one or more times by
itself,
the
number
so multiplied is called a root.
The sign y/ (called the radical sign), when placed before a number indicates that its square root is to be extracted, as
^9 = 3.
The sign 1/ shows that the cube root
is
to
be
extracted, as
^729 =
9.
54
SOLID GEOMETRY
The square
ally
it
root of 9
1
:
=
:
3, i.e.
:
= 9,
or stated proportion-
would be
so it is the
mean
proportional
between the unit and a given number.
Problem
267.
its
A given
line
AB
represents 5
find
square
root.
Fig. 320.
Produce
==
-1-
AB
to C,
and make
AC
as
of
AB.
Bisect
centre,
i
Fig. 320.
CB
in
E.
With E
and radius EB, draw a semi-
circle.
At
CB.
draw
lar to
Then
AD perpendicuAD = Jl.
Problem
268.
A given
BC
DB.
line
represents the
si 1
determine the unit.
Eig. 321.
Assume any
unit
DB, and produce
the line to C,
making
seven times the length of
Bisect
as centre,
DC
in E.
With E
and radius EC, draw
a semicircle.
Draw
to
BE
join
perpendicular
DC, and
on
ED.
Set off
h^
BG
the
BE
produced equal to
Fig. 321.
siven line A.
Erom
Gtill
it
draw a
line parallel to
is
ED
meets
CD
produced in H,
Then
HB
the unit required.
Problem
To determine
269,
etc.
the square roots of 2, 3, 4, 5,
Unit = 1".
Eig. 322.
to
Draw
AB
and BC, each 1 inch in length, perpendicular
each other.
Join AC.
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
Then by Euc.
I.
541
47,
AC" = AB^ + BC" =

.-.
+ 1 = 2.
till
it
AC=
^^2.
With
as centre,
meets
O
Fig. 322.
AB
to
produced in D.
Join AE.
Draw DE,
one unit in length, perpendicular
AD.
Then
AE =
^3-
Proceed in the same manner to find the square roots of

4, 5, etc.
Problem
To determine
Let vi
270.
by constntction.
Fig. 323.
and
71
= 9.
Fig. 323.
Draw
Set off
AB and BC perpendicular to each other. BD on BA = 9, and BE on BC = 7. Join
DE.
542
SOLID GEOMETRY
Set off
BA = 1",
CB
till
and draw
AC
parallel to
:-
DE.
in G.
Then
centre,
BC
To
find its square root

1".
Produce
BF =
Bisect
CF
With
as
and radius GF, draw a
semicircle.
Draw
BH
perpen-
dicular to CF.
Then
BH =
VULGAR FRACTIONS.
Problem
To convert a
series
271.
offractions,
e.g.
and
'^
^, to
a common
denominator.
Unit
If.
fa
Fi<2'.
324.
Draw
the lines
Ac and
AF
at
any
angle.
Fig. 324.
Set off
AB = 3, and AC = 5, for the numerators

denominator.
also
AD = 4,
and
AE = 6, for the denominators. AF = 12 for the common Set

oft'
From F draw Yb Ah Ac
Then
parallel to
^
DB, and Fc
parallel to
EC.
AF
|, ^
and
= AF
is
#. ^
The
triangle
ABD
similar to the triangle A&F.
AB
'
A&
""
AD
AF'
The same thing applies

If
to the triangles
ACE
and AcF.
AF
represented the unit, then
A& =
f and Ac
=A
of
AF.

GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
JVofc.
543
The addition and suhfraction of vulgar fractions could

:
also be
performed in the same manner

e.g.,
in addition the
sum
Ab + Ac
in subtraction the difference
AF Ah -Ac AF
Peoblem
Find
272.
the vcdue of
3x5x2 7x9x5
258),
Multiply 3 X 5 X 2
also 7
= 30 (Prob. = 315.
Then
divide 315 by 30 (Prob. 261).
EEPEESENTATION OF AEEAS BY MEANS OF

The
tains,
LINES.
line
fjh
(Prob. 256) shows the
number
of linear units
one line multiplied by another cone.fj.
A X B.
and
If
represented two adjaa

rectangle,
cent
sides
of
then
[/h
would show the number of units of

area,
or
square units,
the
rectangle
contains.
The number
liy a
of units of area con-
tained by any surface can be expressed

right line
whose length
is
propor-
tional to the extent of the area to be
determined.
The
areas of the plane figures
shown
Fig. 325.
in Fig. 325 are determined as follows:
Square.
Bectanyle.
AB X BC. DE X EF.
544
SOLID GEOMETRY
Parallelogram.
chap.
One
JK
side multiplied
by the perjjendicular
perpendicular
height,
i.e.
GH
x HI.
of base
Triangle.
Half
multiplied bj the
height,
i.e.
half of
X KL.
by another, see Prob. 256.
all
To multiply one
line
In Chap. VIII, problems are shown for converting

plane figures into triangles.
the
The area
of each triangle can then
be determined by multiplying half the base by perpendicular

height (Prob. 256), or the areas of
all
plane figures could be cut
up
into triangles
the area of each triangle could be determined

of the triangles
by Prob. 256, and then adding the products

together (Prob. 248).
Problem
Tu determine a
Note.
273.
line to represent the area of
circle.
We
must
first find
a right line equal in length to a
semicircle (Prob. 192, Plane Geometry).
The proportion between

;
the radius and the semicircle
is
nearly 3"14159
this is expressed
by the Greek
as
letter tt (pi).
It is usual in practice to take this
31
or ^^-.
circle
Area of
square of
irr",
i.e.
the semicircle multiplied by the
its radius.
Lines representing the
number
of units of area contained
by
by
by
the surfaces of the following figures can also be determined
multiplying one quantity by another

Prob. 256
;
if
two
quantities,
or three quantities,
by Prob. 258.
Major axis X minor axis X 0'7854. Parabola. Base X height X Length X perimeter. Surface of Half the perimeter of base X length Surface of
Ellipse.
^.
Cylinder.
Cone.
of
generatrix.
Surface of Sphere.
Square
of diameter
X 3"14159,
XXXVIII
GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC
545
EEPRESENTATION OF VOLUMES BY MEANS OF LINES.

The
line
AB
(Fig. 325) represents the
number
of linear units
AB^ would represent the number of units of area in and AB^ the number of units of vohime in the cube.
Peoblem
To determine a
the square,
274.
line to represent the
contained hy a rectangular solid 5"
numher of units of volume X 4" X 3". The unit = 1".

volume (Prob.
258).
5x4x3 = number
by the following
258.
C^djc is
of units of
Lines representing the number of units of volume contained

solids
can be determined by Probs. 256 and
the product of three factors, each of which

:
is
the
length of one edge
e.g.
= edge,
a x x
or
'l
Recta/uyular solid
= product
of three dimensions, or area of
base X perpendicular height.
= height X J the area of base. = height x ^ the area of base. Cylinder = area of base X perpendicular height. Sphere = cube of diameter X 0'5236, or A nrr^.
Pyramid
Cone
To determine the volume of each of the regidar solids, assume

each face to be the base of a pyramid, the centre of the solid
being the vertex of each pyramid.
Determine the length of
each axis by Prob. 222.
Then the
of solid.
axis
-3
of area of base
x number
of faces
= volume
right line to represent the
volume can be determined by
Prob. 258.
CHAPTER XXXIX
GRAPHIC STATICS
The treatment
Force
is
of
forces
which are
its state
so
applied
is
to a
body
that they do not tend to alter
of rest
called Statics.
that which tends to alter the state of rest or motion
of a body.
A
the
force
it
may
line
be adequately represented by a straight
line,
because
has magnitude and direction.
The magnitude
of
straight
must represent
in linear units the
number
of units of force, and the direction of the line
must represent
the direction in which the force
is
applied.
Two
same
both.
forces can be represented
by two
straight lines, if the
fixed standards, or
units of measurement, are used for
The unit
of weight or pressure
etc.
;
may be
either a
gramme,
a grain, a pound,
and these units could be
expressed
by any
foot, etc.
linear measurement, as a fraction of
an inch, or of a
Problem
Bepresent ty
lines,
275.
Q, acting at a point
two forces,
P and
and
at
1
an
Ih.
angle of 60".
Fig. 326.
P=
lis,
Q=
10
Ihs.
Unit I"
Draw PA,
11" long.
|" long,
and
QA
at
an angle of 60 with
it,
CHAP. XXXIX
GRAPHIC STATICS
547
Parallelogram of Forces.
If
two
forces acting at a point be
represented in magnitude and direction by
two straight
to represent
lines,
and these
lines be taken
two adjacent
sides of a paral-
lelogram, the diagonal of the completed fignre
through the point represents, in magnitude
and
direction,
a force which
may be
subq.
Fig. 326.
stituted for them, called their resultant.
Problem
276.
Draw
a line
to
represent the resultant of the forces

Pig. 327.
P and Q
of the preceding prohlem.
Draw PB
Then the
line
parallel
and equal
to
AQ.
Join
BQ
and AB.
AB, measured by
the same unit {Y)> represents
327.
the resultant
B,
is
i.e.
a force equal to
AB, applied
in the direction
equivalent to the combined forces
P and Q
acting in the
directions of
P and
Q.
Composition of Forees.
single force,
the
residtant,
can be Two the separate

forces
combined into a
forces being called the
components.
Resolution of Forces.
Any
original force can be
assumed
to
be the diagonal of a parallelogram, and can be resolved into two

forces acting in
any desired
direction.
SOLID GEOMETRY
Pkoblem
Let
277.
acting in the direction
to
AB
represent
a force of VI
it
lbs.
AB
two
is
required
resolve
it
into
coDvponent forces acting parallel to the
given lines
Fio'.
C and D.
Unit i"
ll>.
328.
Draw AB l\" long. Draw the lines AP and BQ parallel to C, and lines from A and B parallel to D, till tliey meet
those
drawn
parallel to
in
P and
Q.
Then
AP and AQ are the forces

278.
o,n
required.
Problem
A force
is
of 14
lbs.
has
ttoo
components acting at
;
angle of 30 with each other
one of these forces
lbs.,
determine the other.
Unit
-g-"
lb.
Pig. 329.
Draw AP,
of 30 with
as centre,
it.
8 units in length,
and
AQ
at
an angle
Draw PB
parallel to
units,
AQ.
With
and radius of 14
draw an arc cutting
PB
in B.
Q.
Draw BQ
parallel to
PA, and cutting
AQ in
AQ
is
the force required.
Problem 279.
c^
force of 9
lbs.
has two components, in the

to
proportion of 4:3, perpendicular

other
;
each
-L"
determine their values.

Pin-.
Unit
lb.
330.
Draw
Fig. 330.
the lines
AC
and
AD
perpendicular
:
to each other in the given proportion (4
3).
Draw
the diagonal AE.
Prom
set off
AB
GRAPHIC STATICS
549
9 units,
and draw
BP and BQ
parallel to
AD
and AC.
Then
AP
and
AQ
are the values required.
PitORLEM 280.
vessel is sailing clue
South
the v:ind, equal to force P, is

;
Uow-
ing
from
that
the
South- West
shovj
to
the proportion
heel
of this
sail
is
force
set
'will
act parallel
the
when
the
in the position
AB.
Pig. 331.
Eesolve the given force
P into two components

sail,
:
one
latter
t'
(?)
acting perpendicularly to the
the
this
other Qj) acting in the plane of the sail
component
it.
is lost.
Produce
r,
and
set off
equal to
Eesolve
into
two components,
one of which (E) acts parallel to the keel and

is
the force required

little effect
the other component
{q)
has
on account of the
lateral resist-
ance of the vessel.
Problem
281.
cord,
vjeight,
A, of 24
lbs. is
suspended hy
ct
10
feet
in length,
at point B,
and
is pidlecl 6 feet
;
from,
its vertiecd
position hy
a horizontal force
determine the tension on the cord.
Unit
I"
1 foot.
Fig. 332.
Draw AC
6 feet long.
feet,
With
arc
as centre,
and radius of 10
draw an
till it
meets
a perpendicular on
in B.
feet,
Let BC, which measures 8

the vertical force of 24
If 8 feet
.332.
represent
lbs.
=24
lbs.,
1 foot
=
is
lbs.,
and 10
feet
= 30
.-.
lbs.,
the tension required
30
lbs.,
the force
BA
being the resultant of the forces
BC
and CA.
550
SOLID GEOMETRY
Pig.
333
is
a practical illustration of the resolution of forces.
P=
1 cwt. acts in the direction of
AB
it
is
required to
know
what
%veight
is
sustained by each of the supports
C and D.
At any
lines
point
BD
and
If
B on AB draw BC parallel to
AC
and AD.
112
AB
to
be taken to
represent
units,
then
the
the
number
scale in
lbs.
of units
same
of
BC
gives the
number
supported
by D, and the
'
Ficr.
333.
number number
of units in
BD
gives the
of lbs. supported
by
C.
Peoblem
TJiree forces,
282.
P, Q,
;
and E,
Ihs.,
act at
jôioit
A, at right angles
lbs. ;
to
each other
P=4
their residtant.
Unit 1" 8
Q = G Ihs., and E = 9 = 1 Ih. Pig. o 334.
determine
Draw QB
in
B.
parallel to
AE till it
is
Join AB.
AB
Q
the
resultant of the forces
and E.
Draw PC
join
required.
Note.
parallel to
is
AB, and
AC, which
the resultant
Two equal
a
point,
forces act334.
ing
at
in
opposite
straight
line,
directions
in
the
of
same
two
are
in
equilibrium.
in
The
resultant
unequal
forces,
is
acting
opposite
directions, in the
same
the
straight line,
the difference between

forces
the forces
(Pig.
e.g.
difference
between the
P and E
334)
is
AD, and
AC
is
the resultant of the forces
AD
and Q.
GRAPHIC STATICS
Peoblem
Find graphically
the
551
283.
resvUant of three forces, P, Q, and E,
acting at a point A,
Unit
till it
V=
//'.
Pi'^.
335.
Draw EB
to
parallel to
AQ
AB.
meets a line from Q, parallel

c.
AE,
AB,
iu
B.
Join
Draw
to
a line from P, parallel

till
o
~\
..---'
it
meets a line
'V^/
'\
from B, parallel to AP, in

D.
Join
/
*'^'-'-'--
.--\r"1
^^^_,ji.
-'
AD, which
a
line
till
is
the
resultant required.
\
from
it
y^-f/ ^-^
^^'^
-p,.
.^b
^-^^ /
Draw
parallel to
P,
\/^-""^
gg^
^'
AE,
meets
a line
from E, parallel to
Join CD.
lines of the figure represent a paralleloinped,
is
AP,
in C.
The main
the principle
and
called the 'parcdlelopi'ped of forces.

Forces.
The Triangle of
are represented in
If
three forces acting at a point

sides of a
magnitude and direction by the

in
triangle taken in order, the three forces are
equilibrium.
Any
one of the forces
is
equal in magnitude,
and in the
opposite direction, to the resultant of the other two.
Peoblem
2S4.
Let a given triangle

sent
three
;
ABC
in
repreequithese
forces
librium
forces
show
at
how
act
point
A.
Y\g. 336.
Draw Kp
in length to
Fie:.
parallel
and equal
BG.
Produce
CA
336.
to to
r,
AC.
making Kr equal in length Then AB, Kp, and Kr
552
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
are the three forces in equilibrium, acting at the point A.
If
we
reverse the arrow-head on
AC,
as
it
will be the resultant of the
forces
AB
and
Aj),
being directly equal and opposite to the
third side of the triangle
CA,
AC.
285.
;
Problem
Three given forces, p, B, and
r,
are in cquilihrimii
.
condrnct
a triangle of forces fro7n them

This
is
Fig. 336.
the converse of the preceding problem.
Draw
each side of the triangle parallel and ecpial to each
of the forces.
Tlie
Polygon of Forces.
If
any number
of forces acting at a
point are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides

of a polygon taken in order, then these forces are in equilibrium.
Any
one of the forces
is
equal in magnitude, and in the opposite
direction, to the resultant of the other forces.
Problem
Let p,
q,
286.
r,
s,
and
represent a scries of forces in equilihriuon,
acting at point
Pig. 337.
construct a iwlygon of forces
from
them.
Find the resultant of the forces
p and
;
t,
as
AB.
Find the
resultant of the forces

as
AB
and
s,
AC
r,
also the
resultant of
AC
and
AD. Then jjBCDA

as
is
the polygon
required.
AD
is
directly opposite
and equal
q.
to the
remaining force
The same thing would apply

any of the other
forces
force.
if
were
taken as the remaining
The student should notice that

Fig. 337.
each
side
of
the
polygon
is

xxxix
parallel
CRArillC STATICS
553
e.g.
and
.<^,
etjual to
;
one of the
forces,
J>C
is
parallel
and
eqnal to
etc.
and that when the
forces are in equilibrium,
their directions follow one another
round the polygon.
PllOBLEM 287.
The
folloiving forces, given in direction, viz.

s
p=
lbs.,
r=Q>
give
lbs.,
lbs.,
and
i!
lbs.,
act
at
a point
the
geometrical construction for finding the resultant.
Unit ^jf'
1 II.
Using the same
Fig. (337),
t,
draw the following
lines
-pY>
s,
equal and parallel to force
BC

r.
and
CD
Then the
line
DA, which
completes the polygon, represents in magnitude and direction

the force which
is
in equilibrium with the four given forces.

forces
is
The resultant of the

to
therefore equal
and opposite
DA.
Note.
When a
;
series of forces in the
same plane
act at a
point,
and the polygon of the and

if it
forces closes, they
must be
is
in
equilibrium
is
does not close, the side which

to
wanting
restore
equal
and
opposite
the
resultant,
and
will
equilibrium.
Moments of Force.
tion
The moment
A
moment
rigid
of a force about a point is

its direc-
the product of the force and the perpendicular drawn to
from the point.
represents the tendency of a
force to turn a rigid
body on an
axis through the point.
Parcdlel Forces.
parallel forces, the
When a
sum
body
is
in equilibrium
is
under
of those in one direction
equal to the
sum
of those in the other.
When
resultant
two
is
parallel forces
act in the
is
same
direction,
the
e({ual to their
sum, and
called the resvltant of

direction,
like forces;
when they
act
in the opposite
their
resultant is equal to their difference,
and
is
called the resultant
of unlike forces.
554
SOLID GEOMETRY
Pkoblem
To
express graphically the
respect to
288.
a force
moment of
with,
a point C.
Tig. 338.
Draw
-'-/c
a line from
perpendicular
force
to
the direction of
it
tlie
AP, and
meeting
in D.
Set off
the magnitude of the
AB to represent Then AB force.

of the
force
DC = the moment
moment
P.
This
can be expressed by a line
(Prob. 256).
The moment
of the force
is
equal
to twice the area of the triausle
ABC.
Peoblem
289.
Two
parallel forces,
extremities of
the point
P=
Ihs.,
and
;
Q=4
to
Ihs.,
act
at
the
a rigid bar
AB
determine the residtant, and
of
application
Pier.
on
AB
secure
equilihrium.
Unit 10
1 Ih.
339.
The
line
AB
must be
first
divided inversely as the forces.
As
P+Q=
10
divide
AB
into 10 equal
parts, 6 of
which
will give the distance
of the required point of application (C)
from B.
As P and Q
resultant
Pt
are
like forces,
the
= P + Q = 10.
forces
The moments of the
about
are equal,
i.e.
P and P X AC
QxCB.
Note.
In
is
the two following probPis. 339.
lems
it
advisable to use two scales

nnits,
one of linear
and the other nnits of fon

GRAPHIC STATICS
Problem
290.
555
Two
forces,
P=
;
on a rigid
apart
iion
and Q = 6 Ihs., act in op2')osite dissections bar AB, i7i the points C cmd B, 4 linear units
lbs.,
dete7'mine the resultant

secure
i".
and
its
point of applica-
to
eqivilibrium.
Unit
of force
^~'
lb.
Linear miit
Pig. 340.
These being
unliJce forces, the resultant
E = PQ = 3
lbs.
The
forces
and
must be applied on opposite

their
sides of the
larger given force P,
and
moments about C must be equal;
Fig. 340.
tliat
is,
X AC, which tends
to
turn the bar in the same

to
direction as the hands of a watch,
must be equal
QX
BC, the
moment
in the opposite direction.
AC
Q X BC
6x4
8 linear units.
Pkoblem
291.
A given force,
P, 9
lbs.,
acts
on a rigid bar
AB
at the point
resolve it
into two parallel forces

to
and Q,
their points of
1".
application
force iV"
be
and B.
Linear unit
Unit of
^^^-
rig. 340.
This
problem
is
illustrated
in
Pig.
340.
:
The
relative
proportion of
and
is
determined as follows
556
SOLID GEOMETRY
E=
r X CB AB
-^ -,and
Q=
P X AC
AB
Problem
To determine
292.
the resultant of three parallel forces, P, Q,
and
S,
aeting on a rigiel loely in the points A, B, a7id D.
P=
Ihs.,
Q=
lbs.,
and S
Ihs.
Unit of foree 1"
Ih.
Pig. 341.
Divide
AB
inversely as the forces P.
and Q.
As P + Q
6,
divide
of
AB
into six equal parts,
two
winch will give the distance AC.
AC = Q X CB. ant r = P + Q = 6. We
Then P X
S in the same manner
Divide
The
resultto
have now
find the resultant of the forces r

:
and
?-
+ S = 9.
CD
into
nine equal parts,
three of which will give the distance
CE.
Then
E.
x CE = S X DE.
is
The
the
resultant
Fig. 341.
E=P+Q+S
This point
acting at the
called
point
centre of the ]jarallel forces.
Problem
293.
Draw an equilateral
triangle
ABC
at
with
he
sides.
Let
P=
lbs..
Q=
Ihs.,
and S
=3
lbs.,
'parallel
forces
acting
C.
the
<
points A, B,
and
Determine
Unit
--"
the resultant force.
lb.
Fig. 342.
First
determine the resultant of
the forces S and Q.

divide
As S
+ Q 8,
Fig. 342.
CB
into eight equal parts, and
at a distance of three of these divi-
GRAPHIC STATICS
sions
557
from
B draw
the resultant r parallel to the other forces
and equal
in length to
+Q
(8).
r,
Draw
produced.
a line FG- perpendicular to
and meeting the-force and
P
P.
Xext determine the

the line
resultant of the forces r
As
+ P = 14, divide
FG
into fourteen equal parts,
and
at a distance of eight of these divisions
from
to
to the other forces
and equal in length
G draw K r + P (14).
parallel
This
is
the resultant required.
Pkoblem
294.
Draw an
ABC
with
1-g-'"
sides.
Let a force,
P= B
;
lbs.,
act
from
act
Ato\j;a
from C
lbs.,
force,
Q=4
Ihs.,
to
and a
force,
S=4
act
the
from
1"
A
1
lb.
to
C.
Determine
resultant
of the forces.
Pig. 343.
Unit
First determine the resultant r of
the forces S and Q.
Draw
a line
DE
nine
perpendicular to the forces r and P.
As
+ P = 9,
divide
DE
into
equal parts, and at a distance of four of these divisions from E,
^ draw
and
This
Pt
parallel
to
the
forces r
P,
is
and equal
to their
sum
(9).
Pkoblem
295.
sides.
Draw
square
ABCD with ^'

P=
3
lbs.,
Let a force,
act
from
A
FiR. 344.
B Q = 5 lbs., act from B to Q; S = 2 lbs., act from 1 to C and a force, T = 4 lbs., act
to
;
558
SOLID GEOMETRY
chap.
from
-y =
First
to
A.
Determine the resultant of the forces.
Unit
1 Ik
Fig. 344.
determine the resultant r of the forces

r,
T and
S.
Produce
(?')
and make
FG
equal to
it.
Determine the resultant

P.
of the force represented
by
FG
and the force
Make JK
equal to the force r.

sented by
Find the resultant (E) of the force repreforce Q.
JK
and the
This
is
Peoblem
T'UJo
296.
given forces,
their
P and
Q, are applied at a point
shoio that
moments about any point in

opposite in direction.
their resultant are ec[ual
and
Fig. 345.
Complete the parallelogram of forces

^
ABCD, and
take any
^
,''/'
point a on the resultant

it
AC, and from

Q.
is
Vj^N^
Y ^\:^*
f
,.--'"'
y' /
'^x
draw perpendiculars on P and Then the moment of P about a
represented
(Prob. 288),
by ah
multiplied by
P
in
and the moment of
Q
a(Z
is
Fig. 345.
^|-^g
same way represented by ad X
Q.
Now
ah
XP
is
equal to twice the triangle AB, and

;
x Q
to
twice the triangle Aal)
and since the triangle
AaD
is
equal
to the triangle A(xB, these
moments
are equal,
and they tend
turn the body in opposite directions.
Moments
are
called positive
:
or negative according to the
direction of their rotation
if
in the direction in
which the
if in
hands of a clock move, they are called positive; and

opposite direction, negative.
the
Problem 297.
Draw an equilateral triangle ABC, ivith 11" sides. P = 6 Ihs., act from A to B, and a force, Q = 7 C to A.
Let a force,
lbs.,
act from,
GRAPHIC STATICS
1.
559
Determine
the
moment of each force with
reference to
a point
in the middle of the line CB.

2.
Determine a point about which each force has equal moments of ojyposite signs. Unit \" = 1 lb. Fig. 346.
1.
Draw
DE
DF
and
and
DF
per-
pendicular to the forces

Q.
P and
Then P X
2.
Q x DE
are the
moments
of the forces.
Set off from E, on
ED
Also
pro-
produced,
set. off
EG = 6
units.
from F, on
DF
duced,
FH 7
G
line
units.
Draw
Q,
till
a line from
parallel to
and a
from
parallel to P,
they meet in 0.
This
is
the point required.
Problem
298.
lbs.,
rectangular plate
susjjcnded
iveight of
ABCD,
10 feet X 4 feet, toeighing 112
is
from
28
lbs.
the middle of its tipixr edge.
Assume a
the inclina-
fixed to povit A.
Determine
Fig. 347.
tion of the plate.
Unit
i"
lb.
Let
plate.
be the point of suspension, and
the centre
lbs.
T)f
the
Join AF.
"We have a force of 112

?A
acting at F,
and a
(28
five
:
force of 28 lbs. acting at

: :
A
G,
112
4).
Divide
AF
into
equal parts.
From
point
one of these divisions from F,

a line to E.
draw
When
this
Fig. 347.
the plate
is
free to turn
line
becomes
vertical.
Join
for the
EF, and
plate,
set off the line
aYb
upper line of the

anoie
making the angle

and
AEa
equal to the
GEF.
Arcs drawn from the centre E, at distances

b.
and
B, will give the positions of a
560
SOLID GEOMETRY
ahcd.
This will give the
new
position
of the plate.
The Resultant 3Iomcnt

the same plane
several forces.
Eciuality
is
of several forces acting at a point in
the algebraic
sum
of
the
moments
of the
of Moments.
The
It
equality
of
moments
is
the
principle on
which
all
mechanical contrivances are based.
This
principle regulates the action and constitutes the efficiency of

all
the mechanical potvers.
could be illustrated by the
2mnciple of v:orli
the
force multiplied
by the distance through
which
its
point of application moves.
Let the bar
AB
(Fig.
348) be rotated about the centre C, as
jA
^F
:^::i/SV-
Fig. 348.
shown by the dotted arcs Aft and B&, and let CB equal onethird of AB. Then the arc A. will be found to be three times
the length of the arc
as their distances
B5
for the length of the arcs are directly

C.
lbs.,
from the centre
Let
represent a weight of 12
and the arc B& 2
inches,
then 12 X
= 24.
As
be 4
the arc
lbs.
Aa
is
6 inches in length, the
weight of
E must
X4=
24.
The work done by the
forces is then equal.
So the lengths of the arcs are inversely proportional to the

forces
;
e.g.
if
B& were taken
to express the weight of E,
Aa
would express the weight of D.
GRAPHIC STATICS
Problem
Let
561
299.
represent
tlie
metgnitudc of a force acting on the bar
AB
at
the 2'>oint G.
Determine
it.
the force acting at point
which
will hahincc
Fig. 348.
Set off Ye equal to CG.
Draw
Hue from the

at F.
extreiuity of
till
it
AB
This determines
the leugth of E, the force required.
Peoblem
300.
cord hangs from

weights, P, Q,
ttoo
fixed points
and B, and supports

points C, D,
three
and E, fastened
to it at the
and
the ivcight
P=
20
Ihs.
Determine the weights of

;
Q and
5
lbs.
E, so that the cord shall

tension on
Fio-.
hang in a given position

Scale
cdso the
each division of the cord.
-Yif'
349.
This
is
is
a practical illustration of the triangle of forces
i.e.
a point acted
upon by the
forces
AC, PC, and DC.
Fig. 349.
Draw
ac equal to the weight
P
aoc
(20 units), and ao and co

is
parallel to
AC
and CD.
Then
the triangle of forces
acting on the point C, and ao and co measured

scale as ac will determine the tension
by the same
on
AC
and CD.
562
SOLID GEOMETRY
Produce
ac,
and draw the
lines
de,
do and
eo parallel
to the
lines
DE
co
and EB,
Then cd and
= the
weights
and E, and
do and
the tension on the lines
DE
and EB.
series of forces in the
The Funicular Polygon.

plane
When a
same
do not act at the same point, but so as to stretch an
endless cord at different points, the polygon formed by the cord
then in equilibrium
forces.
is
called the funicular polygon for those
Problem
301.
s,
From a
series
of given forces
p, q, r,
and
t,
in equilibrium,
to
determine a funicular polygon.
Eig. 350.
to the given force 2^
Draw
a line
AB
parallel
and equal
Fig. 350.
EC
to q
CD
to r
DE
to
s ;
and
EA
to
t.
Assume any
vectors.
point
in this polygon,
at
this is called the pole,

it.
and join each of the

draw
will
angles of the polygon to
Commencing
Then
if
any point a on the

;
line of the force p,

;
ah parallel to the vector oB

a line be
line la
he
to
oC
cd to
oD
clc
to oE.
it
drawn from
on the
parallel to the vector oA,

jj,
meet the
line of the force
if
the forces are in
equilibrium.
XXXIX
Note.
GRAPHIC STATICS
563
Any
0'
pole could be chosen, consequently there can
be any number of funicular polygons for the same series of

forces, if
were taken
for the pole
then
a'h'c'd'c
would be the
polygon.
The funicular polygon
is
a device for ensuring that
the
points of application of the forces should be such that they,
when
acting together, have no
moment about any
point, called
the pole.
If the funicular polygon did not close, they
would
have a moment, which would be balanced by a force represented
by the open
space.
The
lines joining the forces are parallel to

it
the vectors forming the sides of the triangles, and
will be
seen that the areas of the tiiangles, whose vertices are the pole,
represent the
moment
of these forces about the pole.

if
This pole
may
be placed anywhere, for
the forces are in equilibrium
they must not tend to turn the body about any point.
to
The Line of Load, or Load Line. When the forces are parallel each other, lines drawn from a point parallel to the forces
result in a single straight line instead of a polygon.
would
To
distinguish the forces acting in one direction from those acting
in the other,
it
is
usual to use a double line

line,
the
downward
forces being set off
on one
and the upward

is
forces
on the other.
This represents a scale of forces, and
called the load line.
Problem
302.
given har KS>, weighing 12
Ihs., is
hinged at A, and
is
acted
upon by a force
force,
r'
^J
lbs. ;
determine where a parcdlel

to
10
Ihs.,
I'b-
must
Figs.
be
applied
secure equilibrium.
Unit iV'
351 and 352.
Let
AB
(Fig.
351) represent the bar, and

line
the given force.
Draw
forces.
a double
ad
(Fig.
352) to represent the scale of

to
There are four of these
be considered,
viz.
the weight
of the bar, which

are
we
will call q
the given force

off
p both of these
downward
forces, so
thev are set
on one side of the scale
564
SOLID GEOMETRY
force r
;
the given
which we
of the
and the nnknown
force acting at the hinge
call
-s these two forces act upwards, and are set off

;
on the other side of the scale
their
sum must
force
s.
equal the
sum
downward
q
forces.
+ = 2,l =
2}
?
11
= the
Assume any point
for the pole,
and draw vectors
to the
dz
Fiar.
3:.l.
Fig. 352.
points
a,
h,
e,
and
;
d.
q',
Draw
s'
the bar with the force ^' in the

its
given position
centre.
also
the weight of the bar, acting through

acting through the hinge.
Draw
the force
At any
it
point
;
C on
the line of the force /,

parallel to ho
;
draw
CA
parallel
till
to the vector ao
AB
and
D.
BD
parallel to do
meets a line from C parallel to
co in
GRAPHIC STATICS
Then
If
565
CABD
is
the funicular polygon, and
is
the point
through which the given force

(/
/would
act to secure equilibrium.
were taken
for the pole,

it
then CA'B'D' would be the
funicular polygon, and

force
will be seen that the position of the
is
the same in each instance.

of these
forces will be
JVote.
Any
found to be opposite
;
and equal
to the resultant of the other three

r'.
e.g.
-\-
s=
Ji,
which
is
equal and opposite to
Couples.
Two equal and opposite

Couple.
parallel forces applied to a

to their plane
body tend
to turn it
round an axis perpendicular
this is called a couple.
Moment of a
amount
a
The
which
of the tendency
couple has to
axis,
i.e.
turn a body
its
round an
value,
is
torsional
measured
by
the
product of
one of the forces
and the perpendicular distance

between
(Fig. 353).
them
e.fj.
P x BC
to
Considering
its torsioncd
alone, as
value (or tendency

;
to
turn a body about A)
this is represented
by the product
it
of
and the arm AB,
at the extremity of
which
works.
If
now
its
be applied at
(twice
its
former distance from A),
torsional value about

forces
is
equal to that of the
sum
of the
it
two
seen
of
and P' acting
at the points
B and
is
C.
Hence
is
that the torsional value of the couple
equal to the
moment
one of the forces about the other end of the

i.e.
arm
of the couple,
the product of
and BC.
of the torsional value of a
be
To show graphically the amount

couple.
he
Let the force P = 11- lbs. Draw

i.e.
equal to BC, and set
oft
equal to two-thirds of P,
1 lb.
At e draw
a perpendicular ef
= P,
and draw a
line
from
through
till it
meets the perpen-

566
SOLID GEOMETRY
c
dicular at
in
r.
Then
cr
= BC x
V, he
to
= the
unit (Prob. 256).

circle E, the
With
in lbs.
as centre,
and radius equal
cr,
draw the
radius of which expresses the torsional value of the couple PP'
The moment of
point in the plane
is
the forces constituting
any couple
couple.
cibout
any
equal to the
moment of the
Let
be the point.
Draw
;
a perpendicular to the forces
Then the moment of the couple about is the difference between OB X P, and OC X P' and since P and P' are equal, the moment about is BC X P, the moment of the couple.
from
it.
The resultant couple
of a series of
couples acting in the
same plane can be determined
in the following
manner
Let a couple of the torsional value of 5

units act at
(Fig. 354),
one of 3 at B,
and of 4
at C.
Unit
= ^'s'=
radius of A, and
Draw two
line of load.
c
parallel lines to represent a
Set off a
= radius
of C.
As
Also
these are forces acting
in a positive direction, they are set off
on
the same line.

Fis. 354.
set off &
= radius
of B.
Then the remaining length r
of the load-line
represents the resultant couple required.
These two couples are
in a negative direction, and balance the two opposite couples

(ft
-f c
= & + r).
of Stress
Construction
Diagrams.
When
rigid
bars
are
connected together at their ends by means of smooth pins, they

are said to
form ^ frameivork.
(Fig.
Let
AB
355) represent a rigid bar held by the pins

<Fig. 355.
o
and B, and
let
P and Q
represent the magnitude of the forces

in equilibrium, the forces
at the pins.
If the bar
is
must be
of
equal and opposite, and must act along the bar.

these forces
is
The action
called a
stress.
GRAPHIC STATICS
JVofc.
567
The weights of the bars

is
are not taken into account,
convenient method for
indicating the forces in stress
diagrams
356,
shown
in
Fig.
and
is
called Henricts
Notation.
Let P, Q, R, and S represent forces acting at the point 0, and A, B, 0,
and
the
the
spaces
between
force
forces.
Then the
OP,
he to
OP
is
repre-
sented by the letters
OQ,
etc.
AB, OQ by BC, etc. Draw ah parallel to Then abed is the force polygon representing
letters
the forces acting at 0.

Note.
is
The student should notice that the order of the

i.e.
taken in a negative direction,

of a clock
in the opposite direction in

If the order
which the hands

opposite to
move.
were taken in
a positive direction, then
BA would represent
(Fig.
Pt,
a force equal and
AB,
etc.
Let
triangle
PQR
357)
represent
framework
supported at the points
P and
and weighted
at Q.
Fig. 357.
Draw
The
ab in
c.
a polygon of forces as follows.
Draw
ah to represent
the magnitude of the force

forces at
W.
each equal to half of
P and
in d.
Pt are
W,
so bisect
Draw
lines from a and
h parallel to the bars
QR
and
PQ, and meeting The length
Join
cd.
of each line in the polygon of forces,
measured
568
SOLID GEOMETRY
scale as
alj,
by the same
forces acting
will determine the

of the bars
magnitude of the
;
upon each
and pins
e.g.
the force of
the bar
PQ
acting on the pin
is
represented by the line
M,
and the
force of the bar
QE
on the pin
is
represented by ad.
These bars are called
struts, as
they are subjected to compression.
The action of the bar

the line cd
;
PE
on the pin
dc represents the action of

is
P is represented by P on PE. This bar is
subjected to tension, and
called a
tie.
Problem
To determine
303.
the forces acting on the hars
and
'pins forming
the
framework PQEST.
Pig. 358.
Let the framework be supported at the points
P and
E, and
weighted at Q.
Construct the force polygon as follows.
Draw ah to
represent
Fig. 358.
the weight
W, and
1)
bisect
it
in
e.
Then
at
ac
and
ch represent
the
magnitude of the supporting forces

from a and
parallel to the bars
P and
and
E.
;
Draw
also
lines
c
QE
/
PQ
from
PS and TE, meeting

lines
e.
the lines from a and h
in
d,
and /.
Draw
from d and
ce.
QS
ab,
and TQ, meeting in
Join
Then the lengths
of the various
lines in the polygon of forces,
measured by the same scale as
determine the magnitude of the forces acting upon the corresponding bars and pins.
Note.
The
student should notice that the letters in the
GRArHIC STATICS
569
polygon of forces correspond to the forces lettered in the framework, as illustrated in Fio-. 357.
Problem 304
To determine
the
jwlygon of forces for a

lattice girder.
scries
of hars forming a
Fig. 359.
This framework consists of two horizontal bars connected

l)y cross
bars equally inclined to the vertical.
Let the framework be loaded with equal weights at the

A
/L
Fig. 359.
V
at the points
points
r, s,
t,
and
n,
and supported
and Q.
it
Draw
Then
Q.
hf to represent the
(lb
sum
of the weights,
and bisect
in
d.
and df will represent the supporting

lines parallel to the several bars, as
etc.
forces at
P and
Draw
shown, to determine
the forces acting on the various pins,
The
forces acting
on
the pin
are
LM, MC, CD, DK, and KL.

by the
lines
These are shown in

juc,
the polygon of forces
Im,
cd,
and
dk.
To
determine the force KL,

kl,
and a
line
/,
we draw through I a line Ik parallel to through d parallel to DK. These two lines
I
intersect in
consequently the points

has no
stress.
and k
coincide,
showing
that the bar
KL
The dotted
lines in the lower part of the
polygon sliow the
forces for the opposite
end of the framework.
570
SOLID GEOMETRY
Peoblem
To determine
the forces aeting
305.
on the hars and pins forming

Fig. 360.
the framework
PQEST.
Let the framework be supported

let
at the points
P and
T,
and
the weight
First
W be attached
to the point E.
draw
a line ah to represent the magnitude of

-
W.
Assume any pole 0, and join it to the points a and &. Next draw a funicular polygon as follows. Draw
lines
from
Fig. 360.
'
P,
Pt,
and
T, perpendicular to
PT.
At any point L on the
line
from
join
P draw
LM.
LN" parallel to 0&.

parallel to
Draw Oc
Draw LM.
NM parallel to
P and T aO acting
;
Oa, and
The funicular polygon enables us

of the forces
force db
to determine the
magnitude
:
BC
and
CA
acting at the points
i.e.
the
may
be resolved into the forces
in the
direction
(
MN,
and &0 acting in the direction
he)
into forces acting in the directions
NL the force BC NL and LM and

;
the force
CA
ea.
= eci)
into forces acting in the directions
NM
lines
and ML.
lines 5c
So the forces
BC
and
CA
are represented
by the
and
The
force polygon
is
constructed as follows
Draw

GRAPHIC STATICS
from a and from a and
h parallel to
c,
571
the bars
ES and QR, meeting
in
lines parallel to the bars

h
ST and SQ, meeting
in
/;
also
from
d.
and
Join
c,
lines parallel to the bars

df.
PQ
and PT,
meeting in
force polygon gives the magnitudes and directions of the forces acting on the several
Then the
bars and pins.
Problem
To determine
the forces acting
306.
on the lars and jîns forming

Fig. 361.
the frameioorh
PQEST.
In this example two weights,

points
W and W, are attached
to the
and E.
Fig. 361.
Draw
points
ct,
ac equal to the
equal to the weight

h,
W.
sum of the two weights, and set off ah Assume any pole 0, and join it to the
and
c.
Construct a funicular polygon to determine the forces
CD
and DA, as follows
Draw
to Oa.
KN parallel to Oc, ISTM parallel to Oh, and ML parallel

Draw Od
parallel to
Join KL.
KL.
Then
cd
= CD,
and
da = DA.

572
SOLID GEOMETRY
Draw
lines
from the points
a,
d,
h,
and
parallel to the
several bars, to
complete the force polygon, as described in the
preceding problem.
The Centre of Gravity.
A body
is
built
up of
particles
which
are attracted towards the earth's centre

parallel forces, called gravity.
by what
are virtually
The resultant
the weight
of these parallel forces, the
sum
of
which
is
of the
body,
may
be considered to be applied
centre of gravity.
vertically at a point of the

If this point
body called the
be supported, the body will rest in whatever
position
it
may
:
be placed.
of the following objects can be found
The centres of gravity

graphically
Of a Of
them.
straight line.
Its
middle point.
tivo particles
of equal tveight.
point
midway between
Of tu-iQ particles of unequal
toeiglit.
Of
three particles of unequal weight.
Prob. 289. Prob. 292.

generally
called
PLANE FIGURES.
Note.
Plane
figures
in this
subject are
lamincG.
Fig. 362.
Fig. 363.
Of a
angles.
triangle.
Fig. 362.
Bisect
any two sides, and join the points to the opposite The intersection of these two lines, as G, is the centre

XXXIX
of gravity.
GRAPHIC STATICS
This point
is
573
ahvays one-third of the length of the
line joining the centre of the base to the
apex
or, if
e.g.
if
we
take
AC
as the base, rfG is one-third of r?B
CB
is
taken for
the base, then
eG
is
one-third of cA.
:
Of parallelograms rliomljoid. The point
sciuare,
a rectangle,
rliomhiis,
and a
of intersection of the t^ô diagonals.

circle.
Of regular polygons. ThQ centre of the circumscribing
Of any
Let
irregular quadrilateral figure.
Fig. 363,
ABCD
be the
figure.
Join BD, and find the centres of
gravity of the two triangles

362), and join them.
ABD
and BCD, and
as c
and
el (Fig.
Join AC, and find the centres of gravity
of the triangles
ABC
and ACD,
as c2
t'3,
and join them.
Fig. 364.
Fig. 365.
Where
these lines
intersect in
is
the centre of gravity of
the quadrilateral figure.
Of any
1.
irregular
polygon.
There
are
two methods
:
for
obtaining the centres of gravity for these figures, as follows
Let
ABCDE
(Fig.
364) be the figure.

triangle
Join BD.
362) and
Find
the
centres of gravity of the

quadrilateral
BCD
and
(Fig.
cl,
ABDE
(Fig. 363), as c
and join them.
Join AC, and find c2 and c3 in the same manner, and join them.
The
intersection of these
two
lines gives G, the centre of gravity
required.
2.
Let
ABCDE
(Fig.
365) be the
figure.
Divide
it
into
three triangles
by joining
AD
Let
and BE.
(Fig. 3G2), as
Find the centres of gravity of each triangle

c
and
cl,
and join them.
and
cl be
two
particles repre-
574
SOLID GEOiMETRY
CHAP. XXXIX
sentiug the relative weights of their respective triangles, deter-
mined by
their area.
Their resultant acts through?/ (Prob. 289).

(Fig.
Find the position of c2
362),
and join
it
to y.
represent the weight of the quadrilateral
ABDE, and
two
("2
Let y the
forces
weight of the triangle
BCD.
The
resultant of these
is
(Prob. 289) acts through G.
This
the centre of gravity of
ABODE.
If the polygon
had more
sides, additional triangles
would
be taken and treated in the same manner.
Of a
semicircle.
Divide
its
two-thirds of the square of the
diameter of the circle by
circumference, and set off the result
on a perpendicular from the centre of the base of the semicircle.
Fig. 366.
Of any
freely
irregular
lamina.
its
Fig.
366.
First
suspend
it
from any point a of
circumference, and from the same
point attach a plumb-line, and

as ah.
Then suspend
circumference, as
it
c,
in like
on
its
mark its position on the lamina, manner from any other point and mark the position of the plumb-
line, as cd.
Where
these lines intersect in
is
the centre of
gravity required.
SOLIDS.
Of a prism two ends by a

to its vertex
or cylinder.
line,
Join
it.
the centres of gravity of the
and bisect
cone.
Of a 'pyramid or
Join the centre of gravity of the base

set
oft'
by a
line,
and
one-fourth of
its
length from
the base.
DEPAETMENT OF SCIENCE AND AET

SYLLABUS
Science Subject
I.
Practical Plane and Solid Geometry
The examination questions will be given with the object of testing the candidate's knowledge of the principles of the subject, and in order to obtain a class it Avill not be sufficient to have merely learned a few
problems by heart. In awarding marks, the neatness and general style of the drawing will be taken into consideration. In addition to the questions in Practical Geometry, a few questions in Graphic Arithmetic and Statics will be given in each stage. These
questions will be alternative Avith and in addition to those in Practical Geometry, the candidate being allowed to choose some of them in place of
questions in Plane or Solid Geometry. Arithmetical or Algebraic solutions.
No marks
will be given for
candidate for examination in Geometrical Drawing must confine himself to Section I. A candidate for examination in the Elementary Stage of Practical Plane and Solid Geometry must take both Sections I.
and IL
First Stage or Elementary Course
Section
I.
Geometrical Drawing
Reference to Problems
IN THIS Book.
Plane Geometry.
1
Construction and use of plain scales and scales

of chords.
Probs. 156-159, 165.

11,
2.
Proportional division of
lines.
9,
10,
and
118.
Pj.
Mean
third and fourth proportional to given
112-117.
lines.
576
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
IN THIS Book.
4.
5.
t).
Elementary constructions relating to lines and circles required in drawing out geometrical patterns and simple tracery. Eeduction and enlargement of plane figures. Construction of regular polygons on a given
side.
Plane Geometry. Probs. 69-77 and
Chap.
5.
Chap. 14. Probs. 40-43, 45 and

46.
Probs. 37-39, 44, 47, and 48.
7.
Inscription of regular polygons

circle.
iji
a given
8.
Construction of irregular polygons from given

data.
Probs.
19-25
6,
(see
Exercises 5,
and
10, Chap. 3, p. 193).

9.
Reduction of irregular figures to triangles and

squares.
Probs. 124-130.
10.
Elementary constructions relating

Plan, elevation,
positions.
to ellipses.
178-182.
Solid Geometry.
11.
and section of cube, pyramid, prism, cylinder, cone, and sphere in simple
Probs. 1-4, 29, 32, 35,
and 39
and begin-
ning of Chap. 30.
Section
II.
Solid Geometry.
1.
The
principles of projection.
use,
Definitions of
Chap.
1 7,
and up
to
;
terms in general
such as projector,
etc.
plan, elevation, section, trace,
Prob. 59, Chap. 23 also see note at
bottom of
2.
3.
4.
p.
1 3.
Simple problems relating to lines. Simple problems relating to planes. Plan and elevation of simple solids resting on
the horizontal plane.
Pp. 278-296. Pp.
296-304.
Probs. 1-4, 29, 32, 35,
and 39.
Probs. 122,
5.
6.
Plan and elevation of plane figures having given inclination of two sides or of plane and one side. Plan and elevation of simple solids having one edge in the horizontal plane, and an adjacent face inclined at a given angle or given the inclination of one face and one
;
124
Probs.
(1),
123 (]), and 125

13,
5,
6,
19,
20, ami 31.
edge.
7.
Sections of such solids by vertical and horizontal planes.
See commencement of Chap. 30. See commencement of Chap. 23.
In the elementary paper, given points or lines will be above the horizontal and in
front of the vertical plane.
SCIENCE AND ART SYLLABUS
577
IN THIS Dock.
Solid Geometry.
1.
2.
3. 4.
The representation of numbers by lines. The multijplication of numbers by construction. The division of numbers by construction. The determination of the square root of numbers by construction.
Probs. 248-255.

256-260.
261 and 262.

267-270.
Second Stage or Advanced Course.
Plane Geometry.
Plane Geometry.
1.
The
construction of plain and diagonal "scales"

different
Probs. 156-164.
to
linear
units,
English
and
Probs.
11,
foreign.
2.
The
division of a line in given proportion,
112-118,
and in extreme and mean ratio. Construction for mean, third, and fourth proportionals, and for harmonic mean.
3.
and 122.
The
construction of polygons from adequate
Chap. 3 and
p.
132.
conditions of sides, angles, area, or peri-
meter.
4.
The
construction required in dealing with
Probs.
35.
31,
32,
and
lines
which intersect
at points practically
out of reach.
5.
Miscellaneous
circles,
problems relating and plane figures.
to
lines,
Chaps.
8, 9,
2,
4,
5,
6, 7,
6.
The
delineation of plane curves, such as the
ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, cycloid, spirals,

etc.
7.
and 14. Chap. 15, and Probs. 193, 201-203.

13,
The construction
of simple loci, both
from
Probs.
205, 206, and
geometrical and mechanical data, such as the practical setting out of curves described by particular parts of machines or link
208.
work.
8.
The
tabular data,
pressure,
construction of curves from observed or such as curves of varying
Prob. 209.
forth, involving the
temperature, resistance, and so elementary geometrical
use of abscissa and ordinate.
Solid Geometry.
Solid Geometry.
1.
Miscellaneous problems relating to lines and

planes.
Chaps. 23 to 27.
2 P

578
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
IN THIS Book.
Solid Geometry.
Projections of the cube, prism, pyramid, tetra-
hedron, octohedron, having given a. plane connected with the solid, and a line lying in that plane. h. Two lines connected with the solid. Two planes c. ,,
Chap. 18, and Probs. 17-22, 28, 77-79, and Chap. 29.
d.
The heights
solid.
of three points of the
Sections of the above solids

zontal,
by
vertical, hori-
Chap. 30, up to Prob.

131.
and inclined planes.

to
Problems relating
cylinder
a.
the sphere, cone, and
Chaps. 20, 21, Probs. 133-1 38, also Chap.

31,
Representation of those solids in given

positions
and in
contact.
and Probs. 185, 188, 189,229-235,
h.
c.
Determination of tangent planes to them. Determination of their sections by planes under given conditions.
Intersection of their surfaces when variously combined, or " interpenetration."
237-239.
d.
The screw, delineation of the simple helix. The square and V-threaded screw {Machine
Drawing).
Prob. 50.
Simple cases of cast shadows, the rays of light being supposed parallel.
Principles
Probs. 199-207.
and practice of isometric projection. solid geometry problems may be worked either by means of projections on two co-ordinate jjlanes, or by horizontal jnojedion with figured indices, which will often
N.B.
The
Chap. 36. Chap. 32.
representation
Either mode of be employed for the data of the questions, as may be most convenient.
simplify the constructions.
Avill
Graphic Arithmetic and Statics.

1.
Multiplication and
lines.
division of niimbers
by
Probs. 256-262.
Probs. 267-270.
2.
Determine by construction
lines representing the values of such expressions, as

\'in
VI
11'
V/
"i'
etc.
m,
and n being
3.
4.
given numbers. Representation of areas and volumes by lines. Resolution of a criven force in two directions.
Pp.
543-544.
Probs. 275-281.

IN THIS Book.
579
Solid Geometry.
Determination of the resultant of any number

of forces acting at a point
;
Prcbs. 282-287, 289-
or parallel.
295.
Probs.
Graphic determination of the moment of a

force,
288, 296-302.
and
of
the
resultant
moment
of
several forces.
Examination for Honours.
Plane Geometry.
Plane Geometry.

circles.
Chaps.
Chaps.
2, 5, 6,
and
7.
Construction of plane figures from different

data.
3, 4,
8, 9,
13,
and
14.
Construction from different data of the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, their tangents and
centres of curvature.
Cha^). 15.
Delineation of various curves which occur in the arts, or find place in the geometry of machines.
Pp.
60,
61,
78-80,
181,
164,
176, 184-188.
The
cycloid, trochoid, epicycloid, hypocycloid,
Probs. 193-198.
epitrochoid, hypotrochoid, with their tangents, normals,
and centres of curvature.

Prob. 199.
The
evolute and involute of the circle and

spirals.
j
ellipse.
The Archimedean and logarithmic

mechanical data.
Pp. 177-181.
Interpretation of loci from geometrical and

|
Pp.
182-186
and
Prob. 208
Construction of curves obtained by observation, or given by self-recording instruments.
Prob. 209.
j |
Solid Geometry.
Solid Geometry.

planes.
Chaps. 23-28, and pp.
402-419.
in determining
Use
of contours
the inter-
Probs. 224, 228, 230-
section of surfaces.
236.
Chaps. 18-22, 29, and Probs. 185, 188, 189.
Projection of solids in various positions. Sections of solids and surfaces of various forms
by
planes.
Chap. 30.
Intersection of curved surfaces and interpenetration of solids.
Chap. 35.
Development
faces.
of conical
and cylindrical
sur-^
j-
Probs. 50-53.
Eepresentation of helical and twisted surfaces.]
S8o
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
Refehence to Problems
IN THIS Book.
Solid Geometry.
8.
Tangent planes
to surfaces of the second decjree.
Probs.
145-148, 151, 154, 155,182-184, 187.
9.
Shadows
cast by solids of various form on each other and on any plane, the rays of light being either parallel or convergent.
\
>
Pp. 444-4G9.
10.
1 1.
Principles of isometric projection.
Isometric projection of objects of various

forms.
)
Chap. 36.
12. Principles of
13.
map
projection.
Chap. 37.
Principles and practice of perspective {Perspective).
Graphic
1.
Statics.
Eepresentation of numbers, areas, and volumes
Chap. 38
Probs. 275-282, 284-
by
2.
lines.
Composition and resolution of forces acting

in any direction in a plane.
3.
Graphic determination of centres of gravity of

plane figures.
287, 293-295. Pp. 572-574.

P. 566.
4.
5.
Determination of the resultant couple of a system of couples in one plane. Construction of stress diagrams for simple braced structures variously loaded.
Pp. 566-572.
Appendix to Syllabus of Subject
I.
(Practical Geometry).
Teachers of Science Classes are strongly recommended to study the following brief outline of an elementary course of Descriptive Geometry,
and
to base their teaching upon it. The problems therein enumerated should be thoroughly mastered, as they illustrate important principles and involve constructions which are of constant occurrence. When a
difficulty presents itself in realising the conditions of a problem, the student should be encouraged to extemporise a model by bending up stiff paper or card to represent the planes of projection, cutting out pieces of
card or paper to represent planes in various positions, and using pencils,

pieces of wire, or thread to represent lines.
By
this
means the habit

Solid Geometry.
of
thinking out a question will be developed.
1.
Represent (by
in
respect
to
its
plan and elevation) a point
Pp. 274-278.
space in
all pos.sible positions with the planes of projection {i.e.
above or below the horizontal plane, before

or l)ehind the vertical plane).
Conversely,

IN THIS Book.
581
Plane Geometry.
given the projections of a point, state

jection.
2.
its
position with respect to the planes of pro-
Given the phin and elevation

its
of a line, with
Pp.
278-296,
and
extremities situated in given positions

to
Chap. 22.
with regard determine

a.
h.
the
co-ordinate
planes,
The The
traces.
true length,
and inclination
to
each plane of projection. Conversely, draw the plan and elevation of a line of given length when inclined at a to the horizontal, and b to the vertical plane.
3.
4.
5.
Obtain a new elevation of the line on any assigned ground line. Assume two intersecting lines and determine Probs. 77, 78, the real angle they contain. 167. Draw the projection of a line which is jsarallel Probs. 79, 160. to a given line. Represent by their traces planes in the follow- Pp. 296-299.
c.
and
ing positions
((.
At
right angles to one plane of pro-
jection
and inclined
at
a given
h.
angle to the other. At right angles to both planes of

projection.
6.
7.
ground line. Given the traces of a plane in any position with respect to the planes of projection. Determine the inclination of the plane to both planes of projection and the real Conversely, angle contained by the traces. obtain the traces of a plane which makes given angles with the planes of projection. Determine the intersection of two given planes Conand the real angle they contain.
c.
Parallel to the
Probs. 81-84.
Chaps.
Probs.
24,
25,
also
versely, determine the traces of a plane
166, and 175.
174,
which makes a given angle with a given

plane.
8.
9.
Determine a plane parallel to a given plane and (a) containing a given point or (b) at a given distance from the given plane. Determine the intersection of a given line and plane and the angle contained between
;
Probs.
94,
163
(2),
and 164.
Chap.
176.
26,
and Prob.
them.

582
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
Keference to Problems
IN THIS Book.
Plane Geometry.
10.
From
a given plane.
length.
11.
a given point drop a perpendicular on At a given point on a given plane erect a perpendicular of given
Probs. 103, 104, 168,
and 169.
In a given plane place a horizontal line or a From line having any given inclination. a given point draw a line parallel to a given plane and inclined at a given angle. 12. Obtain the projections of any polygon, given the inclination of its plane and of a side, diagonal, or any line connected with it. 13. Determine a plane (a) to contain three given points, (6) to contain two lines including a given angle and inclined at given angles. Obtain the projections of any polygon, given the inclination of two adjacent sides,
of a diagonal
ally of
Chap. 27, and Probs. 171-173.
Chaps. 28 and 29.
Probs.
167
115, 165, and also Chaps.
27, 28,
and 29.
and adjacent sides, or generany two intersecting lines connected

Chap.
17, and pp. 209-213 and 223also Chap. 227 22 and commence;
with the polygon.

14.
Draw
tetrahedron,
the plans of the cube, prism, pyramid, octohedron () resting with
one face on the horizontal plane, {h) one edge in the horizontal plane and an adjacent face inclined at a given angle.
ment
of Chap. 30.
Make
elevations of these solids

lines
ground
15.
and sections
on by
different
different
vertical planes.
Given the plan and one elevation

object of simple form,
tion, or a section
of
any
Chap. 22, and Prob.

126.
make
new
line.
eleva-
on any given
NOTICE
The following instruments have been invented by the author Double Centrolinead. This instrument is constructed on an entirely new principle it is very portable, and can be used for any sized drawing. It is easily set, and will draw lines towards inaccessible
:
vanishing points, in opposite directions, without re-adjustment. also determine vanishing points from an inaccessible station point.
It will
man
SciOGRAPHic Set-Square. This instrument enables the draughtsshadows on architectural and engineering drawings with great facility. It consists of the two sj)ecial angles described in Chap.
to project
XXXIII. Part
Particulars
I.
may
be had on application to
W. H. Harling, 47 Finsbury
Pavement, London, E.C.
BRITANNIA SCIENCE SERIES

STEAM
J.
AND
STEAM
MACHINERY.
Bj
Staff-Engineer
Pro-
Langmaid, E.X. and Engineer H. Gaisford, E.N.

6s. net.
fusely Illustrated.
BRITAIN'S
NAVAL POWER. By HamiltoxY

College,
Williams, M.A.,
Pembroke
Oxford
Professor of English Literature,
H.M.S. Britannia.
4s. 6d. net.
SCIENCE AND ART DRAWING. Complete Geometrical
Course.
Consisting of Plane and Solid Geometry, Orthographic and

Isometric Projection, Projection of Shadows, the Principles of
Map
Projection,
Graphic Arithmetic, and Graphic

all
Statics.
Designed to meet
the requirements of
and Art Examinations.

Medallist,
By
J.
Army and Science Humphrey Spanton, Gold

London
;
Royal Academy
of Arts,
Instructor
in
DraAving to Naval Cadets in H.M.S. Britannia.

(2)
Perspective, and (3) Mechanical.
By
the same Author.

[//I
preparation.
PHYSICS FOR SCHOOLS. By J. Barrell, W. Edgar. Illustrated.

Scientific
C.
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Eevised by an eminent
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Descriptions and
preparation.
PHYSICS NOTE-BOOK.
press,
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[J/i
in Letter-
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preparation.
PHYSICAL QUESTIONS, from

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LECTURES MARITIMES.
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French
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Spanton, J. Humphrey Science and art drawing
:
complete geome

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SCIENCE AND AET DEAWING

SCIENCE AND AET DRAWING

PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY, ORTHOGRAPHIC AND ISOMETRIC

OF MAP PROJECTION, GRAPHIC ARITHMETIC,

GOLD MEDALLIST, ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS, LONDON

DESIGNED TO MEET ALL THE ItEQUIREMENTS OF AliMY

AND SCIENCE AND ART EXAMINATIONS

weapon which they must use

attack practical work.

The Engineer, the

the Soldier, and the Statistician, all have recourse to

problems or to explain their methods.

the graphic treatment of subjects

be able to delineate the proportions of

any subject places in the hand an invaluable

The Author, in adding

excellent manuals on the

which have been already published one more of yet

untried merit, appeals to those particularly

grounding without the aid of a teacher, and also to those

intricate parts of the subject.

His publishers have spared no

expense in enabling him to elaborate those parts which are

to present real difficulties to the student.

been no demand upon him to abridge the necessary information,

comprehend the more advanced portions

and in several instances a practical

of obtaining the results has been introduced in addition

sections could be obtained with the greatest accuracy

In practice subjects are sometimes treated in a conventional

for instance, illustrated in

the conventional method of projecting shadows in

and engineering drawings.

These additions have been made

the book useful,

not only to students, but also to those engaged in practical

intended to embrace the whole course of practiit

geometry reqiiired in various examinations, and

Kensington Science and Art Examinations

with references to the problems contained in this work (page

The Eoyal College The City

and School of Mines.

The Army Examinations.

Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations.

The Indian Engineering

examinations contain certain special

portions which are not

these can be found by reference to the index of this book,

The Author bess

which have furnished many invaluable

hints towards the execution of his design, viz. Angel's Practical

Plane Gcometnj and Projection, Bradley's Elements of Practicnl

Lines, Triangles, Quadrilaterals, Convergent Lines,

Application of the Arcs of Circles to the various forms of Arches

General Methods for constructing Polygons

Exercises in different forms of Gothic Tracery

Application of Tangential Arcs to Design

Proportional and Equivalent Areas

Construction of Plain Scales

.113 .118 .120 .124 .129 .130 .131 .132