Chapter 3 Metal Works, Casting Process and Heat Treatments for Steel 3.1 Cold Work 1.

Cold working of metals is permanent deformation of metals and alloys below the temperature at which a strain-free microstructure is produced continuously (recrystallization temperature). Usually in room temperature. 2. Cold working causes a metal to be strain-hardened, deformed and strengthened. 3. When a sheet metal or ingot in cold work process, crystalline structures (lattice) are changed, distort and stretched to the direction of the worked.

(b) pressing / rolling - cold rolling - thread rolling (c) extrusion - cold extrusion - impact extrusion 6. It is a finishing process in production to produce and function as : i. to maintain accurate dimension of the product ii. achieve clean and smooth finishing iii. achieve various of hardness degrees by applying various of cold works iv. repairing the machineability 3.1.1 Cold Rolling 1. Long lengths of metals sheet and plate with uniform cross sections can be produced. 2. The coils of metal are usually given a reheating treatment called annealing to soften the metal to remove internal stress introduced during the hot-rolling operation. 3. Smaller diameter roller will be operated to thinning the metal, and

4. The metal will be hardened and increased the strength for internal strained causing the decreasing of ductility. Change its strength and increase the electricity resistance. 5. These cold works usually applied after hot work process : (a) drawing - tube drawing - wire drawing

bigger roller used as support which will absorb vibration and maintaining the thickness. 4. Lubricating material usually applied to the work piece before and after it is rolled to refine the surface and to prevent grain formation. 5. It is able to produce sheet metals as thin as 0.008mm 0.009mm called foil.

6. Advantages : i. surface free from oxidation ii. smoother and shinier surface iii. fine fitting iv. increase the tensile strength and toughness 3.1.2 Wire and Tube Drawing 1. Used to produce wire, rod and tube. 2. A process in which wire stock is drawn through one or more tapered wire-drawing dies to the desired cross section. 3. Only annealed metal and with high ductilities metal can be processed. 4. Friction, shear and tough pressure occurred at the joint part of the die and the work piece and will heatened the parts. 5. Therefore, cooling elements are needed and dies has to be tough and strong enough to resist wear and abrasive by those effects.

3.1.3 The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Cold Work 1. The advantages : i. good surface finishing because it smoother with no oxidation process ii. exact measurement can be achieve with exact dimension control because of no dimension shrinkage iii. increase the machineability of the metal iv. the product does not need any finishing works v. good finishing properties 2. The disadvantages : i. costing higher than hot work process ii. the material become less in ductility caused by hardening work iii. causing more brittle to the metal and lesser elasticity iv. cold work only can be use to the elastic metal v. bigger equipment and higher power usage 3.2 Hot Work 1. Hot working of metals is permanent deformation of metals and alloys above the temperature at which a strain-free microstructure is produced continuously (recrystallization temperature). 2. The recrystallization temperature for steel begins at 950F 1300F. 3. If the temperature being work is sufficiently high, recrystallization takes place as quickly as the crystals become deformed and the metals can be heavily worked with ease without risk of cracking. 4. As the temperature falls during processing, recrystallization occurs more slowly, not only more force is required to achieve plastic

deformation, but there is an increased risk of surface cracks appearing. 5. If the metal temperature is rising, become burnt, oxidation of the grain boundaries occurs and the material is severely weakened. 6. Main processes of hot work : i. hot rolling ii. hot forging iii. hot extrusion iv. hot forming v. welding hot pressing 3.2.1 Hot Forging 1. The metal is hammered or pressed into a desired shape in the closed-die forging. 2. The usage of closed-die forging : i. The die cavity is the shape of finished component ii. Both part of dies attach to hammer and anvil iii. When force delivered, both parts combined and become one iv. To ensure full filling of the metal in the die, material quantities has to be more than the cavity v. The surplus metal will run out through the die and forming the flash 3. Applications : spanners, bolts, shafts

3.2.2 Hot Rolling 1. Hot rolling is carried out to have greater reductions in thickness of metal ingots, until certain thickness achieve, taken by rolling pass when the metal is hot. 2. The ingots will go through two big cylinder roller and then other rollers until achieve the needed thickness. 3. Discontinuities in the ingots will be sealed or welded under huge pressing process and gained a homogenous structure. 4. Applications : railways, construction frames

3.2.3 Hot Extrusion 1. The extrusion process is used to produce cylindrical bars or hollow tubes. 2. Extrusion is a plastic forming process in which a material under high pressure is reduced in cross-section by forcing it through an opening in a die. 3. The advantages : The ability to produce varies of complicated shape with accurate dimension and good finishing.

4. Its produce continuously but only to metals with low melting point and with good melting ability such as bronze, brass alloys and aluminium and its alloys.

iii. accuracy in last dimension hard to achieve because of shrinkage factor when the hot metal are cooling iv. life expectation for tools are lessen caused by working in higher temperature 3.3 Casting Process 1. Casting process is a production process where the metal is formed directly from the molten state, pouring it into a mould and allowing it to cool and solidify, expelled from the mould to be clean or machine for finishing. 2. The mould must be made from a material with a higher melting point than the molten metal which the casting is to be made. 3. The mould contains a cavity in the form of the finished product into which the molten metal is poured. 4. Types of casting process :

3.2.4 The Advantages and Disadvantages Of Hot Work 1. The advantages : i. metal are in plasticity condition. Energy and needed forces are small. Can be worked for bigger size metals ii. blow holes in ingots can be disappeared by compression iii. suitable to almost all types of metal iv. if finishing temperature are correct, smoother structure can be achieve 2. The disadvantages : i. better surface cannot be achieve because of corrosion by oxidation process in high temperature ii. higher in cost

a) sand casting b) lost wax/investment casting c) pressure-die casting d) shell casting e) centrifugal casting f) plaster of Paris casting g) ceramic mould h) evaporative pattern casting 3.3.1 The Purposes, Impotencies and Process of the Casting 1. Stages of casting process : (a) metal is heated until its melted (b) pouring the molten metal in a cavity mould (c) leave the metal to solidify

(d) retrieved the solid metal from the mould (e) clean or machine for finishing 2. The advantages : (a) typical shapes of product which cannot be produce by other process such as machining, forging and welding (b) cast iron only can be worked through casting process because of its properties and cannot be worked by other hot work to form bars, rods or other shapes (c) project manufacturing are simplifies, the casting process able to poured to complete shape of a product where other process, the product need to be heated or connected to form complete shape (d) small amount of wasted materials compared to machining process (e) casting is a cheaper process if compared to others (f) suitable for mass production : automotive industry products, household products and agriculture machinery (g) wasted metal can be recycle using casting process 3.3.2 Sand Casting (Penuangan Pasir) 1. The sand casting process is usually chosen for the production of small quantities of identical castings, complex castings with intricate cores, large castings and structural castings. 2. A mould made by compressing or ramming the casting sand (combination of silica sand and bantonite function as adhesive), circling a pattern made by wood, forming a cavity in the mould. 3. The mould surrounded by a moulding box which separated into 2 parts called cope and drag. Its helps in expelling the pattern

out leaving the mould with a cavity where the molten metal are poured in to form a product. 4. To smoother the casting works and to ensure the mould cavity is full with molten metal, a running system including building a runner, a riser and a gate to the mould. 5. A riser also provides surplus metal which can be drawn back into the mould as shrinkage takes place during cooling and this can avoids shrinkage cavities occurring in the casting. 6. The pattern has to be made oversize to allow for shrinkage of the metal as it cools and it has called the shrinkage allowance. 7. A hollow casting can be made by using a core in the cavity. 8. Casting defects : (a) scabs these are blemishes on the surface of the casting resulting from sand breaking away from the wall of the mould cavity, due to lack of cohesiveness in the sand resulting from too low clay content or from inadequate ramming, too rapid pouring can also result in the scouring away the walls of the mould cavity (b) cold shuts result from casting intricate components with thin sections from metal which is lacking in fluidity or at too low temperature, sections of the mould may not fill completely or the metal may flow too sluggishly and at too low temperature to unite when separate streams meet (c) hot tear it is as same as part of the casting broken cause by coherent and strained by heat shrinkage attach to unsuitable mould design (d) blow holes are smooth round holes with a shiny surface usually occur just below the surface of the casting, not normally visible until the casting is machined, caused by steam and gases being trapped in the mould. Results from inadequate venting,

incorrectly placed the risers, excessive moisture in the sand or excessive ramming reducing the permeability of the sand (permeability is the ability of the sand to allow entrapped gases to escape between the individual sand particles) (e) Other defects including porosity, uneven wall thickness, fins and drawing. 9. The casting sand should have these properties : (a) high heat temperature resistance (b) enough adhesive strength (c) gases permeability (d) can be tested for grain size, compressive, tensile and shear strength, hardness and compactability 10. The advantages of sand casting process : i. manufacturing process for multiple usage ii. suitable to produce one until thousand of casting units iii. freedom in designing from weight, size and shape iv. can be use to produce component with the weight in grammes until tones v. bigger size product can be cast in hollow casting technique vi. typical shape can be make by using various of cores vii. can be use for all kind of metal including metal that cannot be manufactured by other process such as cast iron viii. cost for making the mould are low because low in sand price and reusable 11. The disadvantage of sand casting process : i. the cast exposed to crack while cooling if the design are not suitable ii. limited to small quantities production if the process done manually

iii. surface finishing quality are low and need to be machine iv. the ira (grain) are not compacted, therefore low in compactability and weak v. low in ductility vi. unsuitable for thinner casting product 11. Sand casting tools : i. SAND MOULD containing 85% silica sand, 8% bentonite and 7% water ii. MOULDING BOX/ FLASK a box where use to made a mould in it, containing 2 parts (cope and drag), made by wood or metal iii. PATTERN a model or replica of product, made according to the real shape of the product, made by wood, metal, plastic, wax or plaster iv. CORE to produce a hollow product, made by plaster, metal, ceramic or silica sand v. BELOS to aired the sand grain in the mould or the cavity vi. STRIP BAR to strip or flatten the sand on the surface of the moulding box, made by steel vii. LADLE for mould finishing job as to fix broken mould, make a groove for molten metal stream, adding or reducing mould parts viii. GATE CUTTER & SQUIRE, MOULDING THROWEL to fix small damage in the cavity and create a channel for molten metal flow ix. RAMMER to compact or compress the sand casting while making the mould in the moulding box, made by wood or metal x. VENTILATION ROD to create ventilation holes so the heat and air contain in the mould can be departed xi. POWDER BAG fill with parting powder which will be scatter on the pattern before ramming the sand over

xii. SPRUE to create a channel for getting system of the molten metal (runner and riser) xiii. DRAW PIN to draw out the pattern from sand mould xiv. SKIMMING LADLE to skim the slag/ impurities floating in the molten metal in the furnace xv. DEGASING PLUNGER to release the gas trapped in the molten metal xvi. SIEVER to gain finer sand before ramming the sand

12. Processing steps : i) Step 1 : the drag (lower moulding box) in upside down position and placed on top of a flat and clean plate ensure the floor also flatted

Fig 1: Moulding box for sand mould casting

ii) Step 2 : lower part of the split pattern placed in the drag the parting powder scattered over the pattern and the plate

Figure above shows the process for preparing a mould for casting. For that, the type of pattern use is split pattern and also using a green sand core.
Fig 2: Preparing the pattern for the sand ramming

iii) Step 3 : finer sand gain from sieving process place around and over the pattern for 3cm of thickness by pressing with the fingers, the finer sand then pressed to the pattern and around it compactedly ensure that the pattern are still while the sand compacted
Fig 4: Adding and compressing the sand

v) Step 5 : by using a strip bar, stripped/flatten the surface of the compressed sand the bar pulled from a conner to another by moving it to the right and left

Fig 3: Pressing the finer sand around and over the pattern

iv) Step 4 : then add the rest of the sand for into the moulding box use a rammer to compact the sand with slow stroke add more sand over the moulding box and compressed it with harder stroke continue/ repeat this process until gaining compacted sand over the moulding box
Fig 5 : Stripped/ flatten the sand surface

vi) Step 6 : flip the drag so that the pattern would be on top, then place the cope on top of the drag lock both cope and drag together

viii)

Step 8 : sieve the sand in the moulding box to gain 3cm of finer sand around and over the pattern compress the sand with fingers add and ram the sand same as the fourth step

Fig 6: The position of cope and drag

vii) Step 7 : upper split pattern placed on top of the lower pattern in the drag perfectly, then placed the sprues (runner and riser) in the suitable positions shattered the parting powder over the pattern, sprues and the sand surface in the drag ix) Step 9 : use a strip bar to striped/flatten the surface of sand in the cope use a ladle to strip the sand surface around the sprues
Fig 8: The sand mould after eighth step

Fig 7: The position of the pattern and the sprues

Fig 9: Strippen/flatten the sand mould using a strip bar

x) Step 10 : twist the sprues, then pull it out slowly use a ventilation rod to make ventilation holes at the sand mould surface

xii)

Step 12 : a channel for molten metal flow create using gate cutter and squire the channel should connect the sprue cavities and the mould cavity the channel function as a guide for the molten metal to flow to the mould cavity through sprue cavities

Fig 10: Pulling out the sprue

Fig 10: The ventilation rod usage

xi) Step 11 : separate both boxes (cope and drag) and flip it to retrieve the split pattern before retrieve the pattern, knock it slowly so that the pattern and the sand surface are loosen use draw pins to retrieve both pattern sides from the mould the cavity will formed after retrieving the pattern xiii) Step 13 : core will be place in the lower cavity mould then the upper moulding box (cope) will be place back to its position (on top of drag)
Fig 12: Channels for molten metal flow

Fig 13: Core position in the moulding box Fig 11: The boxes part (cope and drag ) are separated to retrieve the pattern

xiv) Step 14 : using moulding throwel, a basin for pouring the molten metal into are made on the surface of the cope beside a sprue cavity called the runner the ready for pouring molten metal mould brought closer to the furnace the molten metal poured into the basin, flowing through the runner and straight to the cavity after the molten metal solidify, the product can be retrieve by breaking the mould

4. Casting metal : steel and alloys, aluminium, copper, magnesium, cobalt and nickel. 5. The advantages : i. ii. iii. iv. i. an accurate measurement up to 0.005mm can be achieve smoother and no parting line appearance on the surface complicated shape can be cast no need for machining process highly in costing process, only for component that are little in production and complicated shape which in need of accurate measurement ii. iii. unsuitable for massive casting problem occur when in need of core usage

6. The disadvantages :

Fig 14: Pouring the molten metal into the mould process

3.4 Lost-wax/Investment Casting 1. In this process, molten metal are poured into a mould made by heat resistance material which made with wax. 2. The wax pattern then will be molten and flow out, leaving a ceramic mould, molten metal poured in the mould, filling the cavity. 3. Generally, it is used to produce small component with complicated shape and in need of highly accuracity such as sawing machine component, key, guns, etc.
Products produce by lost-wax casting

7. Steps in producing lost-wax casting: i) Step 1 : lost-wax casting pattern made by wax types of wax used for this process : paraffin, bee wax, acrawax and resin (dammar). the wax pattern then dipped into concentrated material heat resistance coating to gain smoother surface for inside wall of the mould iii) Step 3 : the wax pattern then heated in a furnace between 100C to 200C the wax will be melt and flow out or lost to form a cavity in the mould

Fig 3: The wax melt and flow out or lost Fig 1: A wax pattern for lost-wax casting

ii) Step 2 : the wax pattern coated with heat resistance material then put into metal mould box or a flask molten material are inserted into the mould box then, let it solidifies all over the box to form a mould the molten material consist of harden material and silica sand figure shows how a pattern posted in the mould and the molten material poured into the box

iv) Step 4 : the mould will be retrieved from the furnace and flipped upside down the molten metal will be poured into the cavity when its solidify, the casting product can be retrieved

Fig 2: The pattern positioned on the mould box

3.5 Pressure Die Casting 1. 2. This process is for materials which has low melting temperature such as aluminium and zinc alloy but not for iron. This process operated by injecting molten metal into metal mould under the pressure. Molten metal or half melt metal are pushed in or injected into mould cavity with the pressure of 20 to 2000 kg/cm2 and the pressure stays until the metal solidifies. 3. The type of mould used is permanent mould made by metal and consists of two parts : fixed part and moveable part, the mould also has air ventilations to expel the air trapped in the mould when the casting process occurs. 4. The casting machine divided into five parts/ mechanism : i. for opening and shutting the mould mechanism ii. for pushing or injecting the metal into the mould mechanism iii. for locking the mould until the metal solidifies mechanism iv. for insert and retrieve core automatically mechanism v. ejector pin for ejecting the cast product from the mould 5. There are two types of casting machine : hot chamber and cold chamber (a) the hot chamber machine : the melting metal furnace is part of the machine (b) the cold chamber machine : the melting metal furnace is not part of the machine, can be found in horizontal and vertical position 6. Because of the mould made by metal, higher cooling rate can be achieved compared to the sand mould. This help metals such as

aluminium alloys and zinc to produce similar crystal structures with finer grains. 7. The mould is made by special steel and known as die, tougher metal/ alloy with higher price and cost for making the mould are expensive. It is a permanent mould and can be use repeatedly. 8. Advantages : economical and suitable for small component with mass production. 9. Complicated shape and thinner cross-section can be achieve with this process, holes defect can be reduce because of there is no air bubble trapped because it has been pressed out by pressure. 10. There is not need for runner and riser and it also lessen the usage of material and production cost. 11. Applications : components for refrigerator, automotive, fans and washing machine.

Products made by pressure die casting

12. Casting metals : (a) hot chamber process : zinc, tin (stanum), plumbum and alloy with low melting temperature (b) cold chamber process : aluminium, magnesium, brass alloy and non ferrous alloy with low melting temperature 13. Steps in making products for pressure die casting : i) Step 1 : molten metal inserted into the chamber

iii)

Step 3 : retrieving the core and output die retreat backward

iv) Step 4 : the ejector pin will eject the product out from die

ii) Step 3 : a piston pushing/ injecting the molten metal into the die cavity

14. The advantages : (a) in need of less working area compared to other casting processes (b) the outputs are all similar (c) surface finishing highly achieve compared to other processes (d) products or components with complicated shape can be produce (e) suitable for mass production because highly in production rate which upto 8000 casting per hour (f) job cost are low and the operator only need less training 15. The disadvantages : (a) cost for mould and equipment are higher (b) the casting are limited (c) casting size are limited (d) limited only to metal or alloy which has low melting temperature (e) mould durability are lessen if the melting temperature for metal are higher (f) in need of expert workers for maintenance and mould supervise

3.5 The Advantages and Disadvantages Of Casting Process Sand Casting Alloy/ metal that can be cast/ process Comparison of mechanical properties Surface finishing Possibility of forming complicated shape Medium Good Better Better Better Better Medium All Pressure Die Casting Alloy based of Cu, Zn, Al Better Good All Lost-wax Casting

3.6 Heat Treatment for Steel Heat treatment is a sequence of heating and cooling designed to get the desired combination of properties in the steel. The changes in the properties of steel after heat treatment are due to the phase transformations and structural changes that occur during the heat treatment. Heat treatment process : 1. treatment for stable structure / soften the structure :
1. 2. 3. Full Annealing Stress Relieving Annealing Spheroidizing Annealing

3.6.1 Purpose of Steel Heat Treatment 1. Increase strength and hardness 2. Repairing the ductility 3. Changing the grain size and chemical composition 4. Repairing the machine-ability 5. Stress relieving 6. Hardening 7. Changing the electricity and magnetic properties 3.6.2 Recrystallization

i) Annealing ii) Normalizing

2. treatment for unstable structure / harden the structure : i) Quenching ii) Tempering

Recrystallization process (a) Before working (b) After cold working- the grain of the metal becomes distorted and internal stresses are introduced into the metal. (c) Nucleation commences at recrystallization temperature (d) Crystals commence to grow as atoms migrate from the original crystals and attach themselves to the nuclei (e) After annealing is complete the grain structure is restored

3.6.3 Heat Treatment Process and Its Effects to Steel

Material is heated to certain temperature Soaked to enough time (medium) and let the changing happen Cooled to certain rate

3.6.4.2 Stress Relieving Annealing It is a low temperature (about 500C) annealing treatment applied to cold worked steels. In practice, it is carried out between 630C and 700C to speed up the process and limit the grain growth. It results in lowering of the residual stresses, thereby lessening the risk of distortion in machining. This process only for steel with less than 0.4% carbon. The advantages of this process compared to full annealing: i. ii. iii. iv. lessen fuel cost because the process only used low temperature lessen the maintenance cost because the furnace and charging material operate in lower temperature no oxidation to steel at low temperature quicker processed than the full annealing with less ira (grain) growth and mechanic properties can be repaired 3.6.4.3 Spheroidizing Annealing 50 oC Heating and cooling to produce a spheroidal form of carbide in steel called spheroidizing. Desired for minimum hardness, maximum ductility and highest machine-ability. Applied to high carbon steels.

3.6.4 Annealing Annealing is heating the steel over the upper critical temperature and then cooling slowly through the transformation range. Slow cooling is generally achieved in a closed furnace by switching-off the supply. The purposes of annealling : i. ii. iii. iv. to reduce hardness to improve machine-ability to relieve internal stresses to produce the necessary microstructure

3.4.4.1 Full Annealling Full annealing is heating and soaking (2 hours) the material, depends on the thickness of the component and followed with slow cooling process in the furnace. i. ii. Steel :0.83% carbon (<0.83% C), heated to 25 50 oC above the upper critical temperature high carbon steel (>0.83% C) the temperature are above the lower critical temperature (723C)

Lamelar Pearlite Pearlite commences to Spheriodization of ball up Balling up completed Pearlite Cementite

3.6.6 Quenching Finer grain/ira and simplify spheroidising process is used to soften plain carbon steels which have been work hardened/quench hardened. Heating the steel upto upper critical temperature followed by rapid cooling (steel is immersed in a liquid bath such as water or oil). Purpose : to increase hardness, strength and wear resistance. Rapid cooling : austenite has no time to change into pearlite but forming the body-centered-tetragonal crystals as the supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron called martensite. 3.6.5 Normalizing Defined as heating the steel 50oC above the upper critical temperature and cooling it in the air. Purpose : to gain the fine grain structure to improved strength and toughness but reduce its ductility and malleability. The temperature and timing are controlled to avoid grain growth. Caused by distorts lattice, the structures appears as a cicular (needle-shaped). It becomes very hard and brittle depends upon 1. the carbon contents 2. heating temperature 3. heating timing 4. cooling starting temperature 5. cooling rate. Quenching media : o o o salt water cool water/ pipe oil solution

3.6.7 Case Hardening A process for hardening a ferrous material. The surface layer (case), is substantially harder than the remaining material, known as the core. Carbon is added to the surface layers of a low carbon steel or low alloy steel component to a carefully regulated depth. Following by heat treatment process to harden the case and refine the core. There are 2 case hardening processes : 1. Carburizing / Surface Hardening 2. Nitriding 3.6.7.1 Carburizing Carbon content at the surface of a ferrous material is increased by heating process above 910oC. Purpose : to obtain hard martensite phase at the surface. There are two methods used : a) pack carburizing b) gas carburizing Pack Carburizing in steel boxes, then heated to the carburizing temperature followed by cooling in air. 2. Carburizing compounds = carburizing agents and energizers 3. Carburizing agents : hardwood charcoal and coke

4. Energizers : barium and sodium carbonates, helps in producing higher amounts of carbon monoxide and more active carbon. Gas Carburizing Part to be carburized is heated in gaseous medium rich in carbon. Commonly used gases : natural gas, oven gas, butane, propane and liquid hydrocarbon.

1. Parts to be carburized are packed with carburizing compounds Case hardening

Case Carbon Content Temperature 1.0%C Hardening Temperature : 760C Quenched Medium Air quenched Reheating Air quenched 0.3%C

Core

Annealing Temperature : 870C Grain growth Water quenched to gain fine grain

3.6.7.2 Nitriding A case hardening process by increasing the nitrogen content at the surface of steel. Nitrogen gas is absorbed into the surface of the metal to form very hard nitrides. Heating the components in ammonia gas at between 500 600oC for over 40 hours. At this temperature, the ammonia gas breaks down and the nitrogen atomic is readily absorbed into the surface of the steel. Examples of components : mould block, pump shaft, printing die, and brake drum. The advantages : i. Cracking and distortion are eliminated since the processing temperature is relatively low ii. Corrosion resistance of the steel is improved iii.The treated components retain their hardness when the temperature is increased up to 500oC iv. Surface harnesses as high as 1100 HV v. Suitable for treated large amount of components The disadvantages : i. Capital cost for plant are higher ii. Alloy steel for this process are highly cost iii. A long time process and in need of neat monitoring

3.6.8 Tempering Heating previous hardened steel to a temperature (below the lower critical temperature) and cooling back to room temperature. Purposes : i. Relief of internal stresses occurred after quenching ii. Increasing the toughness and ductility iii. Reduced the hardness and strength Even though this process softened the steel, tempering is different from annealing because the last structure achieved named Tempered Martensite. The temperature above the lower critical temperature allowing the grain growth and causing the grain to be rougher which will affect the strength. Suggested temperatures as shown in the next table.
Tempering temperature (oC) 220 240 250 280 saw blade drill bit, milling cutting tool mould, puncher chisel Usage

All

hardened

steels

must

be

tempered

immediately after hardening/quenching.

Activity 1 :
Tempering Temperature ( C ) 230-400C TROOSITE Hard and brittle martensite transforms into fine pearlitic structure in granular shape. Tougher but less hard than martensite. Carbon steel cutting tool. 400-600C Cementite particles ball up. Tougher and more ductile than troosite. Components subjected to shock loads; spring. Similarity Similar in the original form and only different in grain size and they called TEMPERED MARTENSITE. SORBITE