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AERODYNAMICS FOR ENGINEERS

Fourth Edition

JOHN J. BERTIN
Department of Aeronautics United States Air Force Academy

Prentice Hall

Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Contents

PREFACE CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

xiii 1

1.1 1.2 1.3

Concept of a Fluid 1 Fluid as a Continuum 2 Fluid Properties 2

2.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 Temperature, 3 Pressure, 3 Density, 3 Viscosity, 5 Kinematic Viscosity, 6 Speed of Sound, 8

1.4 1.5 1.6

Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid Medium The Standard Atmosphere 12 Summary 14 Problems 14 References 16

CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MECHANICS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction to Fluid Dynamics 17 Conservation of Mass 19 Conservation of Linear Momentum 22 AoDlications to Constant-Prooertv Flows

17

vi 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Reynolds Number and Mach Number as Similarity Parameters 32 Concept of the Boundary Layer 36 Conservation of Energy 38 First Law of Thermodynamics 38 Derivation of the Energy Equation 40 2.9.1 Integral Form of the Energy Equation, 43 2.9.2 Energy of the System, 43 2.9.3 Flow Work, 44 2.9.4 Viscous Work, 44 2.9.5 Shaft Work, 45 2.9.6 Application of the Integral Form of the Energy Equation, 45 Summary 46

Contents

, i

2.10

Problems 47 References 55

CHAPTER 3

DYNAMICS OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE, INVISCID FLOW FIELD

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 Inviscid Flows 56 Bernoulli's Equation 57 Use of Bernoulli's Equation to Determine Airspeed 60 The Pressure Coefficient 62 Circulation 64 Irrotational Flow 66 Kelvin's Theorem 67 3.7.1 Implication of Kelvin's Theorem, 67 Incompressible, Irrotational Flow 3.8.1 Boundary Conditions, 68 68

56

Stream Function in a Two-Dimensional, Incompressible Flow 68 Relation Between Streamlines and Equipotential Lines 70 Superposition of Flows 72 Elementary Flows 73 3.12.1 Uniform Flow, 73 3.12.2 Source or Sink, 73 3.12.3 Doublet, 75 3.12.4 Potential Vortex, 75 3.12.5 Summary of Stream Functions and of Potential Functions, 78 Adding Elementary Flows to Describe Flow Around a Cylinder 79 3.13.1 Velocity Field, 79 3.13.2 Pressure Distribution, 80 3.13.3 Lift and Drag, 83 Lift and Drag Coefficients as Dimensionless Flow-Field Parameters 85

3.13

3.14

Contents

vii

3.15

Flow Around a Cylinder with Circulation 3.15.1 Velocity Field, 89 3.15.2 Lift and Drag, 90 Source Density Distribution on the Body Surface 92 Incompressible, Axisymmetric Flow 3.17.1 Flow Around a Sphere, 96 Summary 99

89

3.16 3.17 3.18 /

96

Problems 99 References 108 CHAPTER 4 VISCOUS BOUNDARY LAYERS 4.1 Equations Governing the Boundary Layer for a Steady, Two-Dimensional, Incompressible Flow 110 Boundary Conditions 113 Incompressible, Laminar Boundary Layer 113 4.3.1 Numerical Solutions for the Falkner-Skan Problem, 116 Boundary-Layer Transition 128 Incompressible, Turbulent Boundary Layer 130 4.5.1 Derivation of the Momentum Equation for Turbulent Boundary Layer, 131 4.5.2 Approaches to Turbulence Modeling, 133 4.5.3 Turbulent Boundary Layer for a Flat Plate, 134 Eddy Viscosity and Mixing Length Concepts 137 Integral Equations for a Flat-Plate Boundary Layer 140 4.7.1 Application of the Integral Equations to a Turbulent, Flat-Plate Boundary Layer, 141 4.7.2 Integral Solutions for a Turbulent Boundary Layer with a Pressure Gradient, 145 Thermal Boundary Layer for Constant-Property Flows 146 4.8.1 Reynolds Analogy, 147 4.8.2 Thermal Boundary Layer for Pr 1,148 Summary 151 109

4.2 4.3

4.4 4.5

4.6 4.7

4.8

4.9

Problems 151 References 155 CHAPTER 5 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS FOR AIRFOIL AND WING AERODYNAMICS 5.1 Characterization of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 156 5.1.1 General Comments, 156 5.1.2 Parameters That Govern Aerodynamic Forces, 158

156

VIII

Contents 5.2 Airfoil Geometry Parameters 159 5.2.1 Airfoil-Section Nomenclature, 159 5.2.2 Leading-Edge Radius and Chord Line, 160 5.2.3 Mean Camber Line, 161 5.2.4 Maximum Thickness and Thickness Distribution, 161 5.2.5 Trailing-Edge Angle, 162 Wing-Geometry Parameters 162 Aerodynamic Force and Moment Coefficients 5.4.1 Lift Coefficient, 169 5.4.2 Moment Coefficient, 173 5.4.3 Drag Coefficient, 175 5.4.4 Boundary-Layer Transition, 178 5.4.5 Effect of Surface Roughness on the Aerodynamic Forces, 181 Wings of Finite Span 183 5.5.7 Lift, 183 5.5.2 Drag, 186 5.5.3 Lift/Drag Ratio, 190 Problems 193 References 197 169

5.3 5.4

5.5

CHAPTER 6

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOWS AROUND OF INFINITE SPAN 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

AIRFOILS 198

General Comments 198 Circulation and the Generation of Lift 6.2.1 Starting Vortex, 200

199

General Thin-Airfoil Theory 201 Thin, Flat-Plate Airfoil (Symmetric Airfoil) Thin, Cambered Airfoil 207 6.5.1 Vorticity Distribution, 207 6.5.2 Aerodynamic Coefficients for a Cambered Airfoil, 209 High-Lift Airfoil Sections 216 Multielement Airfoil Sections for Generating High Lift 221 High-Lift Military Airfoils 226 Problems 227 References 229

203

6.6 6.7 6.8

CHAPTER 7

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW ABOUT WINGS OF FINITE SPAN 7.1 7.2 7.3 General Comments 230 Vortex System 233 Lifting-line Theory For Unswept Wings

230

233

Contents 7.3.1 Trailing Vortices and Downwash, 236 7.3.2 Case of Elliptic Spanwise Circulation Distribution, 239 7.3.3 Technique for General Spanwise Circulation Distribution, 244 7.3.4 Lift on the Wing, 248 7.3.5 Vortex-Induced Drag, 248 7.3.6 Some Final Comments on Lifting-Line Theory, 254

ix

1A
.; 7.5

Panel Methods 256

7.4.1 Boundary Conditions, 257 7.4.2 Methods, 258 Vortex Lattice Method 260 7.5.1 Velocity Induced by a General Horseshoe Vortex, 263 7.5.2 Application of the Boundary Conditions, 266 7.5.3 Relations for a Planar Wing, 268 Factors Affecting Drag Due-to-Lift at Subsonic Speeds 278 Delta Wings 281 Leading-Edge Extensions 290 Asymmetric Loads on the Fuselage at High Angles of Attack 293 7.9.1 Asymmetric Vortex Shedding, 294 7.9.2 Wakelike Flows, 297 Flow Fields for Aircraft at High Angles of Attack 297 Summary 298 Problems 299 References 300

7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

7.10 7.11

CHAPTER 8

DYNAMICS OF A COMPRESSIBLE FLOW FIELD 8.1 Thermodynamic Concepts 304 8.1.1 Specific Heats, 304 8.1.2 Additional Relations, 306 8.1.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Reversibility, 306 8.1.4 Speed of Sound, 308 Adiabatic Flow in a Variable-Area Streamtube 310 Isentropic Flow in a Variable-Area Streamtube 314 Characteristic Equations and Prandtl-Meyer Flow 321 Shockwaves 328 Viscous Boundary Layer 337 8.6.1 Effects of Compressibility, 338 8.6.2 Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interactions, 343

303

8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Problems 344 References 348

Contents

CHAPTER 9

COMPRESSIBLE, SUBSONIC FLOWS AND TRANSONIC FLOWS 9.1 Compressible, Subsonic Flow 350 9.1.1 Linearized Theory for Compressible Subsonic Flow About a Thin Wing at Relatively Small Angles ofAttack, 350 Transonic Flow Past Unswept Airfoils 354 9.2.1 Supercritical Airfoil Sections, 362 Swept Wings at Transonic Speeds 364 9.3.1 Wing-Body Interactions and the "Area Rule," 366 Forward Swept Wing 375 Transonic Aircraft 377 Summary 380 Problems 380 References 380

349

9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6

CHAPTER 10 TWO-DIMENSIONAL, SUPERSONIC FLOWS AROUND THIN AIRFOILS 10.1 Linear Theory 384 10.1.1 Lift, 385 10.1.2 Drag, 387 10.1.3 Pitching Moment, 388 Second-Order Theory (Busemann's Theory) Shock-Expansion Technique 393 Problems 398 References 400 CHAPTER 11 SUPERSONIC FLOWS OVER WINGS AND AIRPLANE CONFIGURATIONS 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 General Remarks About Lift and Drag 402 General Remarks About Supersonic Wings 404 Governing Equation and Boundary Conditions 406 Consequences of Linearity 407 Solution Methods 407 Conical-Flow Method 408 11.6.1 Rectangular Wings, 408 11.6.2 Swept Wings, 413 11.6.3 Delta and Arrow Wings, 417 Singularity-Distribution Method 419 11.7.1 Find the Pressure Distribution Given the Configuration, 420 11.7.2 Numerical Method for Calculating the Pressure Distribution Given the Configuration, 428 391

383

10.2 10.3

401

11.7

Contents 11.7.3 Numerical Method for the Determination of Camber Distribution, 440

11.8 11.9

Design Considerations for Supersonic Aircraft 443 Some Comments About the Design of the SST andoftheHSCT 446
11.9.1 The Supersonic Transport (SST), the Concorde, 446 11.9.2 The High-Speed Civil Transport (HSCTj, 446 11.9.3 Classifying High-Speed Aircraft Designs, 447

11.10 11.11

Aerodynamic Interaction 448 Aerodynamic Analysis for Complete Configurations in a Supersonic Stream 452 Problems 453 References 454

CHAPTER 12 HYPERSONIC FLOWS 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Newtonian Flow Model 458 Stagnation Region Flow-Field Properties 460 Modified Newtonian Flow 465 High L/D Hypersonic Configurations Waveriders 479 Aerodynamic Heating 485 12.5.1 Similarity Solutions for Heat Transfer, 488 A Hypersonic Cruiser for the Twenty-First Century? 490 Importance of Interrelating CFD, Ground-Test Data, and Flight-Test Data 494 Problems 496 References 497 CHAPTER 13 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 13.1 High-Lift Configurations
13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.3 13.1.4 13.1.5

457

500

500

Increasing the Area, 500 Increasing the Lift Coefficient, 502 Flap Systems, 504 Multielement Airfoils, 506 Power-Augmented Lift, 509

13.2 13.3 13.4

Circulation Control Wing 513 Design Considerations For Tactical Military Aircraft 514 Drag Reduction 517
13.4.1 Variable-Twist, Variable-Camber Wings, 517 13.4.2 Laminar-Flow Control, 519 13.4.3 Winglets, 520

xii 13.5 Development of an Airframe Modification to Improve the Mission Effectiveness of an Existing Airplane 522 13.5.1 TheEA-6B,522 13.5.2 The Evolution of the F-16, 526 13.5.3 External Carriage of Stores, 531 13.5.4 Additional Comments, 537 Considerations for Wing/Canard, Wing/Tail, and Tailless Configurations 537 Comments on the F-15 Design 541 The Design of the F-22 542 Problems 545 References 545 CHAPTER 14 TOOLS FOR DEFINING THE AERODYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT
14.1 CFD Tools 548 14.1.1 Semiempirical Methods, 549 14.1.2 Surface Panel Methods for Inviscid Flows, 549 14.1.3 Euler Codes for Inviscid Flow Fields, 550 14.1.4 Two-Layer Flow Models, 551 14.1.5 Computational Techniques that Treat the Entire Flow Field in a Unified Fashion, 551 14.1.6 Integrating the Diverse CFD Tools, 552

Contents

13.6 ? ' 13.7 13.8

547

14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5

Establishing the Credibility of CFD Simulations 553 Ground-Based Test Programs 555 Flight-Test Programs 558 Integration of Experimental and Computational Tools: The Aerodynamic Design Philosophy 559 References 560 562 568

APPENDIX A THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION WRITTEN IN CONSERVATION FORM APPENDIX B A COLLECTION OF OFTEN USED TABLES

INDEX

576