Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 178 (2008) 644656

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

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Volcanic facies analysis of a subaqueous basalt lava-ow complex at Hrukovec, NW Croatia Evidence of advanced rifting in the Tethyan domain
Ladislav A. Palinka a,, Vladimir Bermanec a, Sibila Borojevi otari a, Tea Kolar-Jurkovek b, Sabina Strmi Palinka a, Ferenc Molnar c, Goran Kniewald d
a

Institute of Mineralogy and Petrography, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac bb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia Geological Survey of Slovenia, Dimieva 14, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mineralogical department, Lorand Etvs University, Budapest, Hungary d Department of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Bokovi Institute, POB 180, 10 002 Zagreb, Croatia
b c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
The Hrukovec quarry of basaltoid rocks is situated on the northwestern slopes of Mt. Kalnik, within the ZagorjeMid-Transdanubian zone, a part of the North-western Dinarides. The basaltoids are inter-bedded with radiolarites of the Middle and Upper Triassic age (Langobardian, CarnianNorian). Spilites, altered diabases and meta-basalts form part of Triassic volcanic-sedimentary sequence, made of sandstones, shales, micritic limestone, altered vitric tuffs and radiolarian cherts, incorporated tectonically into the Jurassic Cretaceous mlange. The architecture of the 2 km long and 100 m high pile of the extrusive basaltoid rocks is interpreted as a subaqueous basaltic lava ow. The presented research deals with a variety of volcanic facies of the subaqueous basaltic lava ow, which consists of several facial units: 1. Coherent pillow lavas, with massive core; the bending rims around the massive core, 3050 cm thick, are dissected by polygonal columnar joints radiating from the pillow centres; 2. Closely packed pillows; densely packed and contorted pillows due to emplacement accommodation, clearly younging upward; 3. Pillow fragment breccia; clast supported, matrix poor, monomict breccia, formed proximal to the axis of the extrusion; 4. Isolated pillow breccia; matrix supported, clast poor breccia, made of lava pipes and tubes, within a matrix of ne-grained sideromelan granules and shards; 5. Pyjama-style pillows; spherical, decimetre to meter size pillow lava balls, grown and chilled in isostatic state (i.e. in a state of diminished density contrast) within water-soaked sediments, named after peculiar alternating basaltic shelves inside the sphere, which are encrusted with white secondary minerals; 6. Peperite and peperitic hyaloclastites; blocky and globular peperites developed at the contact of soft, wet sediment and hot intruding magma. Discovery of peperite and peperitic hyaloclastites within the Triassic radiolarian cherts, shales, and micritic limestone, with registration of conodonts (index microfossils), links their origin to magmatism during advanced rifting in a progressively subsiding basin during the Triassic. It precludes an afliation of the subaqueous basaltic lava ow with the dismembered ophiolite formation, a product of oceanization created in JurassicCretaceous times, which is a commonly stated alternative explanation. The basaltic rocks and their sedimentary hosts may be correlated with advanced Triassic rifting, and related volcanic-sedimentary successions in the Dinarides, Albanides, Helenides and further along the Tethyan orogenic belt. 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 1 October 2007 Accepted 19 June 2008 Available online 20 July 2008 Key words: subaqueous basaltic lava ow pillow lavas blocky peperites globular peperites Triassic rifting Dinarides Tethys ophiolites conodonts

1. Introduction The big pile of basaltoid rocks (Section 1.1. Terminology) in Hrukovec quarry, in Mt. Kalnik, is long 2 km, 1 km wide and 100 m tall, and has a low-aspect-ratio. The quarry is in full operation, and the weathering processes have not affected observations of the primary volcanic textures. The spatial distribution of lithofacies shows typical character Corresponding author. E-mail address: lpalinkas@geol.pmf.hr (L.A. Palinka). 0377-0273/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.06.037

istics of a subaqueous basaltic lava ow, with successive ination and propagation of the pile by magma supply from the master feeder zone. Deep burrowing and bulldozing into the soft sea bottom sediments and voluminous stacking of subaqueous pillows and lava-derived clastic aggregates gives a cryptodomal appearance to the architecture of the whole basaltoid stock (Rawlings, 1993; Dadd and Van Wagoner, 2002). The broader Periadriatic and Circum-Mediterranean region is characterized by a sequence of magmatism-related events from preMesozoic through Cenozoic times. The Triassic advanced rifting volcanic formations originated at the margin of the Adria microplate, an African

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promontory (Channell et al., 1979), and Jurassic ophiolites, products of the Tethyan oceanization, are formed in continuation. Their distinction and recognition in the Dinaridic orogeny, however, is obscured due to the complex mechanism of mlange formation. Geochemical and petrological discrimination of the basaltoid rocks from the Triassic and Jurassic associations failed or achieved very poor results, since the products of the nal stages of the advanced rifting magmatism were gradually approaching MORB signature close to those from the ophiolitic succession. The cornerstone of this work is the discovery of peperitic lithofacies and its sedimentary parts within the Hrukovec basaltoid stock, which bear fossil records that allow dating of the extrusion. The lithology of the host sediments, on the other hand, denes the sedimentary facies, and contributes to the paleo-environmental reconstruction, distinguishing an intraplate-basinal from the oceanic environment. The scope of this paper is a description of volcanic lithofacies and their spatial and genetical relationships, in an effort to solve the discrimination. The basaltic rocks and their sedimentary hosts may be correlated well with the volcanic-sedimentary successions of advanced Triassic rifting, in the Dinarides, Albanides, Helenides and further along the Tethyan orogenic belt, giving to the Hrukovec subaqueous basaltoid lava ow regional signicance (Kovcs et al., 2008). The solution is of benet to the geology of ore deposits, including their genesis, spatial distribution, and metallogeny (Large et al., 2001; Palinka et al., 2008). 1.1. Terminology Allodapic limestones Deep water sediment formed by turbidity currents (Meischner, 1964). Basaltoid The term basaltoid refers to the wide range of basalt related rocks, differing in structure and texture, including basalts, spilites, diabases, hydrothermaly altered basalts (greenshists, highly oxidized basalts), hyaloclastites, peperites, etc.

Conodont Small, disjunct fossil element of uncertain afnity. Index fossil since Late Precambrian to the Upper Triassic. Extrusive pillows The pillow lobes developed by extrusion of lava into water (White et al., 2000). Intrusive pillows The pillow lobes developed by invasion of lava into water-saturated hyaloclastite or sediment (Kano, 1991). Intrusive hyaloclastite Peperitic hyaloclastite, blocky peperite Isostatic state (a state of diminished density contrast). Invasion of magma into water-saturated sediments with higher density, produces condition of equilibrium, comparable to oating. 2. Geological setting Basaltic rocks of Hrukovec quarry are situated on the northwestern hillsides of Kalnik Mt., NW Croatia, in a valley of a streamlet Hrukovec, 70 km northeast from Zagreb. The rocks are situated in the NW Dinarides, in the ZagorjeMid-Transdanubian Zone (ZMTZ), which is a narrow, continuous zone, about 100 km wide and 400 km long, between two prominent fault zones, the ZagrebZemplen lineament (Mid-Hungarian Line) on the south, and the Periadriatic lineament on the north (Figs. 1 and 2). It is generally accepted that the ZMZT belongs to the Inner Dinarides, composed of Dinaridic and South Alpine lithostratigraphic units (Dimitrijevi, 1982; Pami and Tomljenovi, 1998; Haas and Kovcs, 2001). In line with current geotectonic interpretation, the ZMZT constitutes an extrusion block, displaced eastwardly by indentation of Adria into the European plate during uplift of the Alps and clockwise rotation of the ensialic microplate, named Tisia, in Tertiary time. The characteristic tectonostratigraphic units of the ZMTZ are: 1. Triassic volcanic-sedimentary formations, 2. Tectonized JurassicCretaceous ophiolitic mlange, 3. Late Cretaceous Paleocene ysch, 4. Mesozoic platform carbonate formations.

Fig. 1. Location map of the Hrukovec quarry in the Kalnik Mt., NW Croatia. The research area belongs to the ZagorjeMid-Transdanubian composite unit, formed by escape tectonics during indentation of the Adria microplate into the European continental lithosphere in Tertiary time (after Pami and Tomljenovi, 1998).

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Fig. 2. The sketch map of the Hrukovec quarry, with marked mining activity in full production (modied after Vrkljana, 1994). Large masses of basalt related rocks are interpreted as a huge subaqueous basaltic lava ow of km-size. The subaqueous basaltic lava ow shows inner and outer organization of facies developed by endogeneous growth, with steady internal ination. The subaqueous basaltic lava ow was accommodated at the sea bottom, an interface between two environments, waterwater-saturated sediment, that developed contrasting styles of pillows, hyaloclastites and peperites. The spatial arrangement of the studied facies is marked by numbers.

Fig. 3. Large masses of basaltoid rocks are emplaced within Triassic sediments, and incorporated into the Jurassic/Cretaceous olistrome mlange. The major facies are presented as the sketch on the mining front.

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The complex fabric of the extrusive basaltoid rocks with a wide spectrum of structures and textures was recorded by petrologists as early as mid-nineteen century (Fig. 2.; Wolf, 18611862; Kipati, 1913). Their peculiar incorporation within a chaotic Upper Cretaceous sediment formation made of sandstones, shales, altered vitric tuffs, radiolarian cherts, and olistoliths of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous dolomites, limestones and sandstones (the youngest limestone is of Albian, Upper Cretaceous age) and obscure roots or feeder zones gave way to a variety of genetical interpretations. Association of basaltoids within Cretaceous sediments supported a long-lived hypothesis on existence of Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary formations and extrusion of basalt lavas in the Upper Cretaceous time (Vrkljan, 1994). Pami (1997) reinterpreted geological and petrological data and attributed the chaotic Cretaceous formation to a Jurassic olistostrome mlange, subsequently strongly tectonized, correlated with similar formations in the Internal Dinarides, the Bkk Mts. in Hungary, and elsewhere along the Tethyan alpine system. The Hrukovec basaltoid rocks were declared to be a part of a dismembered ophiolitic suite, tectonically emplaced in the mlange. The interpretation of Pami (1997) still nurses a dilemma: Do the basaltoid rocks in Hrukovec quarry constitute a pillow lava formation borne as a part of the Tethyan oceanic lithosphere, or do they represent a product of advanced Tethyan rifting, heralding the birth of the new ocean? Hrukovec quarry with uncovered volcanics and related sediments offers a unique opportunity to approach this question. On the basis of radiolarian biostratigraphy, the age of the interbedded radiolarites is Middle Carnian to Norian. The superposition and concordant relationship of the chert with the underlying pillow lavas, at the nearby Kestenik locality, Kalnik Mt., denes their Upper Triassic age (Halami and Gorian, 1995). A chert level, 1 m above the pillow lava complex, is dated by radiolarian as Ladinian (Langobardian). It places the age of the pillow lavas of Hrukovec in the Middle Triassic time (Gorian et al., 2005). Discovery of conodonts with fragmentary preservation in

Fig. 5. Closely packed pillows, sized from dekameters to meters, with clear accommodation emplacement, and younging upward. Proximal position relative to the master feeder zone.

the peperite carbonate matrix, constrained the Hrukovec pillow lava to be of Triassic age (Palinka et al., 2000). 3. Volcanic facies Large masses of basaltoid rocks, emplaced within Triassic sediments, and mixed intimately within Jurassic/Cretaceous olistostrome mlange, consists of dismembered, km-sized blocks of pillow lavas (Fig. 3). A single stock of lavas, in the Hrukovec quarry, associated with lime and siliciclastics, has a low-aspect-ratio (2000 m 100 m), assuming pseudocryptodomal appearance (Fig. 3, Palinka et al., 1998). The stocks of lavas show internal and external facies organization. From the axial part of the stock, following volcanic facies can be recognized: 1. Massive core, with coherent basalt lava; 2. Closely packed pillows; 3. Pillow fragment breccia; 4. Isolated pillow breccia; 5. Pyjama-style pillows and 6. Peperite and peperitic hyaloclastites. Similar facies have been recognized by Doyle (2000). These facies are described in the following subsections. 3.1. Massive core, with coherent basalt lava The exposed section of the massive core with coherent lava shows concentric banding (Fig. 4). The banding rims are thick 3050 cm, dissected by polygonal columnar joints radiating from the center. The banding gradually becomes thinner and the radii greater assuming 2 m toward the margin of the facies. The width of the exposed

Fig. 4. Massive core, with coherent lava, was the master feeder zone. The banding (A) does not represent ow pattern, but rather cooling isothermal surfaces, inferred from geometry of columnar joints (B) perpendicular to the banding.

Fig. 6. Decreasing magma propagation from the master feeder zone produces pillows with wider inter-pillow space, lled with sideromelan shards (B), due to invasion of the sea water and enhanced quenching. Their more comfortable accommodation enables less distorted shape of pillows. The feeding channel (A) is lled with secondary hydrothermal minerals.

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coherent basalt lava is decameter-sized. The basalt has gray color, and represents the freshest juvenile rock in the quarry. The massive core grades vertically and laterally into the facies of closely packed pillows. 3.2. Facies of closely packed pillows This facies consists of irregular, bent and squeezed, closely packed pillows. The boundary with the former facies is tectonic, along the subvertical fault, but displacement is on the decametre scale. The pillows vary in size from decimetre to half a meter (Fig. 5). The chilled, dark green, chloritized rims separate the green and gray, densely packed lobes. In the case when inter-pillow space is lled with sideromelane shards and spalls, cemented by sparry calcite and quartz, the lobes are usually reddened by hydrothermal oxidation. Laterally, the pillows are less distorted with tortoise shell joints and centrally placed intra-pillow cavities. The central feeding channel is lled with secondary hydrothermal minerals. The quantity of shards and spalls increases among the less distorted pillows (Fig. 6). 3.3. Facies of pillow fragment breccia Pillow fragment breccia, clast supported and matrix poor, is a monomict assemblage of lava tubes and pipe fragments. It is sparsely vesicular, and hosts pie-shaped segments with sideromelane selvedges. The size of the clasts is in the centimeter to decimeter scale. The coarse matrix of curviplanar, cuneiform, blocky shards and spalled glassy rinds, at places with preserved jigsaw-t structures, is cemented by sparry calcite and quartz (Fig. 7). The sideromelane fragments and shards in the

Fig. 7. Pillow fragment breccia, clast supported, matrix poor, is a monomict breccia of lava tube and pipe fragments, assembled into jigsaw-t pattern, on the top and aside of the lava pile escarpment with steep slopes. This is roll down material from the top of the subaqueous basaltic lava ow, transported insignicantly.

Fig. 8. (a). Pillow fragment breccia; matrix supported, clast poor, contains spherical lava pipes (A and B), with or without central cavity lled with secondary minerals, placed within nely comminuted pillow shards (C). This is a distal facies related the axial part of the subaqueous basaltic lava ow. (b). Isolated pillow breccia, besides spherical pipes contains also squeezed and bent ones (A), pillow shards (B). (c). Central hollow in the pillow pipe (A), lled with secondary hydrothermal minerals (calcite, quartz, zeolite, pumpellyite, prehnite, etc.), pillow shards (B).

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Fig. 9. Perfectly rounded pillow ball, sized 2 m, derived by borrowing of magma within soft, water-soaked mud, under isostatic condition, the reason why the pillow did not experienced accommodation contortion.

jigsaw-t texture are occasionally slightly rotated. The broken tubes and pipes, hollowed by intra-pillow cavities with white hydrothermal minerals, gradually pass into the facies of isolated pillow breccia. 3.4. Facies of isolated pillow breccia The facies of isolated pillow breccia is matrix supported and clast poor (Fig. 8a,b,c). It is composed of spherical lava pipes with centrally placed cavities, lled with sparry calcite and quartz. Lava tubes, ranging in diameter from centimeters to decimeters, clasts of locally broken and curved pillow segments, and lava globules are supported by a matrix rich in ne-grained sideromelane granules and shards. The lava globules (droplets) are perfectly shaped basalt balls (centimeters to decimeters in size), usually with spherulitic crust. The isolated pillow breccia facies, beside hosting spherical lava tubes and pipes, may also incorporate squeezed and bent ones. These are also supported by nely granulated and spallated matrix. 3.5. Facies of pyjama-style pillows The perfect, spherical, pillow lava balls, from dm to meter size, possess parallel bands of intra-pillow cavities. A number of distinctive alternating shelves, resembling a pyjama pattern, suggest the name pyjama-style pillows (Fig. 9). The shelves consist of green, chloritized or reddened basalt with secondary hydrothermal minerals (calcite, quartz, zeolite, pumpellyite, prehnite). The shelves are horizontal and smooth, while the ceiling is irregular, drapery and arced (Figs. 10, 11). The incipient stage of the pyjama lobe formation is exhibited on Fig. 12. Below the contorted intrusive pillows is the peperitic facies, developed in lime mud (Fig. 13). Expressive

Fig. 11. The cartoon depicts successive events of pyjama pillows formation. The process is interplay between alternating draining of lava from the pillow ball and intrusion of sea water into the emptied hole, followed by deposition of hydrothermal minerals.

Fig. 10. The pyjamas-style pillows attain at places more than ten shelves. The shelves have two walls, the ceiling has an irregular, drapery and arced surface, while the bottom has a horizontal and smooth one.

Fig. 12. The incipient stage of formation of the pyjama pillows starts with an obstructed progress of magma into the host and which caused draining of magma out of the pillow.

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Fig. 13. Contortion of an intrusive pyjama pillow at the water/sediment interface is generated, by spoiling of isostasy and stacking of extrusive pillows (A), formed in the sea water above. Below the contorted pillow (B) is lime mud, frequently incorporated in the pillow itself.

Fig. 15. Basaltic pod (A) formed by intrusion of magma into clayey, soft sediment (B) producing siliciclastic peperites.

spherulitization over the glassy sideromelane rinds on the outer lobate surface of the pillows is a common feature (Fig. 14). 3.6. Facies of peperites In Hrukovec, the sediments involved in the peperite formation display a range in composition, but not so much in grain size. Finegrained carbonate lime, clayey and silicious mud turned into the lithied micritic limestones, red shales and cherts over time. The basaltic pods protrude into the muddy host (Fig. 15). In Fig 16, an approximately 20 cm wide dyke penetrated lime sediment, and branched laterally into sills of a few centimetres in width. The two textural types of peperites dominate: 1. Blocky peperites (intrusive hyaloclastite, peperitic hyaloclastite), commonly exhibiting a jigsaw-t texture (Fig. 17). 2. Globular (uidal) peperites (Fig. 18). The globular peperites (lensoidal, bulbous, lobate, cauliower, etc.) vary in size from centimeter to decimeter, but have common characteristics: quenched, glassy rinds, primarily made of sideromelane, often chloritized and occur at the basalt-sediment contact (Fig. 19). Epidotization is widespread in cases where the host is composed of water-saturated carbonate sediment and experienced expressive uidization (intensive mixing of shards and spalls with lime mud, Figs. 19, 20; Hunns and McPhie, 1999). The blocky peperites do not display sideromelane rinds or other evidence for hydrothermal

interaction of basalt and wet sediment (e.g. chloritization, epidotization). However, careful examination reveals tiny convex, globular boundaries, lined with chlorite and epidote seams, as well as pieshaped clasts with thin sideromelane, glassy rims on the convex side (Figs. 17, 21). In Fig. 22, pillow lobe (A) protrudes into soft lime mud, followed by the surrounding satellite lobes (B), like a blossoming rose, producing a thorough mixture of blocky basaltic fragments by autobrecciation. 4. Architecture of a subaqueous basalt lava ow The described volcanic lithofacies may be interpreted to represent parts of a subaqueous basaltic lava ow, which exhibits internal and

Fig. 14. Massive spherulitization over glassy sideromelane lobate rinds developed due to the prolonged cooling within thermally isolated host, which promoted devitrication.

Fig. 16. Basaltic small scale dyke (A) and sills penetrating lime sediment (B) without formation of peperite. Formation of peperite failed due to a consolidated nature of the sediment with low content of water. Micritic limestone possesses recognizable, small scale graded bedding, which implies for turbidity current sedimentation, typical for allodapic, deep water sediments.

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Fig. 19. A hot basaltic magma pod (A) penetrated water-soaked limey mud. The outer rim was quenched and chloritized. Boiling of the pore water is perceived by tracks of tiny vesicles, trailing from the hot contact. It promoted spallation of chloritized rims and uidisation. Epidotization of the micritic lime diminishes progressively with the distance from the hot contact due to the drop of temperature.

4.1. Massive core, with coherent basalt lava The facies bears resemblance to the pseudopillows of the master feeder dyke, based on the observation of its margin, which is in the sharp contact with the facies of closely packed pillows, probably tectonic with slight displacement. The concentric basaltic core is developed in the nal stage of magma injection. The banding does not represent ow patterns, but indicates mode of cooling, representing isothermal surfaces. This is inferred from the geometry of columnar joints, perpendicular to the banding, and from the absence of the sideromelane rims, attesting lack of water/magma interaction. A similar endogeneous facies was described by Goto and McPhie (1998), Yamagishi (1991) and Bull and McPhie (2006). 4.2. Facies of closely packed pillows This facies consists of irregular, bent and squeezed, closely packed pillows, with clear emplacement accommodation, and younging

Fig. 17. Blocky peperite with sharp, angular shape (A), commonly exhibit jigsaw-t texture. Origin of blocky peperite is autobrecciation by protrusion of quenched and fractured borrowing magma. Micritic limestone (B) is a sedimentary part of the peperite.

external facies organization developed by endogeneous growth with steady internal ination (Fig. 23, Palinka et al., 1998). During injection of magma, the margins of the subaqueous basaltic lava ow came into contact at the water/sediment interface, with sea water above and wet sediments below. In this zone between two contrasting environments, different styles of facies were produced. From the axial part of the subaqueous basaltic lava ow, the following volcanic facies can be recognized: 1. Massive core, with coherent basalt lava; 2. Closely packed pillows; 3. Pillow fragment breccia; 4. Isolated pillow breccia; 5. Pyjama-style pillows, and 6. Peperite and peperitic hyaloclastites. Facies 2., 3. and 4. were developed above the sea water/sediment interface, facies 5. at the interface, and facies 6. below the interface.

Fig. 18. Globular peperite formed by existence of water-vapor lm at the interface magma-sediment which prevented quench fragmentation and uidisation.

Fig. 20. Close view of the former bubble vesicle trailings from the hot contact between the basaltic magma (A) and cold water-soaked limey mud. Sideromelane shards (B) are chloritized, and piled off the lava pod. Epidotization (C) is developed by interaction of lime and hot vaporized uid. The trails of bubbles mark escape of vapor (D). The vesicles were encrusted with secondary minerals forming amygdales.

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4.5. Facies of pyjama-style pillows Formation of perfect spherical pillow lava balls from dm to meters size suggests an isostatic state of magma invasion into water-saturated sediments (i.e. a state of diminished density contrast, Fig. 9, Section 1.1. Terminology). The feature develops at a marginal or distal pillow lava facies, within soft sediments, with obstructed propagation of magma ow or restricted magma supply. Interruption of the magma supply allows partial and alternately repeated draining of the lobe to the level of shelf (McPhie et al., 1993), which is immediately chilled by water. That is why the shelves are horizontal and smooth, while the ceiling is irregular, drapery and arced (Fig. 10). Fig. 11 depicts the succession of events forming pyjama-style pillows. The incipient stage of the pyjama lobe formation is exhibited on Fig. 12. The magma lobe was obstructed in its propagation into the host and the pillow commenced to produce shelves (Ballard and Moor, 1977). Pyjama-style pillows formed at the water/sediment interface and may be contorted due to disturbed isostatic conditions (Fig. 13). Above the contorted pyjama pillow is a extrusive pillow mass, formed in the sea water, with a typical accommodation shape. The subwater, extrusive pillows compressed and deformed the underlying pyjamastyle water- saturated, intrusive pillow (Section 1.1. Terminology, extrusive and intrusive pillows). Below the contorted pillow is the peperitic facies developed in lime mud. Expressive spherulitization over the glassy sideromelane rinds on the outer lobate surface of the pyjama pillows is due to prolonged cooling within the thermally isolated environment in the host, which promoted devitrication (Fig. 14). 4.6. Facies of peperites Intrusion and burrowing of magma into the soft water-soaked sediment produced a wide range of peperite textures with varying characteristics, dependent on sediment assortment, degree of water saturation, mode of magma propagation, magma viscosity, etc. Finegrained carbonate lime and siliciclastic and silicious mud turned into the lithied micritic limestones, red shales and cherts over time. The sediments belong to a deep water, low energy environment, as evidenced by the basaltic pods protruding into the muddy host (Fig. 15). The highest grade of lithication, and lowest viscosity basaltic magma was observed on an example of micritic limestone with small scale graded bedding (Fig. 16), typical for allodapic sediments formed above the carbonated compensation depth. Their graded character might have been formed by deep water currents. Distal turbidite

Fig. 21. Blocky peperites (A) formed by autobrecciation, have reaction rim (C) on the rounded side of pie-shaped fragment, formed by interaction of the hot magma and wet sediment, lime mud (B), during formation of the pillows. It was a lm-protected surface. The other sides of the fragment (D) are sharp, without reaction sign, created by fragmentation and disintegration of already quenched pillow.

direction (Easton and Johns, 1986; Yamagishi and Goto, 1991) (Fig. 5). The densely packed lobs disabled formation of thick crust of sideromelane shards and spalls within the inter-pillow space. Where the lava supply decreased due to waning discharge rates, the lobes assumed smaller and more rounded shape. The more comfortable accommodation gave rise to the better percolation of the sea water, which produced richer sideromemelane shards and spalls rinds, gradually developing into the hyaloclastite facies. Better circulation of the sea water among the lobes caused hydrothermal chloritization and cementation, and promoted inner lobe oxidation (reddening). Retardation of the lava supply laterally, developed feeding channels lled with secondary hydrothermal minerals (Fig. 6). 4.3. Facies of pillow fragment breccia Pillow fragment breccia, clast supported and matrix poor, is a monomict assemblage of lava tubes and pipe fragments. (Fig. 7). The jigsaw-t texture of sideromelane fragments and shards, occasionally slightly rotated, suggests in situ origin, close to the edge of the thick pillow lava pile, down slope, but not far from the seamount escarpment, presuming a steep slope of the advancing subaqueous basaltic lava ow front (Fischer and Schmincke, 1984). 4.4. Facies of isolated pillow breccia The facies of isolated pillow breccia is matrix supported and clast poor (Carlisle, 1963; Mc Phie and Allen, 1992; Maicher et al., 2000; Squire and Mc Phie, 2002) composed of spherical lava pipes with centrally placed cavities, lled with sparry calcite and quartz. The lava globules (droplets), with spherulitic crust, are supposed to have formed by small scale budding (Moore, 1975), or by submarine lava fountaining (Carlisle, 1963; Schmincke, 1983). Decreasing lava supply and slowing of pillow lava propagation enhanced autobrecciation, penetration of water into open cracks and ssures, and resulted in mass quenching and granulation. Protrusion of the lava pipes and tubes into a dense mass of nely disintegrated basaltic glass suggests budding of larger lava lobes and their detachments. Lack of dark sideromelane rinds around the larger lava tubes is due to the productive quenching or simple mechanical abrasion and efcient spallation. The presence of sideromelane, chloritized rinds and oxidized reddening is due to the free access of heated sea water, pervading into the coarse matrix, followed by sparry calcite and quartz cementation.

Fig. 22. The process of blocky peperite formation, associated with autobrecciation, is caused by prograding magma into lime mud. The centrally placed master pillow (A), followed by several marginal satellite pillows (B), reminds on a blossoming rose. Protrusion of the magma into wet could sediment causes massive quenching, and production of blocky peperite by mechanical disintegration of already chilled pillow margin.

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Fig. 23. The architecture of the extrusive basaltoid rocks is interpreted as a subaqueous basaltic lava ow. It is constructed by variety of volcanic facies: 1. Coherent pillow lavas; 2. Closely packed pillows; 3. Pillow fragment breccia; 4. Isolated pillow breccia; 5. Pyjama-style pillows; and 6. Peperite and peperitic hyaloclastites.

currents, whose load was diagenetically hardened to sand-sized grains, might be a candidate as well (Fig. 16). An approximately 20 cm wide dyke penetrated lime sediment, and branched laterally into sills of a few centimetres in width. Water deciency of the sediment, combined with low heat capacity and the low viscosity magma, created this picturesque tree of a dyke and sills (Nmeth and Martin, 2006). The two textural types of peperites dominate: 1. Globular (uidal) peperites (Fig. 19, Kokelaar, 1982; Kokelaar, 1986; Busby-Spera and White, 1987; McPhie et al., 1993; Skilling et al., 2002; Martin and Nmeth, 2007). The globular clasts are thought to form when a water-vapor lm is established and maintained at the magma-water-saturated sediment interface, preventing quench fragmentation and uidisation. 2. Blocky peperites (intrusive hyaloclastite, peperitic hyaloclastite). The clasts are derived by quenched magma, disintegrating into sharp, angular, blocky shapes, commonly exhibiting a jigsaw-t texture (Fig. 17). Our observations on blocky vs. globular peperites indicate, that the peperitic textures, formed within a host sediment of fairly uniform composition, depends on different quantities of interstitial water. Lime mud, now transformed to micritic limestone, with monotonous grain size, had variable water contents or free access of water during hydrothermal reactions (i.e. variable water/rock ratios) depending upon the propinquity of the water-sediment interface (sea oor). Formation of the quenched, hydrothermally altered rinds and the spalling process is a result of disruption of the protective lm around basalt pods which caused uidization (Figs. 19, 20). Epidotization is widespread in cases where the host is composed of water-saturated carbonate sediment and experienced intensive uidization (mixing of sediment and shards by hot vaporized uid). The sequence of the formation events can be reconstructed on Figs. 19 and 20. A hot basaltic magma tube penetrated the water-soaked limey mud, and its outer rim was quenched and immediately chloritized. Boiling-vaporisation of the pore water caused efcient spalling of the chloritized rinds by uidization and mixing of the spalled rinds and lime mud. Boiling is easily recognized by escaping bubble trails along preferred ssures, which probably represent early indurated cracks. Intensive vesiculation, which diminishes outward from the hot contact between basalt and wet sediment, enabled formation of small size amygdales, which encrusted rapidly.

Epidotization occurred simultaneously and was more intensive close to the hot basalt. The already indurated micritic limestone had already fractured, preserving a jigsaw-t texture. This allowed growth of the next veinlet generation lled with quartz, zeolite and calcite, cutting all previous vein generations. Boiling, controlled by external, conning pressure, enhanced steam-driven uidization, quench fragmentation and formation of glassy sideromelane shards and spalls, and assisted in the penetration of the magma pods. Obstruction of boiling leads to a decrease in shards and spalls, but not necessarily to an absence of glassy rinds (Fig. 21). Lack of water or limited access of water (low water/rock ratios) produced at, unaffected surfaces of pillow fragments by quenching and autobrecciation, rather than uidization. Blocky fragmentation of quenched basaltic magma lobs penetrating into wet sediment is an autoclastic process due to the plastic behaviour of a dough-like mixture of soft mud with brittle fragments of quenched basalt clasts. On Fig. 22, pillow lobe (A) protrudes into soft lime mud, followed by the surrounding satellite lobes (B), like a blossoming rose, producing a thorough mixture of blocky basaltic fragments. Mixing of the blocky fragments by uidization in such a water decient environment (scarcity of hydrothermally altered rims and spalls) is probably not feasible. The central pillow lobe is already quenchfractured and open ssures are lled with micritic cement In conclusion, the globular texture is related to interaction between the basalt with water-soaked sediment, enhanced by boiling and vaporisation, which thoroughly mixes the spalled shards and rinds by uidisation processes. In contrast, the blocky texture is a product of quenching fragmentation and autobrecciation during protrusion of magma into water decient sediment. This is a mechanical disintegration process of a quenched, partly solidied protruding magma, which mixes curviplanar and cuneiform blocky fragments without or with poorly developed glassy selvedges. On Fig. 22, pillow lobe (A) protrudes into soft lime mud, followed by the surrounding satellite lobes (B), like a blossoming rose. Curviplanar surfaces and abundant jigs-saw t texture imply that quench fragmentation and autobrecciation were dominant mechanism of clast formation (Gifkins et al., 2002). 5. Dating of syn-eruptive sediments using micropaleontology Extensive masses of cherts and shales of CarnianNorian age, as determined on the basis of radiolarian assemblages (Halami and

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Fig. 24. Conodonts recovered from the micritic limestone in the matrix of peperites. Their presence constrains the latest age of the peperites as Triassic.

Gorian, 1995), occur within the melange and suggested the Triassic as a possible time of extrusion. Peperitic hyaloclastites within micritic limestone, however, allowed conrmation of this hypothesis. Samples of carbonate rocks from the peperites were collected and screened for conodonts. Conodonts are microscopic hard parts of marine animals (phylum Conodonta). They can be found in strata of Paleozoic to late Triassic age (Clark, 1983). A standard conodont screening technique was used following gravity-enrichment. Only one sample proved to yield conodont elements of fragmentary preservation. Several individual conodonts, different in shape and form, constitute a conodont apparatus. Certain conodont elements, especially those of platform type, are good guide fossils (Fig. 24). All recovered conodonts have ramiform (branched) elements. They are of minor stratigraphic importance but constrain the youngest age as Upper Triassic. The recovered conodonts are opaque white and their CAI value is 6.5 (Epstein et al., 1977). The Color Alteration Index (CAI) of conodont elements is a valuable tool for assessing organic metamorphism (Epstein et al., 1977; Rejebian et al., 1987). The surface of conodont fragments is texturally altered, whereas the deformation of the elements is not perceivable due to poor preservation. The conodont alterations characterize low grade metamorphism (sensu Winkler, 1979), namely the anchizone or epizone sensu Kovcs and rkai (1987). 6. Regional implications of the Hrukovec subaqueous basalt lava ow The Triassic igneous rocks of the Dinarides are the result of a rifting episode that lasted some 3040 Ma and preceded the opening of the Dinaridic Tethys. The rifting commenced on the Variscan basement and was accompanied by contemporaneous rifting events throughout Pangea (Burke and Drake, 1974). Magmatic activity within intracontinental rift structures exhibited alkaline afnity, and gradually developed calc-alkaline to tholeiitic character (Pami, 1984). Thermal doming gave rise to the formation of horst-graben structures, followed by slow subsidence, marine transgression and evaporate deposition in Uppermost Permian and Scythian times. Magmatism peaked in Ladinian time. Submarine volcanism, accompanied by coeval sedimentation of chert, siliciclastics, and sporadic limestones, built up volcanogenic-sedimentary formations. Volcanic activity with explosive phases and generation of large volumes of

pyroclastic rocks continued during the Norian and lower parts of the Carnian. This marks the end of the rifting process. A new phase, recognized as oceanization, therefore proceeded within an already deep rifted basin. The Tethys ocean, producing ophiolites during Late Triassic and Early Jurassic times, was anked by the Adria (Apulia) plate as a promontory of the northern Gondwanaland (Dimitrijevi, 1998). A fast growing carbonate platform developed on the Adria plate, gradually covering the evidence of the earlier advanced rifting. The southern margin of the Mesozoic Tethys and its foreland, more or less parallel with the African passive continental margin, hosts magmatic elements of Middle Triassic rifting (D'Argenio et al., 1971; Channell et al., 1979; Pami, 1984; Pami et al., 1998; Karamata et al., 2000). This simple scenario seems to satisfy the notion of a continuous Mesozoic continental margin from the Magrebides of Tunisia, through the Apennines, Alps, Dinarides and Hellenides to the alpine belt of Turkey and Zagros. There is no new reliable evidence to rule out global Tethyan rifting of Gondwana from Eurasia in Middle Triassic time. Ophiolitic rocks and mlanges are products of oceanization and occur in two belts in Dinarides, the Vardar Ophiolite Zone (VOZ) and Dinaric Ophiolite Zone (DOZ). These are divided by the Drina-Ivanjica belt, a microcontinent separated from Adria (Apulia). The Tethys in the Dinarides has a long and complex history, and interpretations have applied different models engaging one or two oceanic branches with trench-arc/back arc, open-ocean/back arc models, different timing of subduction, intra/oceanic subduction, closure etc. (Smith and Spray, 1984; Robertson and Karamata, 1994; Pami et al., 2002; Mantovani et al., 2002; and others). The discussion of geodynamic reconstruction following the advanced rifting stage is not a matter of this paper. The common consensus remains, however, that continental rifting developed in the Middle Triassic. Middle Triassic rifting-related magmatism is recorded within the Tethyan orogenic belt in the Dinarides, Albanides, and Hellenides, up to the Zagros mountain (Stockline, 1968; Horvth et al., 1977; Kovcs, 1992; Kodra and Gjata, 2002; Memovi et al., 2003; and others). Another problem arises with Triassic magmatism in the Zagorje Mid- Transdanubian Zone (ZMTZ). ZMTZ is interpreted as allochtonous part of the Sava-Vardar zone, including the Meliata-Bkk area, formed by extrusion tectonics in Tertiary time (Pami and Tomljenovi, 1998; Pami, 2002). Haas and Kovcs (2001) named the same zone the Sava

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composite unit, distinguishing blocks of Southern Alpine and Internal Dinaridic origin. The Kalnik ophiolite mlange is the prolongation of the Vardar zone, and can be compared with the Szarvask and Darno ophiolite complex, a part of the Bkk composite unit, a displaced fragment of Dinarides in Hungary. These ophiolite complexes are not involved in the north-vergent Austroalpine nappe system, and do not belong to the Meliaticum tectonostratigraphicaly. The age of basaltic magmatism in the Kalnik unit is well documented by biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic data as Middle Triassic (Halami et al., 2001; Gorian et al., 2005). Halami et al. (1999) assumed the existence of a Triassic ophiolite sequence, and the Kalnik unit ascribed as a part of the Meliata oceanic basin formed in Triassic time. Pami (1997) considered the Hrukovec pillow lavas as a part of dismembered ophiolite suite, within the Jurassic/Cretaceous mlange, based on the close spatial association with ultramacs. The preceeding interpretation is based on the idea that Paleotethys back arc oceanic basins in the Tethyan domain existed in Middle Triassic time (Stumpi et al., 2000). 7. Conclusion All features described in the paper, like the architecture of the basaltic subaqueous basaltic lava ow, extrusion into wet lime and mud sediments in a subsiding Triassic basin, lithology of peperites, presence of conodonts in the peperitic carbonate matrix, and other related phenomena, speak unequivocally in favour of Triassic riftingrelated magmatism. Peperites as volcanic products, generated by mingling and/or brittle fragmentation of magma in contact with wet sediment (Kano, 1989; Goto and McPhie, 1996, 1998; Hanson and Hargrove, 1999), demonstrate contemporaneity of volcanic and sedimentary processes. The Triassic age determined by conodonts in the carbonate matrix of peperites (Palinka et al., 2000) constrains extrusion time and gives insights into the geodynamics of rifting in the ZMTZ. This study hence constrains the age of the so called Meliata ocean in the region, and questions its existence in the ZagorjeMidTransdanubian Zone. Equivalent research on the peperitic facies in the Triassic basaltoid rocks along the alpine belt, is a valuable contribution to understanding of the early Tethyan history (Kovcs et al. 2008). Acknowledgements We thank Georg Zellmer, guest editor of this special issue, and the two reviewers, Jocelyn McPhie and Kroly Nmeth, for their useful comments which greatly improved the manuscript. Our gratitude also goes to Jocelyn McPhie and Ray Cas for their workshop on volcanology at the University of Zagreb years ago, where they provided instruction on the understanding of pillow structures. Ms Ana Suhanek, manager of the Kaming company, provided nancial support for part of this work. This research was supported by the Ministry of Science, Education and Sports of the Republic of Croatia, through projects 119-0982709-1175, 119-0000000-1158 and 098-0982934-2715. References
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