Chapter 3.

Cells
After atoms and molecules, the next higher level of complexity in living organisms
includes cells and their components. All living things are made up of cells. Some cell
components occur in all living cells, while others occur only in the cells of leaves, roots,
or other parts of plants. Depending on their components, cells can divide, grow, transport
substance, secrete substances, or harvest energy from organic molecules. Most types of
cells also contain genetic material that controls the activities of the cell. This genetic
material is inherited by new cells after cell division.
The Cell Theory
The modern version states that:
- Cells are the morphological and physiological units of all living things.
- The properties of a given organism depend on those of its individual cells.
- Cells originate only from other cells, and continuity is maintained through the
genetic material.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
All living species are composed of eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells. The differences
between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are:
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
nuclear membrane absent present
chromosomes usually singular, ring-shaped, multiple, not ring-shaped,
consisting only of DNA, without consisting of DNA together with
associated proteins, and lack attached proteins and have
centromeres centromeres
organelles membrane-bound organelles are membrane-bound organelles are
absent present in the cytoplasm
size diameter seldom exceeds 2 μm diameter typically 20 μm or more
capacity to lacks the capacity to differentiate great capacity to differentiate in
differentiate into specialized tissues in multi- structure w/in multi-cellular
cellular organisms bodies
organisms occurs only as bacteria and makes up bodies of protists, fungi,
cyanophytes (blue-green algae) plants, and animals
Fig. 3.1. Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Structures Found in the Cell
Looking through a light microscope, the only animal cell structures that can be seen
are the nucleus, the cytoplasm, and the cell membrane. In plants cells, these structures
can also be seen in addition to the cell wall. Other organelles can only be seen through an
electron microscope. Organelles are usually membrane-bound structures inside the
cytoplasm that have specific metabolic functions. These organelles float in the
hyaloplasm. The hyaloplasm, or cytosol, is the clear, aqueous medium that bathes all
cytoplasmic bodies and serves as a reservoir of solutes and water.
Organelles that are common in plants and animals include the cell membrane, the
nucleus, nucleoli, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and
microbodies. Organelles that can only be seen in plants include the cell wall, central
vacuole, and plastids.
Substances inside the cytoplasm that do not have metabolic roles are called inclusion
bodies. Inclusion bodies are passive, often very temporary materials such as pigments,

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secretory granules, and aggregates of stored proteins, lipids, or carbohydrates, which can
be utilized by the cell in its life processes.
Cell Membrane. The cell membrane may also be called the plasma membrane,
plasmalemma, or cytolemma. It is selectively permeable, depending on the lipid content
of the membrane, allowing entry of certain molecules into the cytoplasm while
disallowing others. The cell membrane also contains pumps which regulate the ion
concentrations within the cell and its immediate vicinity. It contains a variety of enzymes
and has specific receptor sites which mediate important cell functions such as
endocytosis, phagocytosis, antigen recognition, and antibody production. Hormone-
triggered cellular events also depend on specific surface receptors.
The cell membrane is composed of phospholipids and proteins. Phospholipids form
the basic structure of the membrane referred to as bi-layer, two parallel layers with their
hydrophilic heads facing the aquaeous medium on the membrane surface and their
hydrophobic tails facing the interior of the membrane. Proteins partially or completely
penetrate the phospholipids bi-layer and are responsible for functional properties of the
membrane.
You may also find other structures on or near the cellular surface. Microvilli are
finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that increase the surface area for
absorption. Desmosomes are oval disks with anchoring fibrils that lie just within the
plasma membranes of epithelial cells subject to being stretched. Gap junctions are hollow
“pipes” formed by a ring of six dumbbell-shaped protein subunits that penetrate the
plasma membrane of certain tissues and allow free flow of materials from cell to cell.
Cilia and flagella are motile fibrils that protrude from the surface of certain types of cells,
being covered by an extension off the plasma membrane.

The
Fig. 3.1. The phospholipid bi-layer that makes up the cell membrane.

Nucleus. The nucleus is usually the most conspicuous organelle in a cell. It contains most
of a cell’s DNA, which occurs with proteins in thread-like chromosomes. The nucleus is
surrounded by two membranes, together called the nuclear envelope. The outer
membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The inner and outer nuclear

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membranes are separated by a space of 20-40 nm, except where they fuse to form pores
in the envelope. These nuclear pores are small circular openings, 30-100 nm in diameter,
bordered by proteins that probably influence the passage of molecules between the
nucleus and the rest of the cell. Inside the nucleus is a smaller structure, the nucleolus,
which serves as the site for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Fig. 3.2. The different organelles found in the cytoplasm

Microfilaments and Microtubules. Microfilaments are thread-like aggregates of

protein molecules that serve to maintain cell shape, bring about changes in cell shape, and
allow cells to contract. Microtubules are hollow tubules, much stouter than
microfilaments, made of a unique protein, tubulin. They too, can maintain cell shape, and
also serve as spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during cell division.
Centrioles. Centrioles occur as a single pair of tin can-shaped organelles in the cells
of animals, fungi, and certain lower plants. During cell division the pair separate, move to
opposite ends of the cell, and produce spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes.
Ribosomes. Ribosomes are organelles that serve as the site for the biosynthesis of
large varieties of proteins destined either for extra- or intra-cellular use. Ribosomes are
either attached to membranes or move freely in the cytosol (the semi-fluid matrix
between organelles). The number of ribosomes varies among cell types and in different

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stages of cell development. They are especially abundant in dividing cells because these
cells make large amounts of protein.
Endoplasmic Reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels or
tubules which constitutes the bulk of the endo-membrane system. It is continuous with
the nuclear membrane. Two regions of ER can be distinguished in electron micrographs.
One region is called the rough ER because the many ribosomes attached to it give it a
rough appearance.
In contrast, the other region is called the smooth ER because it has no ribosomes
attached to it. The smooth ER, in most cells, makes up the terminal portions of rough ER.
It gives rise to transfer vesicles that carry substances synthesized within the rough ER to
other location, especially the golgi complex. Functions of the smooth ER include:
- Steroid hormone synthesis in the testicular interstitial cells, cells of the corpus
luteum, and cells of the adrenal cortex
- Synthesis of complex lipids and drug detoxification in hepatocytes
- Lipid resynthesis in the intestinal absorptive cells
- Release and capture of Ca++ ions in striated muscle cells
- Concentration of Cl- ions in gastric parietal cells
Golgi Complex. A Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus) is usually two-sided, with one
side facing the smooth ER and one side facing the plasma membrane. They receive
material from the smooth ER, either through direct connections or in vesicles released by
the ER. These vesicles contain proteins, lipids, and other substances, which are often
chemically modified in the golgi bodies and then sorted into separate packets. These
packets eventually move to the edge of the golgi bodies near the outer face, where the
golgi body membrane is pinched off into another vesicle. This vesicle moves to the
plasma membrane or to other sites in the cell.
Vesicles that move to the plasma membrane are secretory vesicles, because they fuse
with plasma membrane and secrete their contents to the exterior of the cell. This type of
secretion is called exocytosis. Endocytosis, the reverse process, involves taking
substances into the cell. Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis that involves taking up of
liquids and diluted substances. Phagocytosis, another type of endocytosis, involves taking
in of larger substances even bacteria.
Fig. 3.3. The process of exocytosis.

Microbodies. The smallest membrane bound organelles in a cell are called

microbodies. These tiny organelles are often associated with membranes of the ER, but
they may also be closely associated with chloroplast and mitochondria. Different types of
microbodies have specific enzymes for certain metabolic pathways. Two of the most
important kinds of microbodies are lysosomes and peroxisomes.

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 Lysosomes are involved in the
hydrolysis of foreign (hetero-
phagosomes) or intracellular sub-stances
(autophagosomes) using hydrolytic
enzymes. These enzymes
also serve to digest aging organelles or
sometimes liberate their enzymes en
masse, causing “cell suicide”
(autodigestion). They are not present in
plants.
Peroxisomes are the major sites of
oxygen utilization within the cell and are
particularly rich in catalase which
converts toxic hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), formed during certain metabolic
processes, into harmless water and Fig. 3.4. Vesicles forming from the Golgi complex.
oxygen.

Fig. 3.5. The mitochondria.

Mitochondria. Many of the reactions of aerobic respiration are
catalyzed by enzymes bound to mitochondrial membranes. The chief
function of the mitochondria is to supply energy to the cell through cellular respiration,
thus earning the distinction of being the “powerhouse of the cell”. A cell may contain
several hundred mitochondria, usually depending on the energy requirement of a cell.
Dividing cells and cells that are metabolically active need large amounts of energy and
usually have the largest numbers of mitochondria.
Vacuoles. Vacuoles are membranous sacs that enclose a variety of substances, often
for only temporary storage.
Cell Division
There are two types of cell division that occur in living things depending on the type
of cell: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis occurs in body cells (soma cells) while meiosis
occurs only in sex cells (egg cells and sperm cells).
Mitosis. Mitosis is the type of cell division resulting in equal number of
chromosomes. This ensures genetic equality of the daughter cells. It occurs in embryonic
development, growth, repair of injury, and in replacement of body covering at molting.
Four phases comprise the mitotic division: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. In prophase, genetic material becomes evident as distinct chromosomes that
shorten, thicken, and stain deeply. Towards the end of prophase the nuclear membrane
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Fig. 3.6. The different stages of mitosis.
and the nucleolus disappear. In metaphase, chromosomes lie radially in an equatorial
plate and separate. In anaphase, halved chromosomes move toward their respective poles.
Telophase is marked by the end of polar movement, formation of nuclear membrane and
the formation of cell membrane across the former plane of the equatorial plate.
prophase metaphase anaphase telophase
chromosomes DNA complex coils arranged in a line centromeres divide, chromosomes reach
(chromatids along the median chromatids move the general location
attached to one plane, centromeres toward opposite of the centrioles
another by attached to spindle poles
centromeres) and fibers
becomes easily
stained
nucleolus disappears during absent absent reappears
late prophase
nuclear disappears during absent absent reforms around
membrane late prophase each group of
chromosomes
centrioles and migrates to spindle fibers spindle fibers spindle fibers
spindle fibers opposite poles, attached to shorten pulling disappear
forms spindle fibers centromeres of chromatids
chromatids
cellular intact intact intact indents at the point
membrane of the equatorial
plane dividing the
cytolasm into two
Table 3.1. Comparison between stages of mitosis.
The period between cell divisions wherein the cell builds up genetic material to start
another cycle is called interphase. It is divided into three phases.
Phase
Gap1 (G1) usually lasts 8 hrs or longer depending on the type of cell and level of
nutrition; characterized by growth of daughter cells by undergoing internal
chemical changes in preparation for DNA replication
Synthesis (S) typically lasts about 8 hrs; period of DNA replication or synthesis
Gap2 (G2) usually lasts 5 hrs; beginning of active mitosis, replication of organelles
Table 3.2. Description of the phases of interphase.
Meiosis. In meiosis, cell division results in the reduction of chromosomal number to
haploid (half the normal number of chromosomes) set. Daughter cells (egg and sperm
cells) unite during fertilization carrying genes from both parents to provide the correct
number of chromosomes. Although both types of cell division involves the same phase
(prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase), meiotic cell division consists of two
successive cell division named meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I. In prophase I, the members of each chromosome pair come together
(synapsis). This is essential for the orderly separation of the two members of each
chromosome pair in the ensuing anaphase. Crossing-over may occur at this phase.
Crossing over is the exchange in position of one part of one strand of
chromosomes with the equivalent part of the other strand. During the metaphase I,
the centromeres do not divide so during anaphase, the two members of each
homologous chromosomes pair are separated. Meiosis I is often called the
“reductional phase” because at its end each daughter cell contains only one
member of each chromosome pair, although each chromosome still consists of
two DNA molecules, or chromatids, held together by the undivided centromere.
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 Meiosis II. Depending on the species, meiosis II may begin at once or be delayed.
In either case, DNA replication does not occur. When meiosis II starts, the
chromosomes move to the midline of the new spindle. The centromeres finally
divideand one of the two chromatids of each chromosome passes to each daughter
cell. The result is four haploid cells with each chromosome now consisting of
only one DNA molecule.

Fig. 3.6. Gametogenesis (spermatogenesis and oogenesis) and Meiosis.

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