MW Planning Interview

PROPAGATION ISSUES IN DIGITAL RADIO LINK ENGINEERING
1997, ITALTEL Sistemi, Milano, Italy
Foreword
This Course covers the main topics in Radio Propagation, with application to the Engineering of Digital Radio-Relay Links. The aim is to provide the radio engineer with the basic knowledge and understanding of radio propagation phenomena and their impact on the operation and performance of digital radio systems. The Course makes reference to fundamentals in Radio Propagation Physics (without need of complex mathematical tools in Electromagnetics theory). From this, it derives the basic concepts in Radio Link Engineering. A detailed presentation of procedures and computer tools for the Engineering and Planning of Radio Systems is out of the scope of this course. The Course User is assumed to be familiar with elementary notions in Digital Radio Modulations, Equipments, and Systems, as well as in Interference Analysis and Planning and in Regulatory Issues. Some topics in the above areas are discussed, but only in connection with propagation aspects. Hypertextual techniques have been adopted. It is expected that this choice will improve significantly the flexibility and effectiveness of Computer Based Training, both in Class Presentations and in Individual (or Small Group) Use.
RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

Copyright : 1997 ITALTEL SISTEMI Via Tempesta 2, Milano, Italy Phone +39-2-43881 Fax +39-2-48000190 Luigi Moreno Radio Engineering Services Via Asti 10. Torino, Italy Phone & Fax +39-11-8194575 E-mail : luigi.moreno@torino.alpcom.it
Author
USER GUIDE Navigation through the Radio Propagation Tutorial is controlled by clicking on the following symbols : Go to Index Go to the Next Page (in a Chapter Sequence) Go to the Previous Page (in a Chapter Sequence) One Step Back (when this symbol is not available, use Keys : CTRL --) Go to Additional Related Topics Go to Computational Examples
RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

Copyright : 1997 ITALTEL SISTEMI Via Tempesta 2, Milano, Italy Phone +39-2-43881 Fax +39-2-48000190 Luigi Moreno Radio Engineering Services Via Asti 10. Torino, Italy Phone & Fax +39-11-8194575 E-mail : luigi.moreno@torino.alpcom.it
Author
INDEX
1. Introduction Radio Link Equation Radio Link Engineering 2. Refraction through the Atmosphere Ray Curvature - Clearance and Diffraction 3. Refraction through the Atmosphere Multipath Propagation 4. Ground Reflections 5. Atmosphere and Rain Attenuation Rain Scattering and Absorption Absorption without rain 6. Propagation Related Topics Regulatory Background Interference Scenarios
HELP
About ... User Guide
1.1 - POINT-TO-POINT RADIO LINK
Tx
Rx
The diagram shows the basic elements in any point-to-point radio link. TRANSMITTER ANTENNAS RADIO HOP RECEIVER : : : : Frequency, Tx Power, Capacity (bit/s, tel. chs., ...). Frequency range, Gain. Hop Length. Frequency, Rx Threshold (related to Rx Signal Quality).
1.2 - BASIC RADIO LINK EQUATION (FREE SPACE)

The basic parameters in a Point-to-Point Radio Link (see Block Diagram) are put together in the Radio Link Equation. The Radio Link Equation computes the Rx Power in the absence of any propagation anomaly (free space propagation): PR = PT + GT + GR - 92.4 - 20 Log (F) - 20 Log (L) PT PR GT GR F L = = = = = = Transmitted power (dBm) Received power (dBm) (normal propagation) Tx antenna gain (dB) Rx antenna gain (dB) Frequency (GHz) Hop length (km)
Warning : The constant 92.4 is correct only if the frequency is expressed in GHz and the hop length in km. If other units are used, the constant 92.4 must be modified accordingly (e.g. : with hop length in miles, the constant is 96.6).
1.3 - FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)

The Radio Link Equation can be also written as : PR = PT + GT + GR - FSL FSL (dB) = 92.4 + 20 Log(F) + 20 Log(L) FSL is the Free Space Loss : The Free Space Loss is often referred as Loss between Isotropic Antennas. In fact, for Isotropic Antennas (Gain = 0 dB), we have : PR = PT - FSL
Free Space Loss [dB]
155 150 60 km 145 140 135 130 0 5 10 15 20 40 km 20 km
The FSL increases 6 dB if : the hop length is doubled; or the frequency is doubled. Examples: 1.9 GHz 3.8 GHz 7.6 GHz 15.2 GHz 60 km 60 km 30 km 30 km FSL = 133 dB FSL = 139 dB FSL = 139 dB FSL = 145 dB
Frequency (GHz)
1.4 - ANTENNA GAIN

The antenna directivity mainly depends on the D/ ratio (antenna diameter to wavelength ratio). The maximum gain is proportional to (D/)2.
= Antenna Efficiency = 0.55 - 0.65 Parabolic antenna : G = (D/)2 In dB units : G = 20 Log(D) + 20 Log(F) + 18.2 + 0.5 (depending on ).
50
Antenna Gain [dB]
4m
Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if :

3m 2m 1m
46 42 38 34 30 0 5
antenna diameter is doubled, for a given frequency. frequency is doubled, for a given diameter.
0.5m
10
15
20
Frequency [GHz]
1.5 - LINK BUDGET

By using Logarithmic units (dB, dBm), the Radio Link Equation is put in a very convenient form. Gains and Losses are added with positive or negative sign, as in financial budgets. The Radio Link Equation is presented in the form of a simple Link Budget. Example of a 50 km 7GHz link : Power Transmitter Power PT Tx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.) Free Space Loss Rx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.) Received Power PR 30 dBm 42.5 dB 143.3 dB 42.5 dB - 28.3 dBm Gains Losses
A more detailed Link Budget may include additional losses caused by Tx/Rx components (feeders, branching, etc.) and by propagation impairments.
1.6 - TERRESTRIAL RADIO-RELAY LINKS

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE, CLOSE TO GROUND, AT FREQUENCIES IN THE RANGE 1 TO 40 GHz In comparison with Free Space Propagation, a terrestrial radio-relay link is affected by the presence of the atmosphere and of the ground. They produce a number of phenomena which may have a severe impact on radio wave propagation. Propagation anomalies mainly depend on : FREQUENCY; HOP LENGTH; METEOROLOGICAL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS; GROUND CHARACTERISTICS. Propagation anomalies produce additional attenuation, which reduces the Rx power. In most cases such phenomena are of short duration. In particular cases the Rx signal is also distorted in some measure.
1.7. - MAIN PHENOMENA RELATED TO RADIO PROPAGATION IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE

Effects of the Atmosphere : Atmospheric Absorption (without rain); Refraction through the atmosphere: Ray Curvature; Refraction through the atmosphere: Multipath Propagation. Effects of the Rain : Raindrop Absorption; Raindrop Scattering; RF Signal Depolarization. Effects of the Ground : Diffraction through Obstacles; Reflections.
1.8 - RADIO LINK ENGINEERING - FADE MARGIN

In a well designed Radio-Relay Link, the Rx Power should be close to the Free Space Level for most of the time. The Radio Link is usually designed in such a way that the Received Power PR (normal propagation conditions) is much greater than the Receiver Threshold PTH . The Fade Margin FM is defined as : FM (dB) = PR (dBm) - PTH (dBm)
A Fade Margin is required to compensate for the reduction in Rx power caused by Propagation Anomalies. The Fade Margin guarantees that the link will operate with acceptable quality, even if propagation anomalies causes Additional Losses (AdL), as long as the Additional Loss is lower than the Fade Margin :
AdL < FM.
1.9. - OUTAGE PREDICTION

Generally speaking, an Outage is observed when the Rx power is below the Rx Threshold (PR < PTH). So, the Outage Probability is : Prob {Outage} = Prob {PR < PTH} = Prob {AdL > FM}
Received Power
Fade Margin
Normal Propagation Outage Time
Threshold
Time
1.10 - LINK BUDGET

A more complete Link Budget example (7GHz, 50 km link) is : Power Transmitter Power PT Tx Feeder & Branching Loss Tx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.) Free Space Loss Additional Propagation Losses Rx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.) Rx Feeder & Branching Loss Net Path Loss Received Power PR 30 dBm 1.4 dB 42.5 dB 143.3 dB 3.0 dB 42.5 dB 1.4 dB ------------------------------------------------64 dB - 34 dBm Gains Losses
Assuming the RX Threshold PTH = -77 dBm, then the Fade Margin is : FM = PR - PTH = 43 dB
END OF CHAPTER
2.1 - ATMOSPHERE REFRACTION

The radio waves propagate along a straight line only if the electromagnetic parameters in the propagation medium are homogeneous. In the atmosphere, the Refractive Index modifies as the distance from ground increases (Vertical Refractivity Gradient). This is due to the vertical gradient of basic atmosphere parameters, such as temperature, humidity, and pressure. Several anomalies in EM propagation are produced by variations in the refractive index : Ray Curvature Multipath Propagation Duct Propagation
2.2 - RAY CURVATURE IN ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

Up to about 1 km height, the Refractive Index usually decreases with height, at a constant rate. This means that the Refractivity Gradient (rate of variation) is constant. As a result, the path (radio ray) from the Tx to the Rx antenna is bent in some measure. The ray curvature is proportional to the Refractivity Gradient : thus it depends on the atmosphere parameters at any given time. To check the visibility between the Tx and Rx antennas, the joint effects of the Radio Ray Curvature, of the Earth Curvature, and of the terrain profile have to be considered.
Tx
CL
Rx
The Clearance CL is defined as the distance of the radio ray to the ground. A negative Clearance means that a ground obstruction is higher than the ray.
Real Earth
2.3 - EQUIVALENT EARTH CURVATURE

An "Equivalent Earth Curvature" can be defined by altering the real Earth Curvature in order that the radio ray path be straight. The Real Earth and the Straight Ray diagrams are equivalent : the vertical distance CL from the radio ray to the earth surface is the same in any point of the two diagrams. In the Equivalent Earth representation the Earth Radius R is multiplied by a factor k. The value of the k-factor depends on the curvature of the radio ray.
Tx
CL
Rx
R Tx CL
Real Earth Rx
kR
Equivalent Earth
2.4 - WHAT DOES THE k-FACTOR MEAN ?

The k-factor is a measure of the ray curvature effect, produced by the variation in the Atmosphere Refraction Index with height. So, the k-factor is related to the Vertical Refractivity Gradient G. The k-factor indicates the atmosphere state at a given time and its effect to the radio ray curvature. In a well-mixed atmosphere (Standard Atmosphere), the Refractivity decreases with height at a constant rate. This corresponds to the so-called Standard Condition, with a stable k-factor, equal to about 4/3. Other k-factor conditions are : k < 4/3 Sub-refractive Atm. Ray Path closer to the earth. The lowest k value corresponds to the highest probability that the radio ray be obstructed by the ground. k > 4/3 Super-refractive Atm. Ray Path more distant from the earth. The range of the radio transmission can be significantly expanded. Unexpected interference can be observed.
2.5 - FLAT EARTH REPRESENTATION

The Flat Earth Representation is an alternative way to plot the Radio Ray path from the Tx to the Rx antenna. The earth profile is forced to be flat, and the Radio Ray curvature is altered accordingly. The Real Earth and the Flat Earth diagrams are equivalent: the vertical distance CL from the radio ray to the earth surface is the same in any point of the two diagrams. The Radio Rays representing different k values can be shown on the same Flat Earth diagram. This is the more usual representation, particularly in computer aided link design.
Tx
CL
Rx
R Tx
Real Earth Rx
CL
Flat Earth
2.6 - REVIEW OF RADIO RAY REPRESENTATIONS

Equivalent Representations : CL equal in the three diagrams. ` Real Earth Diagram :
R Tx CL Real Earth Rx Rx
Tx
CL
Equivalent Earth Diagram : (or Straight Ray)

Tx
kR
Equivalent Earth Rx
Flat Earth Diagram :
CL
Flat Earth
2.7 - VISIBILITY
Point-to-Point Radio Relay Links are usually designed under the requirement of Visibility between the two Hop Terminals. Two factors to be considered in Defining Visibility Criteria in a Radio Path: Variability in Atmospheric conditions producing different ray curvatures Tool : Statistical distributions of the k-factor. Objective : Find the Typical and Minimum k-factors appropriate for that path. Effects of partial obstructions along the radio path Tool : Fresnel Ellipsoids and Diffraction Analysis. Objective : Identify the Clearance Rules to be applied (minimum distance between the Radio Ray and the Ground).
2.8 - VARIABILITY OF THE k-FACTOR

The k-factor is related to the atmosphere Vertical Refractivity Gradient G (measured in N-units / km). In Standard Atmosphere G = - 40 N-units/km and k = 4/3. The Vertical Refractivity Gradient G and the k-factor are time varying parameters, depending on daily and seasonal cycles and on meteorological conditions. Their range of variation is more or less wide, depending on the climatic region. In cold and temperate regions the range is rather narrow, while in tropical regions it is very wide. Experimental observations show for example that the probability of k<0.6 in temperate climates is generally well below 1%. In tropical climates the same probability may be in the range 5% - 10%. This means that, in tropical regions, there is the highest probability of observing propagation anomalies due to extreme k-factor values. The ITU-R gives world maps of the time percentage with G < -100 N-units / km (k > 2.75), in different months.
2.9 - MINIMUM k-FACTOR

When atmospheric conditions determine the minimum k-factor, then the Radio Ray is closer to the ground (maximum obstruction probability). In a radio hop an Effective k-Factor kEFF can be defined, taking into account the local k-factor values along the hop. For given climatic conditions, kEFF is a function of the hop length (on long hops, kEFF is likely close to standard values; extreme atmosphere conditions are probably not present on the whole hop).
1.1 0.9
The ITU-R gives a curve of minimum kEFF values as a function of hop length (temperate climate). This curve can be used in establishing the worst case condition to check Visibility Criteria.
10 20 50 100 200
keff
0.7 0.5 0.3
Path Length [km]
2.10 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID

The Fresnel ellipsoid gives an estimate of the space volume involved in the propagation phenomena from Tx to Rx. The points on the Fresnel ellipsoid satisfy the relation : TxP + PRx = TxRx + /2 A radio wave through the path Tx-P-Rx arrives at the receiver with 180 deg phase shift with respect to the direct path Tx-Rx.
Rx Tx
F1 P
About half of the Rx signal energy travels through the Fresnel ellipsoid. So, any L1 obstruction within the L2 Fresnel ellipsoid has some impact on the Rx power. F1 is the Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius, depending on distance L1 from the hop terminal.
2.11 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID - Examples

The Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at a distance L1(km) from one hop terminal is :
F 1 = 300 L 1( L L 1 ) / ( FL ) (m)
F = Frequency (GHz)
L = Hop length (km)
Note : F1 depends on the signal frequency.
Fresnel Radius [m]
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 80 100
2 GHz 4 GHz 7 GHz 12 GHz
In the figure : Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at the middle of the path (L1=0.5L). Other Path positions : R (L1=0.3L) = R (L1=0.1L) = R (L1=0.01L) = 0.92 * R (L1=0.5L) 0.6 * R (L1=0.5L) 0.2 * R (L1=0.5L)
Hop Length [km]
2.12 - OBSTRUCTION LOSS

The Clearance (CL) is the vertical distance from the radio ray to the ground. The Obstruction Loss depends on : Obstruction height (normalized clearance CL/F1) Obstruction shape (knife-edge, earth curvature, ..)
-10
Obstruction Loss [dB]
0 10 1 20 3 30 40 -1.5 2
In the figure : Loss in Rx Power caused by obstructions with different shapes : 1) Knife-edge; 2) Earth curvature (beyond the horizon link); 3) Intermediate case. The Normalized Clearance (x-axis) is positive for obstacles below the ray, and negative for obstacles above the ray.
-1
-0.5
0.
0.5
1.
Normalized Clearance Cl/F1
2.13 - CLEARANCE CRITERIA

In any point of the Radio Path, the Clearance CL is the distance from the Radio Ray (depending on the k-factor) to the ground . 1) Typical and Minimum k-factors : If possible, derive the k-factors from local data. For Temperate Climate, Minimum k-factor from ITU-R data. In the absence of specific data : Typical k = 4/3 Minimum k = 2/3. 2) Clearance Criteria : at any point between Tx and Rx : CL > 100% F1 with Typical k CL > 60% F1 with Minimum k
When a frequency below 2 GHz is used : CL > 60% F1 with Typical k CL > 30% F1 with Minimum k.
END OF CHAPTER
3.1 - MULTIPATH PROPAGATION Refractive Layer

When atmospheric stratification is such that the refractivity varies with altitude according to particular profiles, it may happen that the energy from the Tx travels to the Rx over several spatially distinct paths (Multipath Propagation).
Tx
Rx
n
Under Multipath Propagation conditions, total Rx several "echoes" of the Tx signal arrive at the Rx antenna with random amplitude, delay, and phase shift. The received signal echo 1 can be represented as the addition of multiple Vectors.
3.2 - IMPAIRMENTS DUE TO MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

The received power level is determined by combining a number of signal echoes. Depending on the instantaneous phase shifts of echo components, the Rx signal is subject to fast amplitude variations. For this reason, multipath propagation is responsible of fast fading phenomena. Echo phase shift are frequency dependent. The fade depth produced at a given time by combining signal echoes varies with frequency. Multipath fading is "frequency selective". The frequency selective fading has a significant impact on wide-band digital signals : Amplitude and Group Delay distortions are produced (this causes Intersymbol Interference). The XPD (Cross Polarization Discrimination)pol.) is reduced during Multipath events. This enhances the Interference between X-pol. channels.
3.3 - MULTIPATH FADING EVENTS

Multipath events are observed with daily and seasonal cycles, when atmospheric stratification is more likely to happen. They are more frequent with strong evaporation (high temperature and humidity), absence of wind, and flat terrain. During multipath propagation events, the Rx signal level varies very fast. It may be almost cancelled, for short periods (fraction of a second, or few seconds). A multipath activity period can last some minutes or even one hour or more.
Multipath activity depends on environmental conditions and on radio link parameters.Particularly in tropical climates, long multipath events can be observed.
Rx Power
Time
3.4 - MULTIPATH FADING STATISTICS

When the Rx signal is produced by a large number of components (vectors with random phases), then the Rx power level is variable, with Rayleigh statistics.
1
Prob { A > Ao }
0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
10 dB/dec
The Probability of having a fade depth A (dB) greater than a given depth Ao is (Rayleigh formula) : Prob {A>Ao} = Po 10-Ao/10 Po = Multipath Occurrence Factor. It is a measure of the multipath activity in a radio hop.
10
20
30
40
50
Ao [dB]
Operating Hop :
? How to know Po ?
Po is estimated by monitoring the Rx Power and by processing the measured data. Hop under Design : Po is predicted by empirical propagation models.
3.5 - MULTIPATH OCCURRENCE FACTOR

The Multipath Occurrence Factor Po depends on : Frequency; Hop Length; Climatic conditions; Terrain.
Po can be predicted using empirical formulas, proposed by ITU-R and by operating companies or research labs. A general formula is : Po = K Q Fa Lb where : F L K Q = = = = Frequency; Hop Length; Geo-climatic Coefficient; Terrain Coefficient;
The Frequency Exponent is close to unity. This means that the fading activity in a given hop is proportional to the frequency (at 11 GHz is approximately twice than at 5.5 GHz). The Distance Exponent is in the range 3 - 3.6. This means that the fading activity , for a given frequency, climate, and terrain, is increased about ten times if the hop length is doubled.
3.6 - MULTIPATH OCCURRENCE FACTOR - Examples

6 GHz hop : According to the prediction models, Po expected in the ranges : Dry climate, mountains Temperate clim., average terrain Tropical, humid clim., average terrain Tropical, humid clim., wet terrain 30 km 0.01 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.12 0.15 - 0.4 0.4 - 2.0 50 km 0.05 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.6 0.8 - 2.0 2.0 - 10. 65 km 0.12 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.5 1.8 - 4.5 5.0 - 20
Linear scaling to other frequencies : divide by 2 the Po values computed for the 6 GHz hop 3 GHz 12 GHz multiply for 2 " " " " " " " ? How to use Po predictions ? Fade Depth > 30 dB for 2600 seconds / one month. Any Fade Depth : divide seconds by ten for 10 dB deeper fade (e.g. Po = 1 Fade Depth > 40 dB for 260 seconds / one month). Other Po values : linear scaling (number of seconds proportional to Po). Po = 1
3.7 - FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING

The phase shift between signal echoes depends on frequency. As a result, the fade depth is varying with frequency (frequency selective fading). During Multipath Events, a signal bandwidth of some 20 MHz may be subject to slope distortion (fade depth maximum at one end and minimum at the other), or to notch distortion (maximum fade depth within the signal band) Amplitude distortion is associated to Group Delay distortion.
Fade Depth
Notch Slope
Frequency Frequency selectivity is fast varying. This dynamic effect can be observed as a fast-varying slope or even as a fast moving notch trough the signal bandwidth.
3.8 - EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING

If the signal bandwidth is narrow (few MHz), the selective fading effect is negligible. Multipath fading is assumed as a flat attenuation. On the other hand, for wide-band signals (medium and large capacity digital signals), the attenuation within the signal band produces a significant distortion in the received signal. When a digital signal is distorted by selective multipath fading, the Bit Error Rate (BER) may be at the threshold level (10-3) even if the Rx power is higher than the Rx threshold. The final effect is a reduction in the Fade Margin. Narrow-Band signals (almost) Flat Attenuation Reduction in Rx Power Wide-Band Signals Frequency Selective Attenuation Reduction in Rx Power + Signal Distortion
3.9 - SIGNATURE MEASUREMENT

The sensitivity of a digital radio equipment to multipath distortions can be estimated by laboratory measurements ("Equipment Signature"). The Tx signal passes through a simulated multipath channel, modelled by a direct path plus echo (2-path channel). This produces a frequency selective response : Notch Depth = maximum Fade Depth within the signal bandwidth; Notch Frequency = notch position, relative to the signal carrier.
Notch Depth [dB]
The Notch Depth and Frequency are varied (adjusting amplitude and phase of direct and echo signals). In each condition the Bit Error Ratio (BER) is measured. In the Notch Depth / Notch Frequency plane, the Signature gives the region (Notch parameters) with BER > 10-3 (or any other threshold). The area below the Signature gives a measure of the receiver sensitivity to multipath distortions.
BER < 10-3
BER > 10-3
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Relative Notch Position [MHz]
3.10 - MULTIPATH FADING OUTAGE TIME PREDICTION

Outage Events are usually defined as time periods with Bit Error Rate (BER) higher than a threshold (usually 10-3). Note : More complex definitions are required if reference is made to quality evaluation on errored blocks (ITU-T Error Performance Rec. G.826). The Probability of Outage due to Multipath Events can be predicted by means of a Multipath Fading Statistical Model. It must include specific models for : Flat Attenuation (Po prediction); Frequency Selective Fading (prediction of channel dispersion and its effect on receiver performance); XPD Degradation (prediction of reduction in XPD associated to signal attenuation).
3.11 - MULTIPATH FADING OUTAGE TIME PREDICTION WIDE-BAND SIGNALS

With Wide-Band signals, Fading Selectivity must be considered. Several statistical models have been proposed; some are described in ITU-R Recs. A general formula for the Outage Time Tout, during the observation period To, is : Tout = To POUT = To [ PT + PS ] PT = Po 10-FM/10 Non-Selective Outage Probability (related to signal attenuation only; same as for narrow-band signals); PS = Selective Outage Probability (related to signal distortion). Computed on the basis of the Receiver "Signature" (sensitivity to signal echoes).
An alternative formula for combining PT and PS is : Tout = To [ PT/2 + PS/2] 2/
= 1.5 - 2 is an empirical constant.
3.12 - MULTIPATH COUNTERMEASURES

Techniques used to reduce the multipath fading impairment in digital systems : Adaptive Signal Equalization at the Receiver. Diversity Reception : Space Diversity; Angle Diversity; Frequency Diversity.
For each Multipath Countermeasure, the Improvement Factor IF is defined : IF = Tout (Unprotected) / Tout (with Countermeasure) where Tout = outage time. The Improvement Factor can be predicted by means of Statistical Models including the effect of each specific countermeasure. When both Equalization and Diversity are used, the overall Improvement Factor is approximately given by the product of the factors relevant to each technique (Synergistic Effect).
3.13 - ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION

An Adaptive Equalizer is a circuit used at Rx, to partially compensate for signal distortion. Adaptativity means that the equalizer response modifies, depending on the received signal. In the Intermediate Frequency (IF) implementation, the equalizer amplifies the spectral components more deeply attenuated by fading. In the Base Band (BB) implementation, the equalizer cancels from each signal sample the component due to Intersymbol Interference (ISI). This technique is usually more effective.
Without Equalizer
With Equalizer
The effectiveness of a signal equalizer can be appreciated by comparing the receiver signatures with and without the equalizer. The reduction in the area below the signature curve gives a measure of the improvement provided by the equalizer.
15
Notch Depth [dB]

-15
-10
-5
10
Notch Frequency [MHz]
3.14 - SPACE DIVERSITY

Two antennas are usually arranged on a single structure, with a suitable vertical spacing. Typical spacing : 150 - 200 wavelengths. The correlation of fade depth at the two antennas decreases as the antenna spacing increases. Thus the probability of deep fading at the two antennas at the same time can be made sufficiently low, with a suitable antenna spacing. The relation between antenna spacing and correlation in signal distortion is more controversial. It appears that also with small spacing a low correlation is obtained. Signal Processing Options : Technique : Switch to the best signal Combine both signals Maximum Power Objective : Minimum Distortion Implementation : at RF, IF, or BB.
3.15 - FREQUENCY DIVERSITY

Multipath fading is frequency selective. In multi-channel radio systems (usually with about 20 - 30 MHz spacing), not all the RF channels are deeply faded at the same time. An RF stand-by channel is usually available (In 1+1 or N+1 arrangement) for equipment failure. It can be exploited also for multipath protection. The traffic of a low quality (deeply faded) working channel can be switched to the stand-by channel, with high probability of a significant quality improvement. In some cases, the stand-by channel can be in a different RF band (Crossband frequency diversity). Example : 7 GHz system with 11 GHz protection. Fast quality detector and switching circuits are required (Hitless Switching: without errors or frame loss caused by the switching itself).
3.16 - PROPAGATION THROUGH DUCTS

In extreme cases, atmospheric layering may be such that radio propagation is confined within a sort of waveguide (radio duct). Ducts are classified as : Surface Ducts : if the duct lower boundary is the earth surface; Elevated Ducts : if the duct lower boundary is above the earth surface; Duct propagation is characterized by attenuation well below the free space value. So, if the Rx antenna is within the duct, the Rx signal may be much higher than in normal conditions. On the other hand, If the Rx antenna is out of the duct, rather long signal fadings are observed. Duct propagation may be also responsible of unexpected interference at very long distance. There is no general approach for a statistical prediction of duct events. However, in specific cases, the analysis can be based on the identification of refraction conditions leading to the duct formation. Then, if statistical local data on refractivity gradient distribution are available, the ducting probability can be estimated.
END OF CHAPTER
4.1 - GROUND REFLECTIONS Depending on the Path Profile, it may happen that a portion of the Tx radio signal is reflected by the ground toward the Rx antenna. At the receiver, in addition to the direct signal (D), a reflected signal (R) arrives. In most cases, the presence of a ground reflection is rather critical : Fluctuations in the Rx signal level, even for long time periods; Enhancement of Multipath Activity (the reflected signal is not added to a stable direct signal, but to the fast-varying multipath signal); Reduction of Space Diversity effectiveness as a countermeasure to multipath. As far as possible, reflections should be avoided by : Route Planning (in particular over-water paths); Site Selection : Obstruction of the reflected ray can be obtained in some cases, by suitable selection of the radio sites and of antenna heights.
4.2 - REFLECTION GEOMETRY

Geometrical parameters related to the Reflection mechanism :
Rx Tx
1 R1
P
Reflection point P; Grazing angle ; Direct path length D; Reflected path length R1+R2; Angles 1, 2 between Direct and Refl. Rays.
2 R2
These parameters are varying with time, because of varying propagation conditions (k-factor).
4.3 - RX SIGNAL WITH REFLECTION

In the presence of reflection, the overall received signal (S) is given by the (vectorial) addition of the direct (D) and the reflected (R) signals : S=D+R The result of adding the two vectors D and R depends on: Relative amplitude of D and R : reflection loss : depends on the surface type (worst case : 0 dB e.g. water); divergence factor : due to the spherical earth surface (usually a small loss); antenna directivity : depends on path geometry and antenna beamwidth. Phase shift between D and R : direct and reflected path length difference (expressed in multiples of the wavelength ; 360 deg. phase shift for each ) ; reflection shift : depends on frequency, grazing angle, and surface type (usually close to 180 deg;).
4.4 - RX SIGNAL LEVEL

If the antenna height is varied, then the path length difference and the phase shift between the Direct and the Reflected signal change. As a result, the Rx signal level is a function of the Antenna Height. Direct and Reflected signals co-phased " " " " phase-opposed Maximum Rx level Minimum Rx level The exact positions corresponding to the maximum and minimum Rx level change with propagation conditions (k-factor).
Tx
Rx
Rx Level
4.5 - SPACE DIVERSITY IN REFLECTION PATHS

The Rx level varies with the antenna height, but the position of the maximum Rx level is not stable, due to varying propagation conditions (k-factor). With two antennas, a good Rx level can be expected at least at one antenna. Space Diversity Engineering : Antenna Spacing : The optimum value is computed, but again it depends on the k-factor. Design Rule : Compute Spacing for k=4/3 and check for higher and lower k-factors. Position of the lower antenna : In general, as low as possible, in order to : Obstruct (at least partially, if possible) the reflected ray; Minimize path difference and reflected signal delay. Clearance : For the Lower Antenna, in most cases, Clearance=0 is enough; Usual rules for the Higher Antenna. Implementation Options : BB Switching to the best signal; RF or IF Adaptive Combining (as for Multipath countermeasure); RF Combining (Anti-Reflection System).
4.6 - EFFECT OF ECHO DELAY

The Reflected Ray Delay must be compared with the Symbol Period Ts of the digital signal. Depending on and Ts, the reflection effects are :
<< Ts : (most frequent condition) variation in the Rx signal level, without

frequency selectivity in the signal bandwidth (no distortion)
<= Ts : frequency selective attenuation within the signal bandwidth; the max.
in-band dispersion (notch) depends on the reflected signal level; a measure of the Rx sensitivity is given by the "equipment signature".
> Ts : (very rare condition) similar to external co-channel interference, since

the reflected signal is uncorrelated to the direct one; the equipment BER vs. C/I curve gives a measure of the relevant degradation.
END OF CHAPTER
5.1 - PROPAGATION THROUGH RAIN

Main phenomena associated to Radio Propagation in the presence of Rain : Scattering : part of the EM energy is re-irradiated by the raindrops in every directions. Absorption : part of the EM energy is transferred to the water molecules in the raindrops. De-polarization : the polarization plane (e.g. Vertical) of the incident radio signal is rotated, thus producing a cross-polarized (e.g. Horizontal) component. in the signal at the receiver. These phenomena are sensitive to : Signal Frequency (wavelength compared to the drop size); Signal Polarization (this is related to not-spherical drop shape); Rain Intensity.
5.2 - RAIN ATTENUATION
Specific Attenuation [dB/km]
A radio wave travelling through rain drops is subject to scattering and absorption phenomena. In this process, part of the signal energy directed to the receiver is lost. The Rain Attenuation : is measured in dB/km; increases with frequency, but can be assumed as uniform (flat) within a radio channel bandwidth; increases with rain intensity; with Horizontal Pol. is higher than with Vertical Pol.; produces fades usually several minutes long.
100 20 5 1 0.2 0.05 0.01 1 5 20
100
25 5 1.25 0.25 mm/h
100
500
Frequency [GHz]
5.3 - ITU-R RAIN REGIONS

In temperate climates, frequencies below about 10 GHz are not significantly affected by rain. On the other hand, in tropical climates rain effects are to be considered even at 5-6 GHz. The ITU-R provides a world map of rain regions. For each region, the rain rates (mm/h) for given time percentages are reported. Rain Attenuation Models make reference to Rain Rates corresponding to small time percentages (0.01 %).
5.4 - ITU-R RAIN ATTENUATION MODEL

A step-by-step procedure is recommended by ITU-R : 1) Find the rain rate R for 0.01% of time (from ITU-R maps, or from local data). 2) Compute the specific loss (dB/km) corresponding to the rain rate R and to the wave frequency and polarization (H or V) (formulas are given by Rec. 838). 3) Compute the Effective Hop Length Leff (km) (the real length is reduced, taking into account the rain cell size) (formulas are given by Rec. 530). 4) Compute the Attenuation for p = 0.01% of time : A0.01 (dB) = Leff. 5) The attenuation for other time percentages (in the range 1% to 0.001%) is computed from A0.01, (formulas are given by Rec. 530). As a result, a curve can be plotted of Rain Attenuation vs. Time Percentage, valid for given rain region, frequency, polarization, and hop length)
5.5 - RAIN UNAVAILABILITY PREDICTION
% of Time
0.1
Region L 50Km 11GHz Pol. H FM
From the Time % vs. Rain Attenuation curve, the Unavailability is computed as the time percentage with attenuation greater than the Fade Margin. In the Figure a 38 dB Fade Margin is assumed. Then the Rain Unavailability is about 0.0025% (about 12 minutes / year)..
0.01
0.001
10
20
30
40
50
The prediction method derives from long-term rain rate statistics. Therefore, the Rain Unavailability Prediction must be considered as an average, to be expected during a period of several years.
Attenuation [dB]
5.6 - OTHER RAIN IMPAIRMENTS

Effect of De-Polarization : In radio links using the co-channel plan (two cross-polar radio channels at the same frequency) the C/I ratio is guaranteed by the isolation between H and V polarizations. In the absence of rain, the antenna XPD can provide a C/I ratio well above 25 dB. Rain de-polarization reduces the C/I ratio at the receiver. A statistical model is proposed by ITU-R Rec. 530. Example : In a 13 GHz link, with 40 dB rain attenuation, the XPD is reduced to about 16 dB (according to the ITU model). While an increase in Tx power (and in fade margin) reduces rain unavailability due to rain fading, it is of no help for rain de-polarization. Effect of Scattering : The scattering of radio wave energy produced by rain drops may cause interference to other radio systems. This effect is particularly significant with high Tx power (e.g. interference from satellite earth stations to radio-relay links). The procedures for the evaluation of the Co-ordination Area around Earth Stations (ITU-R Rec. 615) include an estimate of this effect.
5.7 - ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION

The power loss caused by Atmospheric Absorption is usually not significant and can be neglected in the Link Budget. Only in particular frequency bands this effect is to be considered.
Attenuation [dB/km]
10
O2
Frequency Bands affected by Atmospheric Absorption Peaks : 22.5 GHz (water vapour) Max Attenuation = 0.18 dB / km
H2 O
0.1 0.01 10
60 GHz (oxygen) Max Attenuation = 16 dB / km. The figure is valid for : sea level temperature : 15 C water vapour : 7.5 g/m3
20
50
100
Frequency [GHz]
5.8 - USE OF 22.5 AND 60 GHz FREQUENCY BANDS

Radio systems operating in the 22 - 23 GHz bands are only marginally affected by atmospheric absorption. In temperate climates, hop lengths are generally limited below 10 - 12 km because of rain attenuation. The additional attenuation due to water vapour absorption is small (2 to 3 dB depending on temperature and humidity), but is to be considered in the link budget. The 60 GHz band is not presently in commercial use. It could be used for very short hops (e.g. building-to-building links). Propagation impact on Interference : The very high attenuation at 60 GHz allows the re-use of the same RF carrier within a short distance, without mutual interference (small re-use distance). A high efficiency in spectrum utilization can be achieved.
END OF CHAPTER
6.1 - REGULATORY ISSUES

Main topics, relevant to Digital Radio-Relay Systems, dealt with by Regulatory bodies : Performance Objectives : The Error Performance and Availability Objectives for Digital Networks are recommended by the ITU-T, regardless of the transmission medium. ITU-T Recommendations are taken into account in producing the ITU-R Error performance and Availability Recommendations, which are specific for the case of Digital Radio-Relay Systems. Use of RF Bands : The International Radio Regulations define the type of radio services operating in each RF band, on a primary or secondary status. For the RF bands assigned to the (Terrestrial) Fixed Radio Service, the ITU-R recommends the adoption of Frequency Plans, with detailed specification of the RF carrier position, channel spacings, guard bands, etc.
OBJECT. RF BANDS
6.2 - ITU PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES FOR DIGITAL PATHS

ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES based on : Quality Parameters (among them : SES = Severely Errored Second i.e. a period of 1 second with a severe performance degradation) Max. Time Percentages for each quality param. below given thresholds.
AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES based on : Definition of Availability : After 10 consecutive SES events , Unavailability is detected. The 10 seconds are part of the Unavailable time. After 10 consecutive non-SES events Availability is detected. The 10 seconds are part of the Available time. Max. Unavailable Time Percentage Note : Error Performance Objectives are checked only during Available Time.
6.2 - ITU-R AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

New ITU-T Rec. (and related ITU-R Rec.) under study. ITU-R Recs.for a 2500 km Reference Path, including High Grade, Medium Grade, and Local Grade Links. High Grade Basic Objective : Unavailability < 0.3% Allocation Criteria : Distance scaling for Radio Sections down to 280 km; Block Allocation for shorter Radio Sections. Unavailability produced by : Propagation (usually 1/3 of objective) Equipment failures (usually 2/3 of objective). Unavilability is usually measured on a one year basis, but objectives should be satisfied as a multiple year average.
6.3 - ITU-T ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Two approaches : First Issue Ref. Connection Radio Link part of : Bit Rate Performance criteria Rec. G.821 1980 27,500 km ISDN Connection Below Primary Rate Errored Bits Rec. G.826 1992 27,500 km PDH and SDH transport ATM Connection At or Above Primary Rate Errored Blocks
Definition of Errored Second (ES) : One Second with >= 1 Errored Bit (Block). Different definitions for Severely Errored Seconds (SES). Only in G.826 : Background Block Error (BBE) ES / total available seconds : < 0.08 in G.821; depending on bit rate in G.826; SES / total available seconds : < 0.002 both in G.821 and G.826.
6.4 - ITU-R ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Reference : ITU-T Rec. G.821 ITU-T Objectives are scaled to a 2500 km Reference Path, including High Grade, Medium Grade, and Local Grade Quality. High Grade Basic Objective : BER > 10-3 less than 0.054% of Available Time. Allocation Criteria : Distance scaling for Radio Sections down to 280 km; Block Allocation for shorter Radio Sections. Reference : ITU-T Rec. G.826 Objectives scaled to a 2500 km Reference Path, with International Portion and National Portion (intermediate or terminating countries) Allocation Criteria : Block Allowance Factor + Distance Allocation Factor.
6.5 - IMPACT OF PROPAGATION ON PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Performance Impairment Rain Obstruction Fading (Sub-Refractive Conditions) Interference (Super-Refractive Conditions) Multipath Fading Short Term Uncorrelated Interference Long Term Correlated Interference Degradation Period >= 10 seconds Performance Objective Availability
< 10 seconds
Error Performance (SES) Error Performance (ES and BBE)
Not Significant
6.6 - ITU-R RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY PLANS

General characteristics : Separate sub-bands for Tx and Rx channels, with a central guard band (one exception : U.S. TD 4 GHz plan, with alternate Tx and Rx channels). Constant channel spacing between co-polarized channels. Two types of channel arrangements : Interleaved Plan Co-Channel Plan
Criteria followed in the ITU-R Frequency Plan activity : Below 12 GHz : Compatibility of Channel Arrangements in the transition from Analog to Digital systems. Above 12 GHz : Channel Arrangements optimized for Digital systems.
6.7 - INTERLEAVED CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT
Pol.
GO CHANNELS x 1 3
RETURN CHANNELS 1 3 N-1 F
H(V) V(H) z 2
x/2 x/2
...
4
N-1
...
4
x = Co-polar. . channel spacing y = Central guard band z = Edge guard band
N z
Interferences : two adjacent X-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x/2 two adjacent Co-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x Comment : Recommended in analog systems (frequency reuse not possible) Adopted also for digital systems below 12 GHz.
6.8 - CO-CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT GO CHANNELS Pol. z x 1 H(V) V(H) 2 4 N 2 4 N 3 RETURN CHANNELS y z 1 3

x = Co-polar. channel spacing
...
...
F y = Central
guard band z = Edge guard band
Interferences : one X-pol. signal at the same frequency (F = 0) two adjacent Co-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x two adjacent X-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x Comment : Suitable for digital systems, short hops, simple modulations Recommended in frequency bands above 12 GHz (only digital) Recently adopted in some frequency bands below 12 GHz (x-pol. interference canceller required for complex digital modulations)
6.9 - INTERFERENCE CLASSIFICATION

From the Propagation point of view : Correlated : the interfering signal is subject to the same propagation conditions as the useful signal (same fade depth for the two signals, at the same time). Uncorrelated : the interfering and the useful signals are subject to different propagation conditions (worst case: interference at the nominal level, while the useful signal is at the threshold level). From the Signal Source point of view : Intra-System (Internal) Interference : coming from the same radio site or from other sites in the same radio system. Signal parameters are known by the system designer in detail . It includes correlated and uncorrelated interference. Inter-System (External) Interference : coming from other radio systems, sometimes only partially known by the system designer. Usually, it has to be considered as uncorrelated interference.
6.10 - INTERFERENCE SCENARIO

D e s ire d S ig n a l In te rfe rin g S ig n a l P a th O th e r U s e fu l S ig n a ls
In te rfe re d R e c e iv e r
C lic k o n fo r d e ta ils
END OF CHAPTER
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Same Hop Interference
Co-Channel Frequency Arrangement :
Same Frequency, X-pol. Adjacent channel, Co-pol.
Interleaved Frequency Arrangement :
Adjacent channel, X-pol.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Same Frequency X-pol.

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Intra-System, Same Hop (only in Co-Channel Frequency Arrangement) zero X-polar Antenna XPD Multipath : Partially correlated interference. Multipath outage prediction models include the XPD degradation effect. Rain : Correlated interference, but with XPD degraded by rain de-polarization effect.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Adjacent Channel Co-pol.

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Intra-System, Same Hop (only in Co-Channel Frequency Arrangement). x (x = co-polar minimum spacing) Co-polar Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD) Multipath : Partially Uncorrelated Interference. Correlation can be evaluated by Frequency Diversity Models Rain : Correlated interference (same fade depth as desired signal).
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Adjacent Channel X-pol.

Type of Interference : Intra-System, Same Hop (significant only in Interleaved Frequency Arrangement, usually negligible in Co-channel arrangement) Interleaved Plan x /2 Co-channel Plan x (x = co-polar minimum spacing) X-polar Antenna XPD and Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD). Multipath : Partially correlated interference. Multipath outage prediction models include the XPD degradation effect. Rain : Correlated interference, but with XPD degraded by rain de-polarization effect.
Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues :
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Next Hop, Tx to Rx

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Intra-System, Any Frequency Arrangement > y (y = central guard-band) usually X-polar, at least for min. spacing (not always) Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD), Antenna back-to-back decoupling. Uncorrelated interference. Antenna Back-to-back decoupling degraded by nearby reflections.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Next Site, Front-to-Back

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Intra-System, Any Frequency Arrangement co-channel (worst case) usually X-polar (not always) Tx Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination. Rain : Correlated interference. Multipath : Partially uncorrelated (space diversity effect) Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination degraded by nearby reflections.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Adjacent Hop

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Intra-System, Any Frequency Arrangement co-channel (worst case) usually X-polar (not always) Rx Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination Rain : Uncorrelated interference (partial correlation if raincell close to Interfered Rx). Multipath : Uncorrelated interference Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination degraded by nearby reflections.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Same Hop Tx to Rx

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Intra-System, Any Frequency Arrangement > y (y = central guard-band) usually X-polar, at least for min. spacing (not always) Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD), Antenna Tx/Rx decoupling (or antenna side-to-side decoupling if two antennas are used) . Uncorrelated interference. Reflections nearby the radio site very dangerous if the Tx signal is reflected toward the Rx.
Propagation issues :
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Overreach

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Intra-System, Any Frequency Arrangement co-channel Co-polar Tx and Rx Antenna angular discrimination (if hops are not in line). Additional Free Space Loss for interfering signal Rain : Correlated Interference, as far as the Interfering path is close to the desired signal path. Multipath : Uncorrelated. The check of Clearance for the Interfering signal path must be based on worst case assumption (effect of super-refractive propagation, k-factor > standard value).
Propagation issues :
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Other System

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Inter-System co-channel (worst case) Co-polar (worst case) Tx and Rx Antenna angular discrimination. Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD) if not co-channel Uncorrelated interference. The check of Clearance for the Interfering signal path must be based on worst case assumption (effect of super-refractive propagation, k-factor > standard value).
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Node

Type of Interference : Frequency Spacing : Polarization : Discrimination from : Propagation issues : Inter-System Co-channel (worst case) Co-polar (worst case) Rx Antenna angular discrimination. Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD) if not co-channel Rain : Partially correlated if Rx angle is small Multipath : Uncorrelated interference.
50
Antenna Gain [dB]
4m
46 42
3m
2m 1m
38 34 30 0 5 10 15
0.5m
20
Frequency [GHz]
Tx
CL
Rx
Real Earth
Tx
CL
Rx
R Tx CL
Real Earth Rx
kR
Equivalent Earth
Tx
CL
Rx
R Tx CL
Real Earth Rx
Flat Earth
1.1 0.9
keff
0.7 0.5 0.3 10 20 50 100 200
Path Length [km]
1.1 0.9
keff
0.7 0.5 0.3 10 20 50 100 200
Path Length [km]
Rx Tx
F1 P
L1
L2
Fresnel Radius [m]
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 80 100
2 GHz 4 GHz 7 GHz 12 GHz
Hop Length [km]
-10
Obstruction Loss [dB]
0 10 1 20 3 30 40 -1.5 2
-1
-0.5
0.
0.5
1.
Normalized Clearance Cl/F1
Notch Depth [dB]
BER < 10-3
BER > 10-3
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Relative Notch Position [MHz]
Notch Depth [dB]
Without Equalizer
With Equalizer
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Notch Frequency [MHz]
Rx Tx
1
D
P
R1
R2
Tx
Rx
Rx Level
Specific Attenuation [dB/km]
100 20 5 1 0.2 0.05 0.01 1 5 20
100
25 5 1.25 0.25 mm/h
100
500
Frequency [GHz]
% of Time
0.1
Region L 50Km 11GHz Pol. H FM
0.01
0.001
10
20
30
40
50
Attenuation [dB]
Attenuation [dB/km]
10
O2
H2O
0.1 0.01 10
20
50
100
Frequency [GHz]
INTERLEAVED CHANNEL PLAN
Pol.
GO CHANNELS x 1 3
RETURN CHANNELS 1 3 N-1 F
H(V) V(H) z 2
x/2 x/2
...
4
N-1
...
4
N z
CO-CHANNEL PLAN
GO CHANNELS Pol. z x 1 H(V) V(H) 2 4 N 3
RETURN CHANNELS y z 1 3
...
...
N
CO-CHANNEL PLAN
GO CHANNELS Pol. z x 1 H(V) V(H) 2 4 N 3
RETURN CHANNELS y z 1 3
...
...
N
Free Space Loss [dB]
155 150 60 km 145 140 135 130 0 5 10 15 20 40 km 20 km
Frequency (GHz)
Prob {A>Ao} = Po 10-Ao/10
In this Figure : Po = 1
Prob { A > Ao }
0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
10 dB/dec
10
20
30
40
50
Ao [dB]
10
Amplitude [dB]
0 b=0.5 -10 -20 -30 -40 fo b=1 fo+1/ b=0.9
Frequency
b=0.95
Norm. group delay
b=0.9 b=0.5
fo
Frequency
fo+1/
To Probe Further : Glossary - Radio Transceivers Glossary - Antennas
To Probe Further : Derivation of the Radio Link Equation Definition of Logarithmic Units
To Probe Further : Loss vs. Distance in Radio and Cables Derivation of the Radio Link Equation
To Probe Further : Glossary - Antennas Definition of Antenna Gain
To Probe Further : Definition of Logarithmic Units
To Probe Further : Atmosphere Structure and Refraction Effects of Vertical Refractivity Gradient
To Probe Further : Atmosphere Structure and Refraction Effects of Vertical Refractivity Gradient
To Probe Further : Fresnel Ellipsoid and Optical Analogy Diffraction Analysis
To Probe Further : Effects of Vertical Refractivity Gradient Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals
To Probe Further : Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals Rx Signal Level vs. Time and Frequency during Multipath Events
To Probe Further : Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals
To Probe Further : Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals Formulas for Po prediction
To Probe Further : Formulas for Po prediction
To Probe Further : Rx Signal Level vs. Time and Frequency during Multipath Events
To Probe Further : Effects of Multipath Distortion on Digital Signals
To Probe Further : Signature Measurement
To Probe Further : Selective Fading Prediction Models Signature Measurement De-Polarization due to Multipath
To Probe Further : Formulas for Po Prediction Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals
To Probe Further : Selective Fading Prediction Model Signature Measurement De-Polarization due to Multipath Maximum Hop Length (Rain & Multipath)
To Probe Further : Selective Fading Prediction Model
To Probe Further : Angle Diversity
To Probe Further : Vectorial Addition of Two Signals Reflection Coefficients
To Probe Further : Anti-Reflection System
To Probe Further : Vectorial Addition of Two Signals
To Probe Further : Radio Wave Propagation through Rain De-Polarization due to Rain Other Hydrometeor Effects (fog, snow)
To Probe Further : Radio Wave Propagation through Rain
To Probe Further : ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction De-Polarization due to Rain
To Probe Further : ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction Maximum Hop Length (Rain & Multipath)
To Probe Further : De-Polarization due to Rain Other Hydrometeor Effects (fog, snow)
To Probe Further : RF Bands Assigned to the Radio Fixed Service (FS)
To Probe Further : ITU-T Error Performance Objectives
To Probe Further : Status of ITU-R Recs. on Performance Objectives
To Probe Further : RF Bands Assigned to the Radio Fixed Service (FS)
To Probe Further : Selective Fading Prediction Models Equalization Improvement
To Probe Further : Angle Diversity Diversity Improvement Selective Fading Prediction Models
To Probe Further : Diversity Improvement Selective Fading Prediction Models
To Probe Further : Rain Rates in ITU-R Regions
GLOSSARY - Radio Transceivers

Tx Power : The RF power at the Radio Transmitter Output (usually manufacturer data do not include loss in the RF branching system). Tx Capacity : The amount of information delivered at the Tx input and available at the Rx output (usually expressed in bit / second, or telephone chs, or TV chs., etc.). Path Bit Rate : Bit Rate (bit/second) actually transmitted on the radio path (it is usually higher than the Tx Capacity, due to bits added by the Tx radio equipment for channel coding, service channels, framing, etc.) Tx Frequency : The Carrier Frequency in the Emitted Signal. Emitted Spectrum : The distribution of emitted RF energy at frequencies around the Tx Carrier Frequency. It depends on the (Path) Bit Rate, Modulation technique and Tx Filtering (Tx Spectral Shaping). Tx Spectral Shaping : The overall effect of Tx Filters in limiting the Emitted Spectrum. Rx Power (nominal) : The RF power at the Radio Receiver Input in normal propagation conditions.
Glossary - Radio Transceivers
Rx Power (actual) : The RF power at the Radio Receiver Input, at a given time, including propagation losses present at that time. Rx Threshold : The minimum RF power at the Rx input, required for the Receiver to operate above a threshold of acceptable quality. Reception Quality : The result of comparison between the original information delivered at the Tx input and that available at the Rx output; it can be expressed by the Bit Error Ratio (BER), or by other (more complex) parameters related to Bit Blocks. Rx Selectivity : The overall effect of the Receiver Filters in discriminating the desired signal from signals received on adjacent radio channels. It is expressed by an overall transfer function, including the contribute of RF, IF, and BB filters. Net Filter Discrimination (NFD) : The attenuation of the Interfering signal level at the Rx decision circuit, as a result of the interfering signal Tx spectral shaping and of the Rx selectivity at the interfered receiver.
GLOSSARY - Antennas
Isotropic Antenna : An ideal source of Electromagnetic Radiation, that radiates uniformly in all directions. Omnidirectional Antenna : A Real Antenna, that approximates an Isotropic Antenna; in most cases radiation is (almost) uniform at all azimuth angles, but within a limited range of elevatuion angles. Directive Antenna : A Real Antenna, that concentrates most of the emitted radiation within a small angle in a given direction. Reflector Antenna : A Directive Antenna, using one or more reflecting surfaces to concentrate the emitted radiation in the desired direction. Parabolic Antenna : A Reflector Antenna using a Parabolic Surface; the feeder position is in the parabola focus. Horn Antenna : A Reflector Antenna using a sector of a Parabolic Surface. Cassegrain Antenna : A double Reflector Antenna: the primary reflector is a parabolic surface, the secondary reflector is a hyperbolic surface.
Glossary - Antennas
Antenna Gain : See Definition. Directivity Diagram : A plot of the antenna gain (usually relative to the maximum gain) as a function of the azimuth or elevation angle. Far Field Region : The region sufficiently distant from the antenna, where the EM field can be represented as a plane wave and the antenna diagram is stabilized. Closer to the antenna, the Near Field Region and the Fresnel (transition) Region are defined. The boundary between the Fresnel and the Far Field Region is approximately at the distance : dFF = 2 D2 / (D = antenna diameter)
Launch and Arrival Angles : The angle of the Radio Ray at the Tx or Rx antenna, with respect to the Horizon; it varies with atmospheric conditions (k-factor).
Logarithmic Units
Logarithmic units are widely used in Radio Link Engineering computations. The Link Budget is put in a very convenient form by using logarithmic units. Gains and Losses are added with positive or negative sign, as in financial budgets. The ratio R between the power P and a reference power PREF (both in the same unit, like W or mW) is expressed in decibels as: R (dB) = 10 Log10 (P / PREF) If R>0, then P > PREF (gain). Otherwise, if R<0, then P < PREF (loss). NOTE : Decibels are used to express ratios only. Absolute power levels can never be expressed in dB. Sometimes the reference power level PREF is implicit in some way. Absolute power levels can be expressed in dBm, by assuming PREF = 1 mW : P (dBm) = 10 Log10 (P[mW] / 1mW) Similarly, with PREF = 1 W, power P in dBW is : P (dBW) = 10 Log10 (P[W] / 1W)
Logarithmic Units
Examples of power levels expressed in different units : Power in mW 0.001 0.1 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 40.0 100.0 200.0 1000.0 5000.0 10000.0 Power in dBm -30 -10 0 +3 +7 +10 +16 +20 +23 +30 +37 +40 Power in dBW -60 -40 -30 -27 -23 -20 -14 -10 -7 0 +7 +10
Derivation of the Basic Radio Link Equation

Let us assume that a radio signal is transmitted using an Isotropic Antenna, with power PT. At the distance L from the antenna, the Power Density is : = PT / 4*L2 If a Directive Antenna (gain GT) is used and assuming that the distance L is sufficiently large, in order that Far Field Conditions are satisfied, then the Power Density in the antenna pointing direction is : = PT GT / 4*L2 At the distance L, a receiving antenna with an Effective Area ARE is used. Then, the received power is : PR = ARE = PT GT ARE / 4*L2 The Effective Area is related to the Antenna Gain : ARE = GR &2 / 4* (& = wavelength) Then the Received Power can be finally expressed as : PR = PT GT GR &2 / [4*L]2 = PT GT GR [c / 4*FL]2 where c is the propagation velocity and F is the signal frequency.
Derivation of the Basic Radio Link Equation
By transforming into Logarithmic Units, we get : PR[dBm] = PT[dBm] + GT[dB] + GR[dB] - 92.44 - 20 Log (F[GHz]) - 20 Log(L[km]) which is the usual Radio Link Equation. If frequency and distance are not expressed, respectively, in GHz and km, then the numerical constant 92.4 must be modified accordingly. Comments : Two equivalent forms of the Radio Link Equation have been derived above: PR = PT GT AR / 4*L2 PR = PT GT GR [c / 4*FL]2 (1) (2)
The antenna parameters used in (1) are the Tx gain GT and the Rx antenna area AR. The Rx power is proportional to GT, to AR and to PT; it is inversely proportional to the distance squared. This probably sounds quite clear from the physical point of view. On the other hand, formula (2) looks attractive for its symmetric form, since both the Tx and Rx antenna gains appear. However, we must remember that, for a given antenna area, the gain increases with frequency (see also Antenna Gain Definition). That's why the frequency term appears in (2).
Definition of Antenna Gain

Let us imagine an Isotropic Antenna at the centre of a sphere (with radius L), radiating a total power P. In every point on the sphere surface, a uniform EM power density could be measured : ()ISO = P / 4*L2 Now, we substitute the Isotropic Antenna with a Directive Antenna and we measure the EM power density on the sphere surface, at the intersection with the antenna axis (we maintain the same total emitted power P). The result is ()DIR The antenna gain on the axis is defined as : or, in logarithmic units : g = (p)DIR / (p)ISO
G (dB) = 10 Log (g) = 10 Log [(p)DIR / (p)ISO]
The Antenna Gain depends on the physical dimensions of the antenna, normalized to the signal wavelength &. For Reflector Antennas we have : G (dB) = 10 Log (4 * A / &2) = 10 Log (4 * AE / &2) where A is the reflector area, is the Antenna Efficiency (generally in the range 0.55 0.65) and AE = A is called Antenna Effective Area.
Loss vs. Distance in Radio (and Cable) Links

In the Radio Link Equation, the factor 1/L2 (or -20 Log (L) in logarithmic units) shows how the received signal power is reduced as the distance L from Tx to Rx increases. We refer to the simple Isotropic Antenna example. The antenna is at the centre of a sphere (with radius L), radiating a total power P. In every point on the sphere surface, the EM power density is: = P / 4*L2 The Loss vs. Distance mechanism is directly related to the EM power density at the Rx antenna, which is proportional to 1/L2. This corresponds to a 6 dB increase in power loss every time the hop length is doubled. It must be recalled that the Radio Link Equation is valid for Free Space Propagation. Therefore, no interaction between the Electromagnetic (EM) radiation and the propagation medium is responsible for power loss. For the above reason, the term Free Space Loss could be slightly misleading. A completely different mechanism is responsible of power loss at the receiver when the
Loss vs. Distance in Radio (and Cable) Links
EM energy interacts with the propagation medium and some phenomena of energy transfer or transformations produce the attenuation in the received signal. This happens, for example, in coaxial cable transmission, where signal loss is mainly due to dissipative phenomena (interaction of EM energy with conductive and dielectric material in the cable). Depending on signal frequency and cable characteristics, some fraction of signal power is lost every kilometre travelled through the cable. So, the loss is usually expressed in dB/km. Also in radio communications through the atmosphere, dissipative phenomena can be observed. Absorption in the atmosphere is caused by water vapour, oxygen molecules or by water in raindrops. Also for these phenomena, the power loss is usually expressed in dB/km. However, in most cases (dry atmosphere, frequencies below 20 GHz), the interaction of the EM radiation with atmosphere components is almost negligible.
Atmosphere structure and refraction gradient

The Refractive Index is the ratio of the Velocity of Light in vacuum to the velocity in a different medium. Since the Velocity of Light in the atmosphere is very close to that in vacuum, then the Refractive Index in the atmosphere is greater than, but very close to 1. However, also small variation in the atmosphere Refractive Index have significant effects on the propagation of Electromagnetic Waves. For this reason, instead of using the Refractive Index n (close to 1), it is convenient to define the Refractivity N as : N = (n - 1) 106 that is the number of parts per million that the Refractive Index exceeds unity. The Refractivity is a dimensionless parameter, measured in N-units. The atmosphere Refractivity is a function of Temperature, Pressure, and Humidity, and it is not constant with height. The ITU-R Rec. 453 gives the formula : N = (77.6 / T ) ( P + 4810 e / T ) where T = absolute temperature (Kelvin deg); P = atmospheric pressure (hPa, numerically equal to millibar); e = water vapour pressure (hPa).
Atmosphere structure and refraction gradient
The average value of N at sea level is about No = 315 The ITU-R gives world maps with the mean values of No in February and August. The Vertical Refractivity Gradient G (measured in N-units per km, N/km) is defined as: G = (N1 - N2) / (H1 - H2) where N1 and N2 are the refractivity values at elevations H1 and H2, respectively. In a Standard Atmosphere model, the Vertical Refractivity Gradient is assumed as constant in the first kilometre of the atmosphere : G = - 40 N/km. This corresponds to the Standard Propagation conditions. Deviation from the Standard Atmosphere condition leads to Anomalous Propagation. Such anomalies are usually associated with particular meteorological conditions, like temperature inversion, very high evaporation and humidity, passage of cold air over warm surfaces or vice versa. In this conditions, the Vertical Refractivity Gradient is no longer constant. A number of different profiles have been observed and measured. It is worth noting that, at greater altitude, the Refractive Index is, in any case, closer and closer to 1; so the Refractivity N goes to zero, according to an exponential function.
Effects of Vertical Refractivity Gradient

In any point in the space, an Electromagnetic Wave propagates in the direction normal to the wave-front (iso-phase plane) in that point. In a homogeneous medium, isophase planes are parallel to each other and the propagation direction is a straight line normal to them. The Atmosphere is not an homogeneous medium. The Refractivity varies with height and the Vertical Refractivity Gradient gives a measure of this variation. Different Refractivity at different heights means different propagation velocity. The wave-front moves faster or slower depending on the height, producing a rotation of the wave-front itself. Thus, also the propagation direction (normal to the wave-front) rotates. The ray curvature 1/r is a function of the Vertical Refractivity Gradient G : 1/r = - G 10-6. In the Equivalent Earth representation, the ray path is made straight, by modifying the earth radius R (6370 km) to kR (k = equivalent earth factor). This condition means : 1/kR = 1/R - 1/r k = 1 / ( 1 - R/r) = 1 / ( 1+ R G 10-6) = 157 / ( 157 + G )
For the Standard Atmosphere (G = -40 N units/km), this gives k = 4/3 ( = 1.33).
Anomalous propagation conditions : Constant-G profiles : deviation from the Standard Atmosphere (k = 4/3), can result in : Sub-Refractive propagation (k < 4/3, G > -40 N-units/km) : usually associated to atmosphere density increasing with height (warm air over cool air or moist surface). The ray curvature is reduced or even is bent upward ( k < 1, G > 0 ); the ray path is closer to the ground (maximum obstruction probability when k is minimum). Super-Refractive propagation (k > 4/3, G < - 40 N-units/km) : observed when temperature inversion happens or other phenomena makes atmosphere density decreasing with height. (cool dry air over a warm body of water). The equivalent earth reduces its curvature; for k the ray is parallel to the earth and propagation may extend its range (unexpected interference may appear). In extreme super-refraction conditions (G < -157 N-units/km, negative k) the ray is bent toward ground and no signal arrives at the Rx antenna (black-out). Variable-G profiles : with better approximation, the Refractivity Gradient can be assumed as constant only in limited height ranges (layered atmosphere). Under this model, the ray curvature changes when passing from one atmosphere layer (G = G1)
to the higher (or lower) one (G = G2). Even if, in the real case, the transition from one layer to another is smoothed in some way, a layered atmosphere model is useful in explaining : Multipath propagation : the different ray curvature in atmospheric layers may produce a number of separate propagation paths from the transmitter to the receiver. Duct formation : the atmosphere layers are such that the rays at the duct lower boundary tend to be bent upward, while rays close to the upper boundary tend to be bent downward. The result is that propagation is confined within a limited height ranges, with attenuation much lower than in well mixed atmosphere. If the Rx antenna is within the duct, a stronger signal will be received. If the Rx antenna is out of the duct, rather long signal fadings are observed.
Fresnel Ellipsoid and Optical Analogy

The propagation of Radio Waves is often described in terms of Ray Trajectories, with implicit reference to Geometrical Optics. Reflection and Refraction phenomena are mainly discussed in this context. However, it is important to remember that the Geometrical Optics approach is adequate so long as any discontinuities encountered by an Electromagnetic Wave during its propagation are very large compared with the wavelength. The Fresnel Ellipsoid gives an indication of the space volume involved in the propagation from a source point (Tx) to a sensor (Rx). The ellipsoid radius is proportional to the wavelength square root. In the optical field, the wavelength is so small (about 5 10-4 mm) that the radius of the Fresnel ellipsoid is negligible, at least as a first approximation. Only with accurate experiments (unusual in our visual experience) diffraction phenomena can be observed and the role of Fresnel ellipsoid can be appreciated also in the optical field. We are familiar with our optical experience, that can be of some help in describing some aspects of propagation mechanisms. But this analogy can be misleading in other case. For example, the concept of Visibility is quite different in Radio Engineering and in our visual experience.
Diffraction Analysis
Generally speaking, Diffraction effects can be observed when the wave propagation is altered by an obstacle which has dimensions comparable to the wavelength in the plane normal to the propagation direction. Usually, this means that the obstacle is close to the Fresnel ellipsoid (possibly with partial or total obstruction). The theoretical computation of diffraction loss is rather complex. Usually, reference is made to two obstacle models : the smooth spherical earth ; the knife-edge obstruction. They represent extreme and opposite conditions and most practical cases can be assumed as intermediate between these two models. The ITU-R Recs. 368 and 526 include the analysis of the two models. In Rec. 526 the Knife-edge model is generalized to rounded obstacles and the case of multiple obstructions is also dealt with. An approximation for the knife-edge case is given by : Diffraction Loss (dB) = 6.9 + 20 Log [ ( y2 +1 ) + y ] where y = 2 CL/F1 - 0.1 is a function of the clearance CL normalized to the Fresnel radius F1, and the approximation is valid for y > - 0.8 (Note : CL is negative when a ground obstruction is higher than the radio ray).
Vectorial Addition of Two Signals (deterministic)

Let us consider a propagation channel where an echo (delayed) signal adds to the direct signal at the receiver. The Channel Transfer Function H(F) is : H(f) = 1 - b exp [ - j (2f - ) ] = 1 - b exp [ - j 2(f - fo) ] where : b = echo amplitude (direct signal amplitude normalized to unity) ; = echo delay ; = echo phase (relative to direct signal). The substitution = 2fo has been used in order to introduce the frequency fo where the H(f) modulus is minimum : | H(fo) | = 1 - b
Amplitude [dB]
0 b=0.5 -10 -20 -30 -40 fo b=1 fo+1/ b=0.9
Other minimums in | H(f) | are found for any frequency fn = fo + n/ (n integer).
Frequency
Vectorial Addition of Two Signals
The Group Delay is represented for different values of the echo amplitude b. In the figure it is assumed b < 1(delayed signal smaller than the direct one). This gives a Minimum-Phase Transfer Function. If the delayed signal is greater than the direct one, then a NonMinimum Phase Transfer Function is produced. This case is usually dealt with by assuming again the echo as the smaller signal, with a negative . The Group Delay diagram is given by the same figure, but reversing the ordinate axis.
b=0.95
Norm. group delay
b=0.9 b=0.5
fo
Frequency
fo+1/
Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals (statistic)

Let us consider the case of N signals, adding together. They can be represented as vectors, with orthogonal components {x1, y1}, {x2, y2}, ..., {xN, yN}. Each vector has random amplitude and phase (independent to each other, same statistics). The orthogonal components of the resultant vector are given by : X = x1 + x2 + ... + xN Y = y1 + y2 + ... + yN (1)
With N (number of signals) growing to infinity, reference can be made to the Central Limit Theorem : X and Y are independent Gaussian Random Variables, whose average value is zero and variance is 2 (we are not interested in investigating the precise value of ). The amplitude R of the {X,Y} vector is given by : R2 = X2 + Y2 (2)
Given the statistical properties of X and Y (mentioned above), formula (2) defines R as a Rayleigh Random Variable, with average value (/2). The Rayleigh Cumulative Function gives : Prob { R < c } = 1 - exp [ - c2 / 22 ] c2 / 22 (3)
Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals
where the approximation holds when c << , or c << (Rayleigh average value). In the application to Radio Propagation Models, Logarithmic Units are usual. So, we are interested in evaluating probilities like ( C = 20 Log [c] ) : Prob [ R(dB) < C(dB) ] c2 / 22 = 10 C/10 / 22 which is the Rayleigh asymptotic formula in Logarithmic Units. If we define C(dB) = M(dB) - A(dB) , where A is the attenuation below the average value M in dB, then (4) becomes : Prob [ R(dB) < M(dB) - A(dB) ] 10 (M-A)/10 / 22 = W 10 -A/10 (5) (4)
where W is a constant depending only on the Rayleigh average value. Formula (5) is the usual asymptotic expression for Rayleigh distributed attenuation in dB, holding for R values much lower than the Rayleigh average value (A > 15 - 20 dB). Formula (5) is known as the 10dB / decade formula. If attenuation A is made 10 dB deeper, then the probablity is one decade smaller.
Reflection Coefficients
In many cases it is advisable to adopt the conservative assumption that the modulus of the Reflection Coefficient be equal to 1. For very small grazing angles and/or for Horizontal Polarization this is a realistic approximation. For Vertical Polarization, the table gives the Reflection Coefficient modulus in the case of sea reflection : Grazing Angle Frequency 0.5 1 2 4 1 GHz 3 GHz 10 GHz -1.4 dB -1.2 dB -0.8 dB -2.8 dB -2.3 dB -1.7 dB -6.2 dB -5.3 dB -4.3 dB -12.0 dB -10.9 dB -8.4 dB
Similarly, the phase of the Reflection Coefficient is very close to 180 with Horizontal Polarization (any grazing angle) and also with Vertical Polarization, for grazing angles below 0.5. With Vertical Polarization and larger grazing angles, the phase is smaller than 180, depending also on the frequency. However, in radio link design, the prediction of the Reflection Coefficient phase is usually not required.
Anti-Reflection System
Space Diversity, as a Reflection Countermeasure, is usually implemented to maximize the Rx power level, by switching to the best signal or combining in IF or RF. However, the maximized Rx signal is in some way a combination of the direct and the reflected signal. In some cases it is required that the reflected signal be cancelled, to avoid signal distortion (particularly with very long reflection delays). The Anti-Reflection system is an RF Space Diversity implementation with the objective of cancelling (or minimizing) the reflected signal component in the overall Rx signal. . The Antenna Spacing is such that the reflected signal arrives in phase opposition at the two antennas. The phase shifter is used for fine Hybrid Rx phase adjustment. The result at the hybrid is a co-phase addition of the direct signal components from the two antennas, and phase opposition cancelling of the reflected signal components.
Anti-Reflection System
The Space Diversity configuration can also be seen as an Antenna Array, with an overall directivity pattern having a null toward the reflection point. Also the Anti-Reflecting systems, as other Space Diversity implementations, are usually optimized for standard propagation conditions. Then the solution is checked in the whole range of expected k-factor values.
Multipath Propagation - Rx Level vs. Time and Frequency

In a Frequency & Time Plane, the figure shows the addition of multiple vectors with random phases. Each vector represents one Rx signal component, during a multipath event. The Rx signal amplitude changes from time t1 to t2, as well as from frequency f1 to f2.
Frequency
n 4 3 Rx 2 1 n 4 n 4 3 2 1 1 Rx 3 2 1 2 n Rx 4 3
f2
f1
Rx
Time t2
.
t1
Multipath propagation is a dynamic event, both in the time dimension and in the frequency dimension.
Rx SIGNAL vs. TIME : Phase shifts are varying with time because of movements in atmospheric layers. Since the wavelength is rather small (e.g. 10 cm at 3 GHz), even a small change in the path length produces a significant phase rotation. So the relative phases among multipath components are fast varying, as well as the reultant vector (Rx amplitude). The speed of change of the multipath channel is expressed in two ways. 1) Rx signal power variation in a given time interval : up to 10 dB in 100 ms (100 dB/s) has been observed, according to several authors. 2) Fade Notch (deepest attenuation) movement through the signal bandwidth : up to 10 MHz in 100 ms (100 MHz/s) has been observed, according to several authors. The above estimates affect the design of multipath countermeasures, like adaptive equalizers, combiners, and switches to the protection channel (frequency diversity).
Rx SIGNAL vs. FREQUENCY : In a modulated signal, let us consider the spectral components at the edge of the signal bandwidth F : F1 = Fc - F/2 and F2 = Fc + F/2 (Fc = carrier frequency). Moreover, let us simplify the multipath propagation as the composition of a direct and a delayed (echo) signal. The phase shift between the F1 signal component and the delayed echo is : 1 = 2F1 where is the echo delay. Similarly, at F2, we have 2 = 2F2. The multipath propagation produces an (almost) flat attenuation through the whole signal bandwidth F, if the phase shifts 1 and 2 are equal (or very close) (same composition of the direct and echo signals at F1 and F2 ) : = 2 - 1 = 2 (F2 - F1) = 2 F 0 that is 2 F << 1 /
Under this condition, the frequency selective effect of multipath propagation can be neglected, Otherwise, for frequencies spaced more than F above, the composition of multipath components, at the same time instant, gives different Rx amplitudes (frequency selective multipath).
Formulas for Po Prediction

Several formulas have been proposed to predict the Multipath Occurrence Factor Po. They can be derived from the general formula : Po = C Q Fa Lb where F is the Frequency in GHz, L is the Hop Length in km. The four parameters defining the prediction model are : a = Frequency Exponent; b = Distance Exponent; C = Climatic Factor; Q = Profile Factor. Formula from Bell Labs (USA) : This formula is the result of field measurements in the US, mainly reported by A. Vigants and W.T. Barnett in several papers. The parameters in the general Po formula are specialized as follows : Frequency Exponent a = 1; Distance Exponent b = 3; C = from 10-5 (dry mountain climate) to 4.1 10-5 (climate with high humidity and temperature; coastal regions); Q = 1 / S1.3 where S = Profile roughness, computed from the hop profile.
Formula for NW. Europe : This formula was derived from measurements performed by European PTT and reported by CCIR documents in 1978-1986. The parameters in the general Po formula are specialized as follows : Frequency Exponent a = 1; Distance Exponent b = 3.5; C = 1.4 10-8 (continental temperate climate, to be modified for very dry or humid or hot climates and/or wet terrain); Q = 1 (for average rolling terrain, to be increased for completely flat profile). Formula from ITU-R Rec. 530 : The present issue of ITU-R Rec. 530 reports a formula for predicting the Po factor in any radio link. The general Po formula is specialized as follows : Frequency Exponent a = 0.89; Distance Exponent b = 3.6;
C is computed from rather complex tables, considering several conditions (inland or
coastal links, fraction of the path profile near large or medium bodies of water; plain, hilly or mountainous terrain; latitude and longitude). As an example, for inland links : C = 0.01 E pL1.5 where E = environment factor (in the range 2.2 10-8 to 5 10-6) pL = % time with average refractivity gradient in the lowest 100m of the atmosphere less than -100 N-units/km (from maps in ITU-R Rec. 453); where = slope (mrad) from Tx to Rx antenna.
Q = ( 1 + ) -1.4
The specific procedure for the computation of E is reported in ITU-R Rec. 530. Note : In the above formulas C has the same role as K in Rec. 530, but C = 0.01 K, since in Rec. 530 the Rayleigh formula is expressed in %.
De-Polarization due to Multipath

During Multipath events a reduction in the Cross-Polar Discrimination (XPD) at the Rx antenna is observed. This is mainly related to the shape of the X-polar antenna diagram (usually with deep and sharp attenuation only in the maximum gain direction), quite different from the shape of the Co-polar diagram. In most cases it has been observed that the XPD remains almost constant for signal fades up to about 20 dB, while it degrades 1 dB for dB for deeper fades. This suggest an approximate model for estimating the XPD reduction on the following basis : a) define XPD0 as a fictitious unfaded XPD, better than the actual antenna XPD by some 15 to 20 dB; b) for Co-polar Attenuation (CPA) deeper than 20-25 dB, estimate the probability of XPD reduction as : Prob { XPD < XPD0 - A0(dB) } = Prob { CPA > A0(dB) } ITU-R Rec. 530 reports a more sophisticated model, which takes into account also the use of an X-Polar Interference Canceller (XPIC). Moreover, it considers the transmission of the two cross-polarized signals by a single antenna, or by two space separated antennas (in last case the XPD reduction effect is in some measure relaxed, thanks to a space diversity effect at Tx site).
Effects of Multipath Distortions on Digital Signals

0 -1
Log(BER)
-2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 60 50 40 30 20 10
When a digital signal is distorted by frequency selective fading, the Bit Error Ratio (BER) may be greater than the threshold (10-3) even if the Rx power is higher than the Rx threshold. In the figure, the continuous line (BER vs. Fade Depth) is measured in the laboratory with a flat fading simulator (no signal distortion). The Flat Fade Margin is 41 dB (fade depth corresponding to BER = 10-3)
The points at the right of the BER line are the result of field measurements, Fade Depth [dB] during selective fading. Each point is a measured BER, with the corresponding fade depth. The BER threshold is reached even with 20 dB fade depth only. Continuous Line : Flat Fading Bit errors caused by noise only. Points on the right : Multipath Selective Fading Bit errors caused by the joint effect of noise and signal distortion.
Signature Measurement
In order to simulate in the laboratory the distortions produced during multipath fading events, a Two-Ray Channel Model is usually adopted. Measurement Set-up :
Tx MOD
+ Delay Phase Att
Rx
= echo signal
delay;
Bit Sequence
= echo signal
BER
DEM
phase shift (relative to the direct signal). b = echo signal amplitude;
Error Counter
Two-Ray Channel Transfer Function : H(f) = 1 - b exp [ - j (2f - ) ] = 1 - b exp [ - j 2(f - fo) ]
1/ Amplitude [dB]
0 -10
Echo delay : assumed as constant ( = 6.3 ns in the original Bell Labs / Rummler model ). Notch Frequency fo = / 2 : corresponds to the minimum of H(f) ; it is controlled by varying the echo phase ; the notch moves through (or out of) the signal bandwidth.
-20
Notch Depth B = - 20 Log10 (1 - b) : minimum of H(f) expressed in dB. It fo fo+1/ Frequency is controlled by the value of the echo amplitude b. The b-range is 0 - 1 : this corresponds to a Minimum-Phase Transfer Function (first signal larger than the delayed one). In the other case (first signal smaller) a Non-Minimum-Phase Transfer Function is produced. Assuming the smaller signal as the echo signal, this is referred as a "negative " condition.
-20log(1-b)
Measurement Procedure : The Bit Error Rate (BER) is measured by comparing the bit stream at the Tx input with the one estimated at the receiver. The following steps must be performed : a) Set the echo delay to a positive value (to get a minimum phase signature). b) Set the echo phase to the value corresponding to Notch Frequency fo = Fc - F (Fc = carrier frequency, 2F = bandwidth to be explored). c) Starting with b=0, increase the Notch Depth B; stop when the BER reaches a given threshold (usually 10-3). This is the Critical Notch Depth Bc for that BER value. d) The point [ Bc, fo] is a Signature point, to be plotted in the Notch Depth vs. Notch Frequency plane. e) Move the Notch Frequency fo of a given frequency step. Repeat steps c), and d) until fo = Fc + F (the band to be explored is completed). f) Repeat steps b) to e) with a negative delay (to get a non-minimum phase signature).
Angle Diversity
Some Space Diversity experiments have led to the conclusion that the diversity improvement in signal distortion seems to be independent of the antenna spacing. Even if this point is, in some way, controversial, it suggested the possibility of getting a diversity improvement also with Angle Diversity. Two implementations of Angle Diversity are considered : Two antennas (of the same type or of different types) side-byAntenna Diversity : side with slightly different pointing angles (used in preliminary experiments). One antenna with two feeders, producing beams with different Beam Diversity : shapes and/or pointing. In both cases, two beams operate at the receiver, closely spaced, but with different shapes. The multipath components are subject to different weighting at the two beams and the two composed Rx signals are in some measure uncorrelated. No need of high, complex tower structures; only one antenna with Beam Diversity; lower costs. Disadvantages : Less diversity improvement; less experience in Outage Prediction models. Advantages :
Selective Fading Prediction Models

The model recommended by ITU-R Rec. 530 can be summarized as follows : Single Receiver The Outage Probability due to Selective Fading only (PS) is given by : PS = 2.15 [ WM 10-BM/20 (2m / r,M ) + WNM 10-BNM/20 ( 2m / r,NM ) ] where : = fading activity parameter = 1 - exp[ -0.2 Po0.75 ] ; Po = multipath fading occurrence factor ; m = mean time delay (ns) = 0.7 [ L / 50 ]1.3 ; L = hop length (km) ; M, NM pedices = signature data from measurements with minimum (M) and nonminimum (NM) phase channel ; W M, W NM = signature width (GHz) ; BM, BNM = signature depth (dB) ; r,M, r,NM = reference delay used in signature measurements.
Selective Fading Prediction Models
Diversity Receiver The Outage Probability due to Selective Fading only (PDS) is given by : PDS = PS2 / (1 - k2s) where : PS = Selective Fading Outage Probability with single receiver; ks = Selective Correlation Coefficient ; formulas for the computation of ks for space and frequency diversity are rather complex and are given in Rec. 530. Total Outage Probability The Selective Outage Probability (PS or PDS) and the Non-Selective (Thermal Noise) Outage Probability (PT or PDT) are combined to give the Total Outage Probability : POUT = PT + PS for Single Receiver POUT = [ PDT0.75 + PDS0.75 ]1.33 for Diversity Receiver
Diversity Improvement
The Diversity Outage Probability for Narrow-Band Signals (PDT, Non-Selective
Fading Model) is given by : PDT = PT / IFD where : PT = Non-Selective Outage Probability, Single Receiver = Po 10 -FM/10 ; Po = multipath fading occurrence factor ; FM = Fade margin ; IFD = Diversity Improvement factor.
Space Diversity : The ITU-R Rec. 530 gives the Improvement Factor ISD at Fade Depth A (dB) as : IFSD = [ 1 - exp ( -3.34 10-4 S0.87 F-0.12 L0.48 Po-1.04) ] 10(A-V)/10 where : S = Vertical Spacing (m) of Rx Antennas (centre-to-centre); F = Frequency (GHz) ; L = Hop Length (km) ; V = Absolute difference of the two antenna gains (dB).
With the same symbols, the Bell Labs (Vigants) formula gives (S < 15 m) : . IFSD = 1.2 10-3 S2 F L-1 10(A-V)/10
Diversity Improvement
1 + 1 Frequency Diversity : Both the ITU-R Rec. 530 and the Bell Labs (Barnett, Vigants) give the Improvement Factor IFFD at Fade Depth A (dB) as : IFFD = (80 / F L) (F / F) 10A/10 where : F = Frequency Spacing (GHz) .
The Diversity Outage Probability due to Selective Fading only (PDS) is given by : PDS = PS2 / (1 - k2s) where : PS = Selective Fading Outage Probability with single receiver; ks = Selective Correlation Coefficient ; formulas for the computation of ks with space and frequency diversity are rather complex (see Rec. 530).
Equalization Improvement
The reduction in Multipath Outage Time provided by equalization is estimated by comparing the Rx signatures with and without the equalizer. The Equalizer Improvement Factor (IFE) is defined as the ratio of the Selective Outage Probability PS without and with the equalizer : IFE = PS(unequalized) / PS(equalized) According to the ITU-R Rec. 530 model, the Selective Outage Probability PS is proportional to the Signature Area AS , defined as : AS = W 10-B/20 where : W = signature width (GHz) and B = signature depth (dB).
So, the Equalizer Improvement Factor (IFE) can be estimated as : IFE = AS(unequalized) / AS(equalized)
Radio Wave Propagation through Rain

In passing through a region containing precipitation, an EM wave is attenuated by two phenomena : (a) energy is scattered out of the desired direction; (b) energy is absorbed and converted into heat. The total power lost PLOST in the impact with a raindrop is: (1) PLOST = PINC Q(r,) where PINC is the incident power and Q is called the drop cross section, which is a function of the drop radius r and of the signal wavelength . The drop cross section Q can be considered as the sum of a scattering cross section and an absorption cross section. Formula (1) can be integrated in a volume (called a rain cell), in order to estimate the total loss produced within that rain cell. The integral extends to the raindrops contained in that volume. The integrand function Q depends on the drop size (radius r in [1]). This integral can be solved by means of statistical models, relating the number of drops and their size distribution to the intensity of rain precipitation. On the basis of such models, with a large amount of experimental data, the exponential formula : = k R (2)
Radio Wave Propagation through Rain
has been derived, giving the specific rain attenuation (dB/km), as a function of the rain rate R (mm/h). The factor k and the exponent are given in ITU-R Rec. 838, as functions of frequency and of wave polarization (horizontal or vertical). Formulas in the same Recommendation also include the cases of any linear or circular polarization and the effect of path elevation angle. The above discussion applies to rain attenuation within a rain cell, with a uniform rain intensity. The real situation is that of a radio path, whose length is usually (much) greater than the average cell size. In order to represent the effect of spatial variation in rain intensity, most prediction models make reference to an Effective Path Length LEFF, depending on the real path length and on assumptions on the rain distribution along the path. For very short paths, LEFF becomes equal to the real path length. The ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction is based on these concepts.
ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction

Rain Rate R : in the absence of local data, an estimate of the Rain Rate R (mm/h) for 0.01% of time can be obtained from data in the ITU-R maps (Rec. 837). Specific loss : (dB/km) = k R where k and are functions of frequency and of wave polarization. Some examples (valid for small path elevation angles) : 10 / H k 0.0101 1.276 Frequency [GHz] / Polarization 10 / V 20 / H 20 / V 30 / H 0.00887 1.264 0.0751 1.099 0.0691 1.065 0.187 1.021 30 / V 0.167 1.000
A Table with k and values from 1 to 400 GHz is reported in ITU-R Rec. 838, which includes formulas for taking into account also path elevation angles and circular polarization. Effective Hop Length : LEFF = r L where L = actual hop length ; r = distance factor. r = 1 / (1 + L / {35 exp[-0.015 R)]} r = 1 / (1 + L / 7.81) if R < 100 mm/h if R >= 100 mm/h
ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction
Attenuation for p = 0.01% of time :
A0.01 (dB) = LEFF
Attenuation for any time percentage p (in the range 1% to 0.001%) : A (dB) = 0.12 A0.01 p -(0.546 + 0.043 Log10 p) The ITU-R prediction method is considered to be valid for frequencies up to 40 GHz and hop lengths up to 60 km.
Rain Rates in ITU-R Regions

The Rain Rate R (mm/h) for 0.01% of time is used in the ITU-R Rain Attenuation Model, in order to predict Rain Unavailability. The Rain Rate in the Rain Regions specified in ITU-R Maps are : Rain Region A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Rain Rate (mm/h) 8 12 15 19 22 28 30 32 35 42 60 63 95 145
De-Polarization due to Rain

A polarized signal passing through raindrops is subject to a partial rotation of its polarization plane. This is produced by : (a) the non-spherical shape of raindrops and (b) the canting angle in raindrop fall (caused by wind generally present during storms). According to ITU-R Rec. 530, an equiprobability relation can be established between the Co-Polar signal Attenuation (CPA, in dB) and the Cross-Polar Discrimination (XPD) during intense rain periods: XPD (dB) = Uo 30 Log10 F - 20 Log10 CPA where : Uo = 15 dB (average, lower bound 9 dB); F = frequency in GHz. (1)
The uncertainty in the Uo value makes not significant the difference between H and V pol. attenuation. In (1) CPA can be assumed as an average value. Other validity limitations : Frequency in the range 8 < F < 35 GHz; Small path elevation angle. Formula (1) (equiprobability relation) means that the probability of attenuation higher than CPA value used in (1) is roughly equal to the probability of Cross-Polar Discrimination lower than the XPD computed by (1).
Maximum Hop Length (Rain & Multipath)

The Maximum Hop Length in Point-to-Point Radio Links can be estimated on the basis of the following (simplifying) assumtions : Multipath Outage must be below the Error Performance Objective; Rain Unavailability below 1/3 of the Unavailability Objective (2/3 assigned to Equipment Failures); Objectives are from ITU-R Recs.557 (Availability) and 594 (Error Performance) ; they are allocated proportionaly to the hop length (for very short hops at 23 GHz a fixed Unavailability objective has been adopted). Propagation : ITU-R Rain prediction model for different Rain Regions (K, L. N, P); Multipath Occurrence Factor : Po = 4 10-7 F L3 (F = freq. GHz, L = hop length km) (corresponding to temperate climate with average-to-bad terrain) Space Diversity : 8 m antenna spacing. Results are given for High Capacity Systems at 7, 13, and 23 GHz. Equipment and Antenna assumptions are : 7 GHz : 100 dB System Gain; 3.0 m Antenna (44.5 dB gain); 3 dB Add. Losses. 13 GHz : 100 dB System Gain; 3.0 m Antenna (48.8 dB gain); 3 dB Add. Losses. 23 GHz : 90 dB System Gain; 0.6 m Antenna (40.5 dB gain); 3 dB Add. Losses.
Rain Unavailability: Error Performance: 10-2
Predicted Predicted
Objective Objective
Percentage of Time
7 GHz
Single Receiver
10-3
Rain Region P
Diversity Receiver
10-4 0 20 40 60 80 100
Hop Lenght [km]
Rain Unavailability: Error Performance: 10-2
Predicted Predicted
Objective Objective
Percentage of Time
13 GHz
Rain Region: P N
10-3
K Single Receiver
10-4 0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Hop Lenght [km]
Rain Unavailability:
Predicted
Objective
Percentage of Time
10-2
Rain Region: P
L 10 min/year
10-3
30 min/year
10-4 0 2 4 6
23 GHz 8
Hop Lenght [km]
Other Hydrometeor Effects

Apart from rain, other Hydrometeors that may impair Radio communications are : SNOW : Dry snow has no significant impact, at least for frequencies below 30 GHz. On the other hand, very wet snow can produce, in extreme cases, signal attenuation even at frequencies usually not affected by rain phenomena. The probability of such events, however, is generally small. The most important effect of snow is the possible ice build-up on the antenna reflectors, thus modifying the antenna performance. For this reason, radomes are often installed. Large earth station antennas for satellite communications are usually protected with anti-ice devices. HAIL : The effect is similar to rain, but strongly dependent on the dimension of ice spheres. Less significant effects are observed at frequencies above 30 GHz. FOG : The specific attenuation due to fog is : (dB / km) = K M where K is the specific attenuation coefficient in (dB/km)/(g/m3) and M is the liquid water content of fog in g/m3 (with very thick fog M = 0.5 g/m3). At 30 GHz, K = 0.5 - 1 (depending on temperature), so the specific attenuation is expected, in any case, to be not higher than 0.5 dB / km. At frequencies above 100 GHz, K is about ten times greater than at 30 GHz. Further information in ITU-R Rec. 840.
Status of ITU-R Performance Recommendations

ITU-R Performance Recs. are in transition to be updated to recent ITU-T Recs. G.826 (Error performance) and G.827 (Availability). Presently, G.827 final objectives are under study. Status Ante G.826 / G.827 (Objectives for Bit Rates below Primary Rate) Availability : Rec. 557 (Hypothetical Reference Digital Path HRDP) Rec. 695 (Real Digital Radio Relay Links, High Grade) Basic Objective for 2500 km High Grade Systems : Unavailability < 0.3% Error performance : Rec. 594 (Hypothetical Reference Digital Path HRDP) Rec. 634 (Real Digital radio relay Links, High Grade) Basic Objective for 2500 km High Grade Systems : BER > 10-3 for less than 0.054% of Available Time
Status of ITU-R Performance Recommendations
Status Post G.826 / G.827 (Objectives for Bit Rates at or above Primary Rate) Availability : New ITU-R Rec. under study. Error performance : Rec. 1092 (Digital Radio System in International Portion of a 27500 HRP) Rec. 1189 (Digital Radio System in National Portion of a 27500 HRP) Draft New Rec. (Real Digital Radio Links in International Portion of a 27500 HRP) Basic Objective for a 50 km hop in the International portion of HRDP : SES (Severely Errored Seconds) percentage not greater than 2 - 4 10-4 % ( 5 - 10 seconds / month, depending on overall objective allocation, block allowance, etc. ).
ITU-T Error Performance Objectives

G.821 : The Error Performance is based on Errored Bit measurements at a Bit Rate below the Primary Rate. Scope : 27,500 km Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX); part of an ISDN Network.
Definitions : Errored Second (ES) : a one-second period with one or more errored bits; Severely Errored Second (SES) : a one-second period with BER >= 1.10-3. Objectives : Number of ES / Seconds in total available time < 0.08. Number of SES / Seconds in total available time < 0.002. Objective Allocation : The total objectives are allocated to High, Medium, and Local Grade portions of the HRX.
ITU-T Error Performance Objectives
G.826 : The Error Performance is based on Errored Block measurements at a Bit Rate at or above Primary Rate. Scope : 27,500 km IHypothetical Reference Path (HRP); PDH and SDH transport networks, Cell-based (ATM) connections. Definitions : Block : Set of consecutive bits, with size depending on bit rate. Errored Second (ES) : a one-second period with one or more errored blocks; Severely Errored Second (SES) : a one-second period which contains >= 30% errored blocks or at least one defect. Defect : Loss of signal, AIS, LOF for PDH; more complex for SDH and ATM. Background Block Error (BBE) : an errored block not as part of a SES.
of
Objectives : Number of ES / Seconds in total available time < (0.04 - 0.16) (depends on bit rate); Number of SES / Seconds in total available time < 0.002; Number of BBE / Number of blocks in available time (excluding SES) < 0.0004. Objective Allocation : The total objectives are allocated to the International and National portions (intermediate and terminating countries) of the HRP.
RF Bands Assigned to the Radio Fixed Service (FS)

The Frequency Bands allocated by Radio Regulations to Radio Relay Systems (Fixed Service FS in the Radio Regulations terminology) are : 0.440 0.806 1.427 1.700 3.400 4.400 0.470 GHz 0.960 GHz 1.525 GHz 2.690 GHz 4.200 GHz 5.000 GHz 5.850 10.500 10.700 12.750 14.300 17.700 - 8.500 GHz - 10.680 GHz - 11.700 GHz - 13.250 GHz - 15.350 GHz - 19.700 GHz 21.200 25.250 36.000 47.200 54.250 59.000 23.600 GHz 29.500 GHz 40.500 GHz 51.400 GHz 58.200 GHz 64.000 GHz
Many of the above bands are furtherly sub-divided among different classes of users, on a National or International basis. The ITU-R gives detailed channel arrangements for most of these bands. Additional indications are provided for particular conditions or exceptions relevant to some countries or group of countries. Therefore. the above list is to be intended just for general information.

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PROPAGATION ISSUES IN DIGITAL RADIO LINK ENGINEERING

1997, ITALTEL Sistemi, Milano, Italy

RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

1.1 - POINT-TO-POINT RADIO LINK

1.2 - BASIC RADIO LINK EQUATION (FREE SPACE)

1.3 - FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)

Free Space Loss [dB]

155 150 60 km 145 140 135 130 0 5 10 15 20 40 km 20 km

1.4 - ANTENNA GAIN

Antenna Gain [dB]

Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if :

1.5 - LINK BUDGET

1.6 - TERRESTRIAL RADIO-RELAY LINKS

1.7. - MAIN PHENOMENA RELATED TO RADIO PROPAGATION IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE

1.8 - RADIO LINK ENGINEERING - FADE MARGIN

AdL < FM.

1.9. - OUTAGE PREDICTION

Normal Propagation Outage Time

1.10 - LINK BUDGET

2.1 - ATMOSPHERE REFRACTION

2.2 - RAY CURVATURE IN ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

2.3 - EQUIVALENT EARTH CURVATURE

2.4 - WHAT DOES THE k-FACTOR MEAN ?

2.5 - FLAT EARTH REPRESENTATION

2.6 - REVIEW OF RADIO RAY REPRESENTATIONS

Equivalent Earth Diagram : (or Straight Ray)

Flat Earth Diagram :

2.8 - VARIABILITY OF THE k-FACTOR

2.9 - MINIMUM k-FACTOR

0.7 0.5 0.3

Path Length [km]

2.10 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID

2.11 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID - Examples

L = Hop length (km)

Note : F1 depends on the signal frequency.

Fresnel Radius [m]

Hop Length [km]

2.12 - OBSTRUCTION LOSS

Obstruction Loss [dB]

Normalized Clearance Cl/F1

2.13 - CLEARANCE CRITERIA

3.1 - MULTIPATH PROPAGATION Refractive Layer

3.2 - IMPAIRMENTS DUE TO MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

3.3 - MULTIPATH FADING EVENTS

3.4 - MULTIPATH FADING STATISTICS

0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

3.5 - MULTIPATH OCCURRENCE FACTOR

3.6 - MULTIPATH OCCURRENCE FACTOR - Examples

3.7 - FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING

3.8 - EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING

3.9 - SIGNATURE MEASUREMENT

BER < 10-3

BER > 10-3

Relative Notch Position [MHz]

3.10 - MULTIPATH FADING OUTAGE TIME PREDICTION

3.11 - MULTIPATH FADING OUTAGE TIME PREDICTION WIDE-BAND SIGNALS

An alternative formula for combining PT and PS is : Tout = To [ PT/2 + PS/2] 2/

= 1.5 - 2 is an empirical constant.

3.12 - MULTIPATH COUNTERMEASURES

3.13 - ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION

Notch Depth [dB]

Notch Frequency [MHz]

3.14 - SPACE DIVERSITY